According to statistics, there were as many as 123,759 overseas students in publicly financed British higher education institutions in the academic year 1977/78 (BCSOS, 1977-78, pp.6-7). Following the introduction of full-cost fees, the number fell to 88,037 in 1979 and then to 56,121 in 1984 (OST, 1987, p.17).

Since the mid-1980s the number of overseas students has been rising gradually (see table below). According to the latest available detailed statistics, the total number of overseas students in publicly financed British higher education stood at 92,100 in 1991, an increase of 9 percent on the figure for 1990 (DFE, 1993, Tables 1 and 6). It must be noted that these figures do not cover private sector colleges, whose overseas students are almost as numerous as those in publicly-financed institutions. According to a 1985 study, the full-time equivalent number of overseas students was 86,500. The fact that the number of first-year higher education student numbers in 1991 rose by 16 per cent indicates that the growth in total numbers may have continued over the following years (DFE, 1993, Tables 2 and 3).

The majority of undergraduate students are privately financed, mainly by their parents. The post-graduate students are mostly financed by public bodies, such as overseas governments, as well as by international institutions, such as the British Council. The number of British government- funded overseas students and trainees in the UK was 17,400 in 1985. As well as regular higher education, a considerable number come to Britain for language courses, mainly private, and for other courses of which details are not available.

The status of English as the international language, combined with other comparative advantages of Britain (relatively to other student recruiting countries), such as its being technologically advanced and its extensive counselling programmes for overseas students, have helped it to draw sizeable numbers of talented post- graduates as well as undergraduates into its educational system. It seems that Britain is increasingly moving towards the idea of importing the ‘best and brightest brains’ as an energy source for its educational and other institutions (Chandler, 1989, p.7). This policy resulted in the doubling between 1980 and 1986 of the number of awards under the Overseas Research Students Awards Program (ORSAS). The holders of an ORSAS award, which covers the difference between home cost’ and ‘full-cost’ fees for a particular course of study, constitute approximately 20 percent of the post-graduate research students in British universities (Chandler, 1989, ph). The administration of foreign student policy in Britain, within the broad framework set up by the government, rests with the higher educational institutions and with the British Council as the ‘marketing arm’ of British higher education and culture abroad (Chandler, 1989, p.7).

Growing emphasis has been placed on the short-term economic benefits foreign students confer as ‘tourists’ bringing in foreign currency. British sources estimated the income earned from foreign students through the fees they pay and through their own and their families’ expenditures for food, clothing, accommodation etc., at more than 1 billion a year – one-sixth of total tourist expenditures (OST, 1987, p.78). The profit comes from the difference between the full-cost fees that foreign students pay and the marginal costs they represent. The figure is likely to rise as a result of the increase in fee levels and the increase in the expenditure.

In British educational institutions, overseas students have come to be viewed as an important source of income, and as ‘cheap postgraduate labour’ (Williams et al, 1987, p.9). Apart from the educational and foreign policy benefits that overseas students provide (see below), it is interesting to note that overseas students, particularly in technical and scientific fields, constitute a double financial benefit for the British institutions: firstly, because of the high level of fees they pay (around 8- 10,000), and secondly, by providing cheap post-graduate labour for research carried out by the universities. Otherwise, universities would have to employ or recruit from abroad research assistants, at salaries of around 15-20,000 annually. It is increasingly spelt out that a university or a polytechnic is the poorer if it does not have at least 5 percent of its students from overseas (OST, 1987, p.5).

The Further and Higher Education Act of 1992 allowed polytechnics and colleges to attain university status on the condition that their educational provision met specified standards. Following this, some 40 polytechnics and colleges have been granted university status recently (DPE, 1993, point 34). In addition to other educational considerations, it is likely that one of the underlying reasons for Parliament’s allowing this to happen is to attract more overseas students to institutions which they had once regarded as inferior to universities.

In addition to direct benefits, the eventual cost-benefits of overseas students in trade and diplomatic relations have become increasingly important. This was frankly stated by Sir Anthony Parsons as follows: ‘If you are thoroughly familiar with someone else’s language and literature, if you know and love the country, the arts, the people, you will be instinctively disposed to buy goods from them rather than from a less well-known source, to support them actively when you consider them to be right, and to avoid criticizing them too fiercely when you regard them as wrong’ (Parsons, 1984). With the realization that Britain is no longer a major economic and military power, emphasis has been put on a reassessment of national assets and a greater awareness of the influence which British cultural patrimony can exercise (Malcolm, 1987, p.38). The policy debate, both nationally and in educational institutions, has focused primarily on the financial as well as on the educational benefits of the presence of overseas students.

Among the educational benefits which overseas students bring are (OST, 1990):

a) contributing to cultural enrichment;

b) testing general intellectual assumptions;

c) contributing knowledge and experience to specific courses;

d) improving pedagogical provision and contributing to staff development;

e) raising academic standards among home students;

f) helping to maintain course viability;

g) helping to maintain research capability.

In particular, there are courses in many institutions which would not be viable due to low demand from home students. Sometimes whole departments depend on overseas students for this reason. Thus, overseas students can allow an institution to offer a range of courses, a variety of academic provision, to the benefit of home students whose choice might otherwise be limited. The proportion of post-graduate overseas students in publicly-funded higher education institutions in Britain was 33 percent in 1981 and 36 percent in both 1990 and 1991 (DFB, 1993, Table 1).

Secondly, the strength of British universities in research often determines the success of their links with commerce and industry, which in turn largely depends on their international reputation in the field. The severe shortage of British research postgraduates poses a threat to many research projects, particularly in laboratory subjects. Consequently, overseas research students, who are usually of very high quality, are a valued asset, as they often maintain an institution’s research capability, its academic reputation and financial security.

The level of human resources will undoubtedly become an issue of increasing importance for the UK as well as other student recruiting countries, as highly trained scientific and technical personnel continue to affect worldwide economic and scientific growth. Human resource needs will have to be met across national boundaries. Developed countries, also, require increasing numbers of highly trained and specialized researchers and technologists, who can originate new products and services.

In the discussion of overseas students policy, various idealistic and pragmatic arguments have been put forward. These arguments for the import of foreign students are closely interconnected in a way that reflects the reality. Phrases like ‘cultural diversity’, ‘internationalism’, ‘cultural diplomacy’, technology transfer’, ‘cultural transfer’, ‘money-making’, etc., are some of the symbolic explanations of that reality. One observer has commented: ‘The relations between North and South are not primarily those of obligation or charity, but of mutuality of interest and of interdependence. Britain has her own interest in ensuring that development takes place in a peaceful and orderly manner. As a nation living by trade and the selling of services, and as the holder of considerable investment overseas, Britain… has a stake in political stability abroad and the fostering of international understanding’ (Williams, 1982, p.16).

The mutuality of need, rather than any other single factor, and rather than concepts of either obligation or opportunity, determines the continued importance of foreign students and of constructive and realistic foreign student policies (Chandler, 1989, pp. ix-x).

This ‘mutuality’ is a fairly one-sided benefit fully exploited by the receiving countries. Despite the fact that each individual student, more or less, pursues his or her aim and achieves the qualifications necessary, this success is, nevertheless, bound to remain on a micro level. The governments of the sending countries, in general, lack policies to channel and co-ordinate these endeavours into a single, sound, overall mechanism at a macro level in their own countries. The sending countries must, therefore, formulate appropriate policies and implement them. How that’s to be done is a separate question beyond the scope of the present discussion.

Antarctica is the bottom of the world, the white continent, the harshest, most forbidding land on earth, where winds can reach 320 kph (200 mph) and temperatures can plunge below -85°C (-121° F). At the South Pole, the average temperature is -49° C (-56.2° F), while the highest recorded is -13.6°(7.5° F). The continent is the world’s largest stretch of inhospitable land. Precipitation is so sparse that it is classified as one of the world’s driest deserts. This ‘final frontier’ constitutes approximately 10% of the earth’s land surface; 98% of it is covered by ice, in places two miles thick. Antarctica accounts for 90% of the world’s ice and 68% of its fresh water. It is bigger than China and India combined, or Mexico and the US put together.

A closer look at the seemingly lifeless land and seascape reveals an amazing abundance of life. The continent is home to several species of seals, penguins and vegetation. The surrounding frigid seas are abundant in krill, protein rich shrimp-like crustaceans essential to the Antarctic ecosystem, which is one of the world’s most productive. Thirty-five species of penguins and other birds, six varieties of seals, twelve kinds of whale and nearly two hundred types of fish dwell there. The ice itself is permeated with algae and bacteria. The land is home to two species of flowering land plants, a grass and a pearlwort.

Antarctica contains traces of a wide variety of metals and hydrocarbons. Traces of cobalt, copper, chromium, gold, lead, molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silver, tin, titanium, uranium, as well as zinc, have been found in the continent. Geological surveys have postulated large quantities of oil and gas.

Hundreds of people live and work there all year round and no fewer than seventeen nations have established permanent bases to conduct scientific research. Each year, almost 5,000 registered tourists come to look at the peaks and penguins. A body called the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators has been established to regulate tourism. However, they have not been able to stop unregistered- visitors. An example was the German ship ‘Europe’ which landed more than 300 passengers on Deception Island and illegally visited a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) at Whaler’s Bay. Standards of safety and ecological care cannot be guaranteed. More alarming than the increased numbers of visitors to Antarctica is the more ‘commercial’ attitude they have towards it.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is responsible for most American research in the area. The NSF pays the US navy for transporting personnel and supplies and other logistical support. Demands for cutbacks in the US navy have resulted in proposals for ‘contracting out’ these services to commercial companies the market place has reached the ‘final frontier’!

Exploitation and commercialism have influenced fishing patterns Paul Rodhouse of the British Antarctic Survey indicated that commercial exploitation has led to the doubling of the catch of squid during the ten years leading up to 1992. The squid industry is notorious for its ‘boom and bust’ trends in 1972 a Japanese fishery began operating in the North Atlantic near Newfoundland and within eleven years one species of squid, illex illecebrosus had been wiped out. The industry is now turning its attention to Antarctica.

The biggest threat is to the stocks of krill. The 4cm shrimp-like kill live for up to seven years and are the staple food source for five whale species, three groups of seal and innumerable fish and birds, including penguins. They are central to the Antarctic food chain. Too little is known about the krill’s lifestyle to guarantee survival against the increase in harvesting that has been maintained since the early 1970s. The countries that are involved in this abuse of Antarctica are those who are supposed to be protecting it.

The Western nations were the first to claim Antarctica as theirs. James Cook circled Antarctica between 1772 and 1775, becoming the first man to reach the mainland. Since Amundsen and Scott arrived at the Pole one after another in 1911, seven nations have claimed sectoral sovereignty over the Antarctic Peninsula based on either exploration or geographical contiguity, namely Argentine, Chile, France, New Zealand, Britain, Norway and Australia.

With the adoption of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, twelve countries began governing Antarctica. In addition to the seven claimant states, South Africa, Japan, USA and USSR became members of the exclusive Antarctic Club. Since the signing of the 1961 Antarctic Treaty, there have been twenty-six countries responsible for the management of the Antarctic Region and another sixteen party to it.

Internal bickering meant that an agreement to establish rules governing oil and mineral exploitation and development signed in Wellington, New Zealand in 1988 did not come into force. Through a protocol adopted in Madrid in 1991, the Antarctic Continent was declared ‘a natural reserve devoted to peace and science.’ Some nations have not been happy about this situation. The Malaysian Prime Minister, Dr Mahatir Bin Muhammad, said in 1982, that ‘all the unclaimed wealth of this earth must be regarded as the common heritage of all nations of this planet… It is now time that the United Nations focused its attention on these areas, the largest of which is the continent of Antarctica,’

This raised the interest of other Islamic countries. The Twentieth Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers meeting in Istanbul in August 1991, adopted a resolution reaffirming the need for all members of the international community, acting through the UN, to be involved in ‘all aspects relating to Antarctica’. In the same year, Indonesia asked a number of questions at the 1991 United Nations session as to the full participation of the international community in the management of Antarctica. The Pakistani delegate to the session, identifying his country’s growing interest and involvement in the region, referred to its expedition and establishment of an automatic weather station in January 1991. Pakistan became the first Muslim country to send an official expedition to Antarctica. Pakistan in 1992, established its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station.

There are obvious advantages for the Muslim countries. They have produced some of the top scientists in the field, including, Sayed El-Sayed of the A&M University, Texas, who is a respected marine ecologist studying the effects of ozone depletion on Antarctic life. In 1988, he discovered at Palmer Station, a US base on Antarctica, that high levels of ultraviolet damage the chlorophyll pigment vital for photosynthesis in phytoplankton, slowing the growth rate of marine plants as much as 30%.

The Islamic countries have significant commercial interest in Antarctica. In the long term, the Antarctic icebergs can solve the scarcity of fresh water. This is where the Antarctic icebergs, which amount to almost 70 per cent of the world’s drinkable water reserves, become an exploitable resource. There are predictions that in the 21st century, water will be the most precious natural resource. Current research shows that there is considerable economic interest in towing icebergs to the Gulf countries, Latin America and Northwestern Australia as a source of fresh water and energy (Crane, 1993).

Each year, 1.4 trillion tons of ice breaks off and melts into the Southern Ocean. If current difficulties can be overcome, icebergs will be enormous ‘mineable’ resources, even more valuable than the Antarctic’s huge amount of oil reserves. For example, an iceberg weighing 90 million tons would be worth almost $45 million. There are many reasons for the vegetation-poor Arab countries to be concerned with the Southern Oceans teeming with living resources. Krill stocks might be an important resource to help prevent widespread malnutrition in the poor Middle East and North African countries whose populations lack a protein-rich diet.

There are many issues related to Antarctica that the Islamic countries need to address. Should they continue to be left out while other nations exploit the last wilderness? Should they unite and pool their human and financial resources to seek advantages from Antarctica or should they be its guardians. The debate must begin.

REFERENCES

CRANE, D. (1993) ‘Below the tip of an iceberg’, Geographical, December, pp.14-17.

The Qur’an is read by Muslims as an act of worship and also for consolation on occasions of crisis. Both very proper purposes Dr Ghorab shows how it can also be used for guidance, as a means of analyzing and understanding major current events. Specifically, he applies the verses about Muslim relations with non-Muslims (2.109; 2.120; 3.64; 4.138-40; 5.51; 45. 18-19; 47.22-9; 61.8; 59.14), and some ahadith on the same subject, to carry out a convincing ‘institutional analysis’ of a new kind of centre for Western scholarship about Islam. (Some necessary background knowledge about the old kind is supplied in a compact sketch in chapter 1.)

The need for these new centres was felt at the beginning of the 1980s when the revival of Islam entered the news as the revival of an ancient threat to the values and interests of the West. What is new about these centres is (a) that Muslim scholars work together with non-Muslims to do research on Islam and to produce materials for the teaching of Islam; and (b) that they are housed in prestigious Western universities as ‘affiliates’ but funded almost entirely by Muslims (individuals and governments). In this context ‘Islam’ is a subject area that includes matters of faith and creed, law and formative history: in other words, research work at these centres is not confined to patterns on rugs or inscriptions on coins; it touches on the very essentials.

What is wrong with Muslims and non-Muslims working together? Any moderate Muslim is bound to hope that these new ‘centres for Islamic studies’ or for ‘Christian-Muslim dialogue’ represent, at last, a willingness on the part of Western scholars to reciprocate the courtesies and respect generally accorded to them by Muslim scholars, to open their minds to the influence of Muslim perspectives about Islam. As Dr Ghorab demonstrates, these are false hopes. Indeed, the danger is, as he sees it, that Western hostility to Islam and the effort to weaken the Muslims’ commitment to the establishment of an Islamic order in their lives, can be more effectively pursued with the participation, and using the resources, of Muslims themselves.

The main aim of institutional analysis is not to disclose hidden conspiracies or conspirators: that, if it happens is an accidental by-product. The proper aim of such analysis is to show how power is disposed and managed across different structures in order to achieve particular outcomes. Dr Ghorab gives specific analysis of one UK institution and names particular individuals involved in its establishment, financial support and so on. The concrete detail, the naming of names, is regrettable but unavoidable – how else make the general argument convincing and realistic? In a careful account of the academic journal produced by this UK institution, the author distinguishes the journal as an institution from the individual contributions in it. As the product of a Western academic institution, the journal is procedurally and practically constrained to take the usual Western academic line about Islam. He shows very clearly that, even if the individuals writing in the journal intend the very opposite of what the journal as an institution is intended to achieve, it is the journal, not the well-meaning individual Muslim contributor, that will win most of the time. (Anyone familiar with super-power manipulations of the United Nations will understand the distinction between well-meaning individuals and well-phrased moral principles, and what the institution really achieves.)

In the colonial era, Western-backed individuals and institutions in Muslim countries were easily recognized as such and rejected by the mass of Muslims. The individual Muslims, engaged in these new centres, whatever their intentions (and they may be good), are less easy to distinguish. Moreover, their working alongside non-Muslims gives legitimacy to Western assumptions about Islam and to Western intentions for the reform of Islam. Why does it matter so much to keep a clear line between Western scholarship about Islam and Muslim scholarship?

Muslims do differ with other Muslims on issues having to do with faith, law, history, etc. But they differ within a shared framework: the differences they have with non- Muslims are worlds apart. Dr Ghorab lists the minimum conditions for Muslim study of Islam:

(1) To study Islam as a revealed religion (this means to study it as the truth from Allah whose authority is not to be challenged but to be understood and, therefore, confessed intelligently. (2) To take Islam from its own original and authentic sources (i.e. the Qur’an and Sunnah). (3) To take it as knowledge and practice … [i.e. not as academic pastime for libraries or museums. (4) To take it from qualified Muslim scholars. The qualifications in question are iman (faith), ‘ilm (knowledge) and taqwa (fear of Allah).

He then contrasts these with the minimum conditions for Western study of islam:

(I) Western scholars must not accept that Islam is a revealed religion. Their work will be condemned if they regard the Qur’an as the Word of Allah. (2) They must not take Islam from its own sources… they must specifically look outside those sources to get a true’ picture… Orientalists regard Qur’an and Sunnah as the least reliable (sources), and others must be preferred in cases of conflict. (3)They must not under any circumstances promote Islam as a way of life or even of belief. It must be seen as a thing of the past… (4) They must not have a personal commitment to Islam… Any Muslims… working in a Western academic environment must learn to suspend their beliefs while they study Islam.

It would be an injustice to Dr Ghorab not to make clear what he makes clear: non-Muslims cannot be expected to support or help the cause of Islam, and they have a clear right to set up institutions and to work for their own objectives and according to their own methodologies. But, by the command of the Qur’an, it is not right for Muslims to be allied to, or to be financing, those objectives and methodologies. There is an easily understood space between a positive, respectful tolerance and the kind of alliance or allegiance which concedes to non- Muslims the upper hand in the affairs of Muslims.

Dr Ghorab’s argument does not end negatively, saying only what is wrong, what not to do. He writes:

….it does not suffice to only know what is wrong and feel badly about it. It is a part of Muslim conscience to take the next necessary steps – to proclaim and publish that which is wrong so that…, the will begins to form in the community to do something about it…. The further duty is to put right that which is wrong that means sitting down with like- minded Muslims to discuss, and then establish, ways of getting the appropriate education to Muslims, of giving them access to Islamic perspectives on Islamic history and civilization.

Dr Ghorab goes on to make practical suggestions on how to proceed, step by step to set up institutions which, though small and lacking funds and prestige, would have the merit and reward of respecting and protecting Qur’an and Sunnah.

As indicated above, names are named in this book – something regrettable but unavoidable. But there is a duty in this regard which the author has fallen short of. Firstly, the institutional campaign against Muslims is only a part of a wider strategy of news and information management in the West. The book could have pointed this out – consider, for example, how carefully and subtly the mood of the non-Muslim public in the West has been handled on the war in Bosnia. There are many perspectives, not only the Islamic, which are not aired, and therefore left to choke. Muslims, as Muslims, owe a wide sympathy to fellow human beings, all of whom must be regarded as Muslims of the future. Secondly, the author needs to have discussed what is to be done with the particular institution and individuals named in the book: are they only to be shunned and criticized? Is it not also a part of defending the Sunnah to reserve final judgement to leave room for some level of contact to be kept going, in other words, to maintain hope for them? Criticism of what is wrong is a duty; but it is also a duty to put that criticism (so far as possible) in the form of practicable counsel, not rejection.

In the following historical survey I cover some basic realities of the Muslim experience in the US. I have adopted different ways of looking at our present reality and past experiences. Some of these are case studies, some are from personal experience and others are from my readings of history.

Today, as a community, we are at a point where we can either succeed or fail to a much greater extent than in the past. We have schools, professionals, Islamic centres and knowledgeable Muslims. However, we lack a core of brothers and sisters willing to try to organize the Muslims into cohesive voting blocks and into strong neighborhoods and communities where the Muslims are visible and where they will have a voice in the destiny of the greater society as well as, to some degree, in the foreign policy of America.

There are, by various estimates, between two and thirteen million Muslims or non-practising descendants of Muslims in America. Unfortunately, some of them are not well-versed in the literature and doctrines of their religion. Most of them would like to pass Islam on to their children and grandchildren, but this is unlikely if parents do not have sound knowledge about the Islamic faith, nor practise it in their daily lives. One way of understanding our current situation is to study our past. In order to develop my theme along this line, I will divide the history of Muslims in the United States into five eras: before 1800, 1800-1890, 1890-1910, 1910-1950 and 1950-present.

Before 1800

Before 1800 there were five Muslims in America who deserve mention:

1. The navigator of Columbus who, during the famous voyage, brought a copy of a travel narrative about Portuguese Muslims who had sailed to the New World in the 12th century. The narrative by al-Idrissi was called ‘The Sea of Tears’. In it he discusses the voyage of 80 mugharrirun, explorers from Lisbon, Portugal, during the reign of the al-Murabit ‘amir Yusuf ibn Tashufin. The narrative mentions visits to fourteen islands, half of which have been identified as belonging to either the Canaries or the Azores. However, the ones not traced could have been as far away as the Caribbean. An early voyage, from 942 ce, is mentioned in the annals of al-Mas’udi (see Arameo World, May-June, 1992).

2. Istafan the Arab was a guide for the Spanish settlers in the area of Arizona in l539. Istafan was from Azamor, Morocco, and had previously been to the Americas in the ill-fated expedition to Florida of Panfilo de Narvaez in 1527. He was a guide for the Franciscan friar. Marcos de Niza and was invaluable in this capacity until he was killed in an Indian attack in present day Arizona and New Mexico in 1539.

3. Another early Muslim of this period is Nasruddin. He is notable for having killed a Mohawk princess who refused to marry him and for being the earliest permanent Arab settler in the New World (see history of Greene County, N.Y., pp.l9-22).

4. Ayub Sulaiman ibn Diallo became a minor go- between with his people and the British after his repatriation. I mention him because he continued to practice Islam during his two years of slavery in the l730s in Maryland. He was well-versed in Arabic and wrote at least a half dozen letters in that language, translated coin inscriptions for the British Museum and drew a map of West Africa in which he wrote the place names in Arabic.

5. Salim the Algerian, who was a Muslim from a royal family of Algiers, studied in Istanbul. After returning from a visit to Istanbul, he was captured by a Spanish man- of-war and was later sold into slavery to the French in New Orleans, eventually escaping and regaining his freedom. He lived among American Indian tribes and settled in Virginia. Salim was found in rags, almost naked, and was taught English. Eventually, it was ascertained that he knew Greek, and he was given a Greek New Testament. Several future members of the US Congress befriended him, and he converted to Christianity. As a new convert to Christianity, he decided to go back home to spread the Gospel. Alter a disastrous journey to his homeland (where he was shunned as an apostate), he returned to America, met Thomas Jefferson, attended the 1st Continental Congress and, at the instigation of Congressman Page, his portrait was painted by an artist called Peale. Salim lapsed into insanity, perhaps brought on by his traumatic visit to his homeland. Salim’s final months are a misery. Some accounts tell of him regaining his sanity while others say he died in an insane asylum. It is also unclear if Salim renounced his adopted religion but it is possible that he died a Christian and he remained on the Page estate until the cod of his life. (See Graham’s magazine, 1857, pp.433-7.)

It should be noted that none of these men tried to spread Islam, and that only Ayub tried to preserve his own belief. An important point is that these Muslims were not unique in being able to read and write Arabic. In fact, in many slave quarters in the Caribbean and Brazil, there were clandestine Arabic and Islamic schools. One can find references to them in the works of Nina Rodriguez and in the two volume book Twelve Months in Jamaica by Robert Madden (1835).

1800-1890

During the nineteenth century, the presence of Islamic captives in slave quarters was documented by four individuals:

1. Theodore Dwight Jr wrote two articles about a slave named Lamen Kebe who had been a school teacher in Africa. Lamen Kebe gave Dwight a list of over twenty texts used in his schools and several pages of information on teaching methods (much of it still valuable today). At the end of one of the articles, he also attached one of the earliest glossaries we have of the Serrekuleh language. Dwight also mentions Abdul Rahman and Ayub b. Sulaiman Diallo.

2. James Cooper wrote the story of Salih Bilali, published with other ethnological writings in William Brown Hodgson’s Notes on North Africa (1844). Salih was a Fulani (as are all the others mentioned) and his story is only found in a letter by Cooper. This letter has been reprinted in Africa Remembered by Philip Curtin. Here we have an oral remembrance of Africa and a vocabulary of Fula, but nothing about his training or practice in Islam.

3. William Brown Hodgson did perhaps the most important of these documentaries. The main characters Hodgson recorded were the following: Bilali Mohammed, who wrote the only extant book on Islamic Law written in America and who contributed several Islamic terms to the Gullah dialect of English. He gave his descendants Muslim names and taught them until the generation of his grandchildren. Umar ibn Sa’id was a butler for Governor Owens of Fayetteville, North Carolina, and he wrote an autobiography and thirteen pages in Arabic. What he wrote shows that he might have been a Qadariyyah Sufi, a trader, and a school teacher who feigned conversion to Christianity under difficult circumstances. Abdul Rahman Ibrahim Sori wrote two autobiographies, two copies of sura al-Fatiha, signed a charcoal sketch of himself that was done by Henry Inman (this picture was on the cover of Freedmen’s Journal and is on display in the Library of Congress) and he dictated several letters to his family while travelling in the US to raise money to return to Africa. None of his Arabic writings show the least formal education, but it is surprising that he remembered the little Arabic he knew after forty years in slavery. Said eventually returned to Africa, where he died. His story is documented in Prince Among Slaves by Terry Afford (1977). A slave named London is described in a pamphlet by Hodgson (1844) called The Gospels Written in the Negro Patois of English in Arabic Characters by a Mandingo Slave Named London. This was perhaps the only systematic try at writing English in Arabic letters up to that point. London was held in slavery by the Maxwell family of Savannah, Georgia. They later moved to Florida where he died. An unknown slave correspondent from Georgetown, South Carolina wrote five chapters of the Qur’an from memory. This was translated by Hodgson.

4. William Carruthers, author of The Kentuckian in New York, tells of a slave who wrote sura al-Fatiha at the request of a traveller. He also mentions Ayub ibn Sulaiman Diallo.

One Muslim of this era not covered by these writers is Hadji Ali (Philip Tedro) who was a Greek convert to Islam and one of six camel handlers (three Arabs, two Turks and Hadji Ali) in the short-lived US camel calvary in 1856. The Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, introduced a bill in Congress, passed in 1855, to import camels for military purposes in the Arizona desert. During this experiment, 77 camels and six handlers were brought over from the East. When the Civil War broke out, this experiment was abandoned. Hadji Ali was the only one of the cameleers to remain in America. The others returned to their homelands. Circuses and zoos acquired some of the camels while others were turned loose. The camels that were turned loose in the desert terrorized live stock and wild animals for years. Hadji Ali became a prospector in the Colorado River Area. He eventually became a legend under the corrupted name, ‘Hi Jolly’, given to him by soldiers in the US calvary. The only legacies of this experiment are a highway grave marker for Hadji Ali and some US Army Manuals (see ‘Report Upon the Purchase, Importation, and Use of Camels and Dromedaries, to be Employed for Military Purposes, According to Act of Congress March 3, 1855. Made under the Direction of the Secretary of War 1855, ’56, ’57’). A movie by Walt Disney called Hawmps, starring Slim Pickens and Denver Pyle, highlights this moment in history. Hadji Ali lived until 1903 in Quartzsite, Arizona, where he was a prospector and resident imam. His three daughters were raised as Muslims, but I have yet to verify how many generations of his family continued practicing Islam.

The Omani Embassy published a pamphlet about the exploits of the first Arab traders to the United States during the 1840s. (However, these traders did not settle here: see Eilts, 1962),

One other Muslim is Yarrow Mamount who was poorly covered by other writers. He deserves mention as he was perhaps one of the longest-lived individuals in this country; his reported age at death was over 130 years, and he was one of the first shareholders of the Washington, DC Columbia Bank, the second chartered bank in the United States.

1890-1910

During this period the only movement of great interest is that of Mohammed Alexander Russell Webb. He is commonly believed to be the first white convert to Islam in America. Before he became a Muslim, he was a newspaper editor and from 1887-92, served as US Consul to the Philippines, he accepted the post of Consul in 1887. While a Consul, he began to read books on Eastern and Oriental religions. Soon afterwards he began written correspondence with Indian Muslims, and in 1888 he publicly declared that he was a Muslim. He resigned his post in 1892, and went to India where he made a lecture tour of four cities: Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Hyderabad. These lectures were published in the books The Three Lectures and Lectures in Various Locations. The topics for these lectures included:

‘Islam, the Better Way’ and ‘Philosophical Islam’. Upon returning to the US, he set up the Oriental Publishing Company, which published at least a half dozen of his books including Islam in America (1892) and his short-lived periodical The Moslem World. He had a mosque on upper Broadway which failed prior to his death in 1913. His appointment as the Polish Emissary to the US and his writing of a still very pertinent book, The Armenian Problem and Its Solution, as well as the views of Webb on the war between the Turks and the Armenians, may have contributed to the decline of the group. Webb also failed to address the needs of the generality of the people; his was a movement for ‘philosophers’.

1910-1950

Between 1910-1950 several Orthodox, Sufi, Ahmadiyyah. Bahia, Shia and Black Nationalist groups arose. However, I shall focus on the orthodox mosques (in Ross, North Dakota; Detroit, Michigan and Cedar Rapids, Iowa) and on Sheikh Dawood, Soufi Abdul Hameed, Noble Drew Ali and Elijah Mohammed. Two mosques were built in the early years of this century. In 1915 the Albanian community built a mosque in Maine and another in Connecticut, but little documentation has survived of their administration. In Brooklyn, New York, Polish-speaking Tatars built a mosque which was still in use in 1926. The Red Crescent was founded in Detroit in 1920 and the mosque built there was in regular use from 1926-1932. This organization appears to have suffered from lack of finances, rather than lack of numbers. Only a few brothers kept the masjid afloat but the Great Depression proved to be too much of a financial burden for them. Perhaps the most successful of these early, orthodox communities was the Ross Mosque, having a congregation of about 100 followers at its height. The mosque was built in 1930 and remained standing until 1978, and in regular use until the late l960s. At this time, conversions and mixed marriages had decreased the number of Muslims, and Arabic was no longer used. Also, there were no practising Muslims to attend Friday prayers and the cemetery had fallen into neglect.

The Lebanese masjid in Cedar Rapids is a success story. Started in 1935, the mosque is still in use. This community seems to have suffered fewer of the problems common to the others; going overseas to marry was common, finance was freer and fewer people drifted from Islam. Arabic continued to be used widely, language being an important factor in uniting a community.

Sheikh Dawood and Soufi Abdul Hameed represent home-grown orthodox Islam. Sheikh Dawood founded the Islamic Mission Society on State Street in 1934 in Brooklyn, New York. Over 75,000 people accepted Islam under his tutorship before his death in 1981. His theory of Islam being genetic was to be adapted by many later leaders such as Elijah Mohammed and Imam Isa. His success was due to his willingness to stiffer personal abuse and financial difficulty for the sake of Islam. His writings and theories are contained in his self-published book Islam the True Religion of humanity (1965). His contemporary, Soufi, and his teacher, Mandaly from Egypt, had similar successes in Harlem, but their work was cut short when Mandaly died following a heart attack, and Soufi perished in an aeroplane crash. Their problem was that they failed to train proper successors, and the movement died with them (see Ottley, 1968, pp.116-19).

Noble Drew Ali and Elijah Mohammed represent the Black Nationalist side to Islam between 1910 and 1950. Both movements outlasted these men. Ali started his move- merit, the Moorish Science Temple, in May 1913 with the short-lived Canaanite Temple. He gave an identity to the recently freed Africans and showed them how they could have self-esteem, and allowed them to take part in a movement that was not under the former slave masters’ control. His main error was to fail to fully bring people into the reality of the Arabic language, the Qur’an and ibadah, but he gave them a clear concept of a Jesus they could accept and of tawhid, which Christianity had failed to give them.

Elijah Mohammed’s organization, the Nation of Islam, was begun in Paradise Valley (a black ghetto in Detroit) on July 4, 1930 by Mr W.D. Fard. Fard was a mysterious peddler from the East and a one-time challenger to Drew Ali’s leadership of Islamic Nationalism in Newark, New Jersey. Fard was reputed to have been born of a white mother and a black father (Mimi and Alfonso) on February 28, 1877 in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. He supposedly receiving his education at U.C.L.A. and Oxford. Fard was to have been a member of the diplomatic corps in the Hijaz, but he decided against it in order to go to the ‘wilderness of North America to find his Uncle [the Black Man] and teach him Islam and the true history of the black man. After teaching for three years, he left the US for an unknown destination. He left behind a successor, Elijah Mohammed, and some written teachings which were set down in several lesson plans of which seven are extant today. This was a way of teaching that was not uncommon to church catechisms, Masonic degrees or Moorish American Qur’an Questionnaires. By 1934, Fard became a sort of hidden Imam common to the doctrines of the Druze and Isma’ili versions of Islam. He seemed to expound rhetoric similar to military manual directives, Moorish Science, Masonry and some vague eschatology as well as doctrines (such as blood atonement), similar to that of early Utah Mormons. His movement succeeded due to dedicated individuals and strong leadership that was willing to suffer for the movement. His weaknesses were failing to teach proper rules for prayer and fasting, and his preaching the concept of Ali reincarnated through the Imams and the Mahdi (later he was considered God incarnate).

1950-Present

The next forty years saw the rise and fall of the Nation of Islam and its rebirth (primarily with Silas Mohammed, Farrakhan, John Mohammed, W.D. Mohammed and Imam Isa). The groups that were resurrected tended to try to revolutionize the teachings. Silas works with the white community and calls Elijah Mohammed ‘the Virgin Mary’ and himself the ‘Spiritual Son of Elijah Mohammed’. Farrakhan works with other minorities and has been working against the drug problem; he attacked a drug dealer after he found out his own son was a drug abuser. W.D. Mohammed works with the immigrant community in a liaison role. John Mohammed is the ‘orthodox’ Nation of Islam teacher, as he tends not to teach anything except what Elijah Mohammed distinctly taught. Imam is a Unitarian Universalist, Spiritualist, Jewish, Ansar, Black Nationalist successor to the self-proclaimed Messenger of Allah, Elijah Mohammed. All are in serious error because they fail to address the greater problem of developing the basic groundwork for a strong, growing and evolving Islamic community in America. Only W.D. Mohammed has begun the needed work of teaching sound Islam based on the Qur’an and the Sunna, but he is somewhat hindered by the legacy of his father, tending to give the teachings of the Qur’an as mostly symbolic as he was taught the Bible was. Others left the Nation of Islam, and we must remember them as true Muslims. These true Muslims include Mohammed Ali, Hamas Abdul Khaalis, and Malcolm X. Mohammed Ali went on to become one of the greatest sportsmen in this nation and a great Contributor to the spreading of Islam. Hamas Abdul Khaalis founded the Hanafi Mah-Hab Centre in New York in 1968. It was later moved to Washington, DC. At his height he had over a thousand followers and led protests for several Muslim causes. His famous follower is Kareem Abdul Jabbar. In 977, Khaalis and some of his followers seized a building in Washington, DC as part of a protest, and they held the people for some 30 hours. One hostage was killed and Khaalis is currently serving a prison sentence of 4l to 120 years. One of the greatest-ever Muslim leaders in America was, of course, Malcolm X (or according to his true Muslim name, Al-Hajj Malik at Shabazz). He started the political street organ of the Nation of Islam, the Mohammed Speaks newspaper, and influenced several generations with his eye-opening autobiography. Until the end of his life, he was dedicated to the struggle for the rights of all oppressed people of the world. He was killed at the hands of FBI-sponsored infiltrators from the Nation of Islam.

Conclusion

It is strange that the religion of peace is always forced into violence against itself. God says in the Holy Qur’an:

And thus, We have made you a middle nation that you may witness to all people and We made the Messenger a witness to you… (al-Baqarah, 2.143).

How could this history, with its successes, failures and disappointments exist, when we are instructed to be a middle nation of witnesses to mankind, and to propagate Islam?

In sum, this historical briefing on Islam in America focused on American Muslims and Muslims that were becoming Americans points to the need for da’wa, for Islamic schools, for fighting assimilation, for bilingual education, for masjids, and for taking part in the greater society.

The groundwork is da’wa, developing schools and businesses, youth and adult education programmes to teach Arabic and Qur’an to such an extent that our community here will become bilingual and stay that way. Next, we need to have Islamic holidays recognized in public schools in much the same way as Jewish holidays are. Finally, we need to make sure proper books on Islam are in every single public and private library in the US and that hooks on Islam are placed in as many non-Muslim homes as is feasible.

Why, then, is your face still veiled?

The years pass while we, in pangs of separation,

Go on waiting and waiting for ‘spring’.

Rise again with the proof from God’s Throne;

Let the world resound again with your message!

Inspire people to life through the fragrance

You spread everywhere in the name of Truth!

Speak so that other ‘speakers’ mind their place;

That people, revived by your Divine breath

May rise again, as before, to their highest-

That is also the desire of those in heaven.

O Sacred Book, O Eternal Light,

Reaching to every place with radiant peace-

It is end of time, appear to us once more!

Already light has begun to remove darkness…

Even if it is not to be as gorgeous as ‘spring’,

Still may the world be filled with your voice!

Nay everyone hear it and come to know you

Before all are carried to the eternal abode!

***

The first phrase: There is no god but God

This phrase provides for the human spirit, which is subject to innumerable needs and vulnerable to the attacks of countless enemies, an inexhaustible source of help. It opens for it the door to a treasury of mercy that can secure all its needs. In the phrase is a point of support that shows and makes known to the spirit its Master and Owner; its Creator; its true Object of worship, who possesses an absolute power that will secure it against the evil of all its enemies. In this way, this mighty phrase saves the heart from utter desolation and the spirit from grievous suffering, it is forever uplifting and the means of a continual felicity.

The second phrase: (He is) One

This phrase implies the following happy news, both healing and auspicious: the human spirit, which is connected to most species in the universe, and is overwhelmed in misery and confusion because of that connection, finds in the phrase ‘(He is) One’ a refuge and saviour that will deliver it from all that confusion and misery.

This phrase means to man

‘God is One. So do not tire yourself out seeking recourse to other things; do not demean yourself and feel obliged before them; do not humiliate yourself for security before them; do not give yourself trouble by following them, and do not tremble before them in fear. For, the King of the universe is One; He holds the key to all things, and the reins of all things. Everything is resolved by His command. If you have found Him, it means that you have obtained whatever you wish for; you have been liberated from an (otherwise) interminable indebtedness and innumerable fears.’

The third phrase: He has no partner

God is One in that He has no partner in His Lordship, in His acts and in His creating, nor in His Divinity or Sovereignty.

A worldly monarch may in theory have no partner in his sovereignty but, in the practical execution thereof, his officials act as his partners and/or as intermediaries between him and his people. Whereas, God, the Monarch of all times, has no need for partners or helpers in the execution of His Sovereignty, just as He has, in principle, no partner in His Sovereignty. Without His command and will, without His leave and power; not a single thing can interfere with another. Also, since He has no partner or helper, and there are no intermediaries between Him and His creatures, everyone can have recourse to Him directly at any time or place

This phrase, therefore, provides for the human spirit this glad tiding a man who has attained belief may, without hindrance, opposition or interference, in any state, for any desire, at any time and in any place, enter the presence of the Majestic, the All- Gracious, the All-Powerful One of perfection, who is the eternal Owner of the treasuries of mercy and bliss, and may present before Him his needs By seeking His Mercy and relying upon His Power, he can attain perfect ease and happiness.

The fourth phrase: His is the Kingdom

His is the Kingdom of all the heavens and the earth. So you are owned by Him and working in His Kingdom. This phrase implies the following joyful and healing news:

‘O man! Do not imagine that you own yourself for you are unable to administer even your own affairs You can neither maintain your spirit and body by providing for their needs and securing them against calamities, nor can you avoid exhaustion and ageing since you have no dominion over time or other agencies of decline. Therefore, do not suffer pain and torment without reason. Somebody else, not you, owns everything. That Owner is both All-Powerful and All-Compassionate; rely on His Power and do not accuse His Compassion. Renounce grief and anxiety, and accept relief. Be rid of your troubles and find serenity.’

The phrase also means: ‘This world that you love, to which you are connected, and which you see in disorder and are unable to put right, is the property of an All-Powerful and Compassionate One. So hand over the property to its Owner, leave it to Him, mind your own duty and do not interfere with His acts. Do not be troubled by what you are unable to overcome, and be at ease. The Owner of this property has free disposal of it and administers it as He wishes. But He is All-Wise, always acts for a wise purpose, and also He is All-Compassionate. So, whenever you take fright, say like Ibrahim Haqqi, “Let’s, see what the Master does; Whatever He does is always best,” and observe His acts with complete trust in Him.’

The fifth phrase: To Him belongs all the praise

Only God absolutely deserves praise and acclaim and only to Him is all indebtedness. His are all bounties and they come from His treasury. As for the treasury, it is infinite and inexhaustible. This phrase, therefore, implies this happy news:

‘O man! Do not be anxious that, one day, the bounties (you presently enjoy) will cease.

‘Know that the treasury of Mercy is inexhaustible. Nor cry out in anxiety over the possible cessation of enjoyment; every enjoyment you are granted is the fruit of an infinite Mercy Now the tree of that Mercy is undying, for each exhausted fruit is replaced with a new one. Furthermore, by reflecting on what you enjoy in an attitude of thanks and praise, since every enjoyment is in essence a favour from the Divine Mercy and, in so being a hundred times more enjoyable than the enjoyment by itself you will be able to increase it a hundredfold. If a glorious king presents you with an apple, the pleasure you take in being honoured by a royal favour will be superior to the material pleasure of a hundred, even a thousand, apples. Similarly, through the phrase ‘To Him belongs all praise’ will be opened to you the door of a spiritual enjoyment a thousand times sweeter than that you enjoy by itself, since this phrase makes you consider the bestowal of bounty, which in turn leads you to recognize the Bestower and to reflect on His merciful favours which are pouring out continually.’

The sixth phrase: He alone gives life

The One who gives life and sustains it through provision is He. Likewise, the Provider of life’s necessities is He, and the sublime aims of life and its important results are related to Him. This phrase therefore calls out to mortal and helpless man and gives him this joyful tiding:

‘O man! Do not bother to shoulder the heavy responsibilities of life; do not feel unease because the world is transient. Do not let the insignificant worldly fruits of life drive you to regret that you came to this world. Rather the ‘life mechanism’ in ‘the ship of your being’ belongs to the One Ever-Living and Ever-Self-Subsisting, so it is He who provides for all of life’s needs and expenditures. Further, there are innumerable aims in life directing it to many important results, nearly all of which are related to Him. You are just a ‘helmsman’ on that ‘ship’ of your being, so perform your duty properly. Obtain your wage and take the enjoyment that comes with doing so. Ponder how precious that ‘ship’ is and how valuable its benefits; and consider how generous and compassionate is the Owner of that ‘ship’. So, rejoice and give thanks, and grasp that, if you perform your duly righteously, all the results that life yields will, in one respect, be recorded as your good deeds to secure an immortal life for you in eternity.’

The seventh phrase: …and makes to die

He discharges you from the duty of life changes your abode from this transient world and releases you from the burden of service. That is, He takes you from a transient life to an eternal one. This phrase, therefore, says explicitly to mortal jinn and man:

‘Good news for you: death is not annihilation or going to non existence, nor is it eternal separation or a chance event without an author. Rather, it is being discharged form service by the Author who is All-Wise and All-Compassionate; it is a change of abode. It is being dispatched to ever-lasting happiness, to your true home. It is the door to union with the intermediate world, which is the place where you will meet with ninety-nine percent of your friends’

The eighth phrase: He is living and dies not

He is the One, Undying Object of Worship and Everlasting Beloved, who possesses a beauty, perfection and munificence wholly and utterly superior to the beauty, perfection and munificence to be observed in all creatures; who arouses love; a single manifestation of whose Beauty is sufficient to replace all other beloveds; who has an eternal life free from any trace of cessation or ephemerality and exempt from any flaw or defect. So, this phrase makes this joyful announcement to all conscious beings, including jinn and mankind, and to people of love:

‘Here is good tidings for you! There is an Eternal Beloved who will heal the wounds caused by countless separations from the ones to whom you give your heart. Since He exists and is undying, whatever may happen, do not worry about those others. Moreover; the beauty and good in them, the grace and perfection which cause you to love them, are but a passing through many veils, a dim, shadow- like manifestation of the Eternal Beauty of the Everlasting Beloved. Do not grieve, therefore, at their disappearance, for they are a kind of mirrors:through the changing of mirrors the reflection of that Beauty is renewed and becomes more radiant. When you find Him, you have found everything.’

The ninth phrase In His hand is all good

That is, He possesses all good and only He guides you to do good. Also, He records on your behalf any good, righteous deed that you do. Thus, this phrase announces to jinn and mankind this glad tiding:

O you helpless ones! When you move to the grave do not cry out in despair. “Alas! Everything we owned is destroyed and all our efforts have come to nought. We have departed that wide, beautiful world and entered this narrow grave.” Everything of yours is preserved: all your deeds were written down and every service you rendered was recorded. The All-Majestic, in whose hand is all good and who is able to do whatever is good, has summoned you in order to reward your service: He will keep you under the ground temporarily and then will bring you to His presence. How fortunate you are that you have completed your duty and service; your labour has ended, you are on the way to ease and mercy. Having gone through your period of toil, you are going to receive your wages.’

The All-Powerful One of Majesty, who preserves seeds and grains, which are the records of the activities and the deposit-boxes the services done in the last spring, and unfolds and publishes them the following spring in the most dazzling, abundant and benevolent manner, is undoubtedly preserving the results of your deeds also, in the same way, and will likewise reward your service in the most abundant manner.

The tenth phrase He is powerful over everything

That is, He is the One, Unique and Singular and He has power over everything. Nothing is difficult for Him. To create a whole spring is as easy for Him as to create a single flower and He creates Paradise with as much ease as He creates the spring. The countless creatures that He continually brings into existence every day, every year, every century, bear witness with innumerable tongues to His limitless power. Thus, this phrase, too, implies these glad tidings

‘O man! The service you offer and the worship you perform do not go for nothing. A world of reward, an abode of bliss, has been prepared for you. In place of this transitory world of yours, an everlasting Paradise is awaiting you. Have faith and confidence in the promise of the Majestic Creator whom you know and worship. It is inconceivable that He should break His promise. In no respect is there any deficiency at all in His power. Impotence can never interfere in His works. As He creates your small garden, He can also create Paradise for you. And He has created it and has promised it to you. Since He has promised, He shall certainly admit you to it.’

We plainly observe how every year on the earth He most speedily revives, yet with perfect order and ease, more than three hundred thousand species and groups of animals and plants. Such an All- Powerful One of Majesty is most certainly able to carry out His promise. Further, since He creates every year samples of Paradise, which He has promised through all His revealed books; since all His acts and functions are performed with truth and seriousness; and, as we witness in all His works, all perfections point to and testify to His infinite perfection, with no flaw or defect at all in Him, and since the breaking of a promise, lying, falsehood and deception are the ugliest of qualities, then most decidedly will that All-Powerful One of Majesty, that All-Wise One of Perfection, that All Compassionate One of Grace fulfil His promise: He will open the gate to eternal happiness and admit you, O people of faith, into Paradise, which was the original home of your forefather, Adam.

The eleventh phrase and unto Him is the return

Human beings are sent to this world of trial and examination with important duties and business and to do some particular services. After they have completed their duties, they will return and meet once more with their All-Munificent Master, the Majestic Creator; who sent them out in the first place. That is, they will leave this realm of transience, be delivered from the turbulent cycles of cause and effect and from the obscure veils of intermediaries, and will be honoured in the eternal abode in the presence of their Compassionate Lord and meet with Him without veil before His seat of everlasting kingdom. Everyone will find out directly who His Creator is, the Worshipped One, Lord, Master and Owner. Thus, this phrase implies the following news, much happier that all the rest:

‘O man! Do you know where you are going? Do you know to where you are being impelled? You are going to the sphere of Mercy, to the serene presence of the All-Beautiful One of Majesty. A thousand years of happy life in this world cannot be compared to one hour of life in Paradise, and a thousand years of life in Paradise cannot be compared to one hour’s vision of His Countenance of utmost beauty. The loveliness and beauty in all the creatures of this world, including those worldly loved ones by which you are so fascinated and stricken are merely a sort of shadow of a single manifestation of His Beauty and of the loveliness of His Names; and the whole of Paradise, with all its charm is merely a manifestation of His Mercy, and all longing, love and attraction are merely a gleam from the light of His Love. You are going into the presence of the One Eternally worshipped and Everlastingly Beloved, and are invited to Paradise, which is His eternal feasting place. Since this is so, enter the grave not with tears but with a smile.’

The same words also give this glad news:

‘O man! Do not be apprehensive, imagining that you are going to oblivion, extinction, non-existence, nothingness, decay and dissolution. You are going not to extinction but to permanence. You are being impelled not to non-existence, but to eternal existence. You are entering not the world of darkness but the world of His Light. You are returning to your true Owner, to the seat of the Eternal King.

You will not drown in multiplicity, but you will take your rest in the sphere of unity. You are bound not for separation, but for union.’

FROM THE RISALE-I NUR COLLECTION

What is malformation? If a little girl, with six fingers on one hand, says she loves her sixth finger very much, how do we tell her she is malformed?

Blepharoptosis is a condition in which the upper eyelid droops in consequence of paralysis of muscles or nerves. But would we say that having drooping eyelids, eyes with short palpebral fissures, is a malformation? Would we not then have to say that most Chinese and Japanese have somewhat ‘malformed’ eyes?.

If the little girl’s sixth finger causes her no impediment, except for its appearance, would it be right to think of it as a ‘disability’ or a ‘problem’? On that criterion, obesity or anorexia nervosa could also be considered as disability. They are not only disagreeable in appearance but also impair physical and social function. Such impairment must surely be part of any definition of disability.

But this too raises a question. If an abnormality does not cause impairment of function, but only makes a person ugly, do we consider it a disability? Who will judge the level of ugliness, the individual or society? A schoolgirl with polydactylism – more than five fingers or five toes; a young man with alopecia universalis – absence at all hair, on the head and body; a teenage girl with ichthyosis vulgaris (xeroderma) – a severe skin disorder which causes an ugly appearance – if such conditions do not cause any impairment, if people have got used to seeing them, the individuals may not perceive themselves as ugly and therefore not feel distress. But if their appearance does disturb others and they feel distressed as a result, should we describe them as normal or disabled’? A little girl in a nursery school may be afraid of holding up a polydactyl hand; his co-workers may be upset by sharing a workplace with a man suffering from alopecia universalis; a hair dresser may not want to cut the hair or manicure the nails of a girl who suffers from ichthyosis vulgaris.

Plainly, clinical definitions do not define or cover disability. Sociological reflections are also important. Sometimes it is more important to ask how people around a particular individual perceive that individual, than to ask how medical science defines his or her condition.

There are situations where individuals do not feel handicapped and find their lives valuable and worth living, but people around them are upset by them and label them as disabled. In contrast to this, there are some cases, in which, the individual is considered medically ‘normal’, is perceived as ‘normal’ by society, and his or her condition does not cause any impairment, but that individual thinks that a particular part of his or her body is a problem and tries to find a ‘solution’ to it. These ‘solutions’ are an important part of the plastic surgeon’s workload. It is not easy to explain the circumstances which disturb people so much that they take the risk of surgery. But we may infer another factor to define disability namely the psychological state of the individual. The individual may not have any physical abnormality but psychologically he or she feels abnormal. Hospital records abound with such cases.

Among the most difficult ‘abnormalities’ are anomalies affecting the newborn and congenital malformations. There are 200 such ‘disabilities’ (see Goodman and Gorlin 1983). Among them are Downs Syndrome, Spina Bifida and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. The distress caused by such illnesses has led to attempts to identify cases as early as possible. In order to do this, scientists have established new prenatal diagnostic methods such as USG (ultrasound), amniocentesis, CSV (cholonic villi sampling) and photocopy. 60-65% of malformations can be diagnosed with these methods (Goodman and Gorlin, 1983, p.83). However, we must define our aims clearly to protect humankind from being victims of these improvements. Goodman (1986, pp2l4-17) suggests that prenatal diagnosis is used for monitoring the pregnancy, to localize the placenta, to detect multiple pregnancies, to know fetal age correctly, to monitor probable congenital malformation and to make studies about the genetic, biochemical and chromosomal structure of the fetus. These are all aims which are innocent and for the benefit of humankind. But, like all other new technologies, they do raise moral questions.

Before 1977, prenatal diagnosis was rare in Sweden. The number of late terminations because of fetal abnormality was 34 in that year. By the end of the 1980s, this number had reached 100 per year. 40% of these terminations were because of Downs Syndrome and 15% because of NTD (Neural Tube Defect) (Reid, 1991, p.77). Introduction of the technologies to Portugal, Greece and Germany led to new legislation on the termination of pregnancies (Reid, 1991, p.9).

Despite all measures and methods of elimination, disabled babies continue to be born. Maybe attention should be turned to treatment and rehabilitation. Although it is not always possible to correct impairment completely, quality of life can be improved through a variety of rehabilitation methods.

Almost half of handicapped newborns die in the first year of life and 80% of the rest need corrective surgery or lifetime therapy. For this reason, treatment and rehabilitation are costly options. But after the improvement of surgical sciences, especially plastic surgery in recent years, the remediability of many conditions has increased.

Remediability or irremediability of disabilities is of crucial importance in determining the treatment offered to handicapped newborns. Decisions about remediability or irremediability are made by doctors. The reasoning and judgments of philosophers, theologians, sociologists, other experts (and, of course, parents) are informed by data supplied by doctors. The objectivity of that data is not unquestionable. Dr John Freeman (quoted in Kuhse and Singer 1985, p.63) observed: ‘It concerns me greatly that a given child born in Sheffield has a 75% chance of being dead; that the same child born in Baltimore…has a 95% chance of being alive. And yet this is a decision made by the parents on the advice of either Dr Lorber or myself. That is scary.’

In this discussion of the definition of ‘disability’, we have tried to show that it and related terms cannot be solely the domain of doctors. It is true that scientists are vital in this area but they need to be aware of societal and religious issues. We cannot leave decisions about ‘disability’ to scientists who worship only science.

Lamu is a small island off the coast of Kenya, no larger than ten square miles. It is one of several islands that make up the Lamu archipelago, not far from the Somali border. Its contact with the Arabian Peninsula dates back many centuries and certainly predates Islam. The trading links between the Arabs and the Cushtic and Bantu people of the African mainland have made it a buzzing multicultural trade centre since the beginning of the millennium. The language, known as the swahel, that developed along the coast traces its roots to a mixture of the Bantu and Arabic languages. Its people, the Swahili, have a rich culture and advanced literary tradition. Lamu has recently attracted a growing number of European tourists, few of whom will be aware of its contribution to Islamic education and the spread of Islam into the interior.

Islam in East Africa

Archaeological and historical evidence indicates that Islam has been practised in East Africa for a very long time, although there is no consensus over the exact date of its arrival. Al-Baidh, in his book Stages of East African History suggests that it arrived during the time of the Khalifa ‘Abd al-Malik bin Marwan, at around 702/80H. He suggests that it was brought over by a group of Omanis, among them two nobles called Said and Sulaiman. Said is reported to have come to Lamu and Sulaiman to Mombassa.

While most European historians, (e.g. Parrinder (1976), Martin (1973) and Horton (1987)) support the hypothesis that Islam arrived around 800/178H or shortly afterwards, many local historians, are convinced that Islam arrived during the lifetime of the Messenger, upon him be peace, with some even suggesting it dates to before his migration to Madina.

Whatever the date of arrival, clearly it was firmly established before the nineteenth century, when, it appears, the East African coast underwent a cultural revolution. This phenomenon has been described by some as ‘the arrival of the new literacy’ and others as ‘a period of rapid ‘hadramization’ of the scholars’. Lamu made its own special contribution to this movement. Two of the major factors effecting the rapid ‘hadramization’ and the spread of literacy and Islamic culture were the arrival of a young Comorian immigrant called Salih and the establishment of a mosque-college called the Riyadah.

Hadrami tradition and the way of Bani Alawi

The people of Hadramaut, now part of the Yemen Republic, are famous for the respect they give to the Prophet and his family and for their love of migration. There are at least as many Hadramis outside Hadramaut as there are inside it. There are many of them in East Africa. Their love for the Messenger and his family goes hack to when the Prophet Muhammad, upon him he peace, sent Ziyad bin Labid al-Khazraji to Tarim in the tenth year after the Migration. Shortly afterwards, Ziyad received a letter informing him of the death of the Prophet and a request from Abu Bakr for the oath of allegiance of the people of Hadramaut. It was gladly given by the people of Tarim who are reported to have wept en masse when they heard the news. However, many of the surrounding tribes were not so keen to give their allegiance to the new leader. It is reported (Bin Sumeit, nd., p.12) that Abu Bakr prayed for the people of Tarim that their land should always flourish, that God should bless their water and grant an abundance of righteous people in it.

The Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace, is reported to have seen the valley of Hadramaut and the plain of Madina in a dream and was told that he would emigrate to one of them. The body of the Messenger is buried in Madina but many of his family emigrated to and settled in Hadramaut.

They brought with them the sharif tradition that was later to be known as the way of Bani Alawi after one of their great ancestors, Alawi bin ‘Ubaidallah. The way of the Alawi family is almost synonymous with Hadrami scholarship. Tarim, the subject of Abu Bakr’s famous supplication developed into an important centre of learning.

The Alawi tariqa, in the words of the former Mufti of Makka. Muhammad bin Hussain al- Habashi, is the sirat al-mustaqim which:

consists of the words and actions of the Messenger, upon whom be peace, as well as descriptions of his character and person and the things he permitted without comment. This was the way of the major companions, his family and the righteous predecessors and those who followed. It was recorded by the two Imams, Abu Talib al-Makki in his Qut and Imam al-Qushairi in his Risala. The contents of their books were amended, revised and edited, and put into chapters and sections, by the ‘proof of Islam’ al-Ghazali. This is the way of the Alawi-Husaini Hadramis, passed on from generation to generation, from father to son, as related from al-Husain and ‘Ali Zain al-Abidin and al-Baqir and al-Sadiq and others.’ (Al-Habashi, nd., p.5)

This tradition produced the scholars and traders that spread Islam to Indonesia, East Africa and many parts of Southern India. It was often carried by sharif families, i.e. those whose lineage goes back to the Prophet himself. One of these families was the Jamal al-Layl family.

Habib Salih Jamal al-Layl

The Jamal al-Layl family produced a number of famous scholars who settled in many parts of the world including the Comoro Islands and the Far East. They are also to be found in Hadramaut and the Hijaz.

Harun bin ‘Abd al-Rahman settled at Pate, an island to the north of Lamu. As a result of political conflict, his great- grandson moved to the Comoro Islands, in the middle of the Indian Ocean, which had become distinguished as a centre of learning. It was here, in 1844/1269H, that Salih was born. At the age of seventeen, he travelled to Lamu for medical treatment and stayed with his uncle, ‘Ali bin ‘Abdallah Jamal al-Layl. His uncle had settled several years earlier and was established as a highly respected and leading scholar. The young Salih studied under his uncle’s tutorage as well as several other leading teachers. He acquainted himself with the views of the local people and was readily accepted. His modesty and studious nature contributed to his acceptance into a society not known for welcoming strangers.

After one year, the young sharif returned to his father and expressed a desire to continue his studies in Lamu. His father was convinced by fellow-clansman, Mwenye BaHasan Jamal al-Layl, to allow his son to settle in Lamu. This was based on Ba-Hasan’s prediction that his son had a bright future and would eventually become a great reformer of his time. In Lamu, Habib Salih excelled as a student of medicine and traditional Islamic learning and, at a young age, began teaching in a small mosque called the Sheikh Bilad Mosque. One of his famous teachers, Syed Mansab, donated a large plot of land on the outskirts of Lamu town known as Dari yo Mtanga, the Home of Dust. Habib Salih gladly accepted this gift and built a very modest madrasa, or mosque-school. He attracted many ex-slaves and people who were not welcomed in the highly stratified Lamu society.

Although there had long been a well-established scholarly tradition, it was the young Comorian who radically changed the society’s approach to learning. He would teach Islam to anyone that was interested, making Islamic learning accessible to everyone. Also, he used his medical knowledge to help the poorest members of the community, and made an active attempt to take Islam to the surrounding areas. After a short while, the need to build a large mosque-college became very clear. The Riyadah was established in 1880/13O1 H.

The choice of name betrays its Hadrami origins. There was a famous mosque of the same name in Hadramaut, built by his friend and teacher, the scholar, ‘Ali bin Muhammad al-Habashi.

Riyadah literally means ‘meadows’ and is understood by both al-Habshi and Habib Salih to refer to ‘meadows of education’. The metaphor is based on a hadith of the Prophet who said:

‘If you pass by the meadows of the Garden (riyad al-Jannah) graze from them.’

‘What are the meadows of the Garden?’ we said.

‘The gatherings of remembrance,’ he said. (Tirmidhi)

In another version of the hadith he said ‘where people gather for education’.

The Riyadah of Siyun in Hadramaut and of Lamu in Kenya combine both of these two important functions. They are places of worship and remembrance as well as educational institutions.

The subjects taught at the Riyadah include Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). Arabic, mathematics, the four main schools of law, and comparative religion. The medium of instruction is Arabic with some explanations in Swahili.

The Riyadah produced many scholars, and influenced even more. Among them were a number of people appointed to the position of qadi (judge) or Grand Qadi. They include al-Sayyid ‘Umar bin Sumait Qadi of Zanzibar and the Comoros, al-Amin Mazrui (father of the famous professor and television producer) Sheikh Hamid b. Juma. the current Qadi of Tanzania, and Sharif Sayyid al Baidh and Ahmed Mashur al-Haddad who were responsible for a large number of people embracing Islam in Uganda.

The success of the Riyadah was undoubtedly owed to the personality of Habib Salih and his holding fast to the way of his ancestors. One of his students, described Habib Salih saying:

He is righteous in his name and in his true self

And in his writing and in his mystical state,

And in his prayers and in his courtesies

The eulogy encapsulates the eulogized.

The Riyadah college today

After Habib Salih’s death, his sons continued their fathers outstanding work, and to this day the Riyadah continues to produce imams and teachers. Habib Salih’s grandson, Sharif Khitamy has a thriving medical practice in Mombassa where he is respected as one of its leading scholars. Graduates of the Riyadah have established schools all over East Africa, and supporters of this distinguished path with a special connection with this tiny island are found in London and Cape Town and probably everywhere in between.

Lamu’s sacred meadows make it no ordinary little island.

He is the Lord of the heavens and of the earth, and all that lies between them; He is the Lord of the Lasts. (Saffat, 37.5)

The concept of the Lord of everything is defined in this setting and within the limits of our knowledge. Since the earth, the sky and all else in between have been mentioned, a different reality or a different spatial continuum is not in question. The verse does not end there, however. A new concept is added: ‘He is the Lord of the Lasts.’

So, in addition to the earth, the sky and all in between, we have the concept of ‘Easts’. In Arabic, the plural form is used for three or more things. Therefore, God is the Lord of at least three Fasts, or of many Easts. What kind of scientific concept does this verse introduce? Before seeking an answer to this question, let us call to mind certain facts.

It is a commonplace that we conceive of space in terms of three dimensions. The existence of an object is determined by the space it occupies with respect to the dimensions of length, width and height, in addition to its position.

But is the universe composed of, and space constituted by, these three dimensions alone? Until Einstein’s Special and General Theories of Relativity, scientists believed that the universe consisted of three dimensions. The world-famous physicist, however, determined on the basis of mathematical calculations that there are more than three dimensions and that a fourth, fifth or higher number of dimensions would introduce different concepts of space.

According to Einstein, the fourth dimension is time. Time is not simply a matter of reading a clock, but a dimension of the same order as height, width and length. It is coextensive with the other dimensions. Our visual perception, however, can see in only three dimensions and no more. In fact, some organisms cannot even see the dimension of depth: lizards and snakes see the world in two dimensions, like a photograph or a movie cartoon.

Starting from this milestone of physics, we would have to conceive of spaces other than ours, and in addition to the physical space we observe in the universe at large. In these spaces, velocity is different, time is different, action is different; and so are translation, convergence and regression. This is why the concept of ‘worlds’ introduced by the Qur’an is an expression of such diverse spaces. The world of angelic beings, Heaven, Hell, and the world of spirits all lie in the domain of such spatial continua. Our difficulty in conceiving of them stems from the perceptual deficiencies of our three-dimensional habits.

Having noted this, let us now recall the final part of the verse: ‘He is the Lord of the Easts.

‘East’ is the expression of a direction, a dimension. This expression occurred for the first time in connection with the sun. The word ‘orientation’ or finding one’s bearings implies the Orient or East as the first or primary dimension. Although the expression Lord of the Easts and of the Wests occurs in many verses in the Qur’an, only the Easts are mentioned in this verse. This is why we are dwelling on this point at such length.

The point is that ‘the Easts’ are proclaimed as a set of directions, quite apart from the existents we refer to as the earth and sky. With this verse, God draws our attention to other directions and dimensions, indicating the existence of worlds and spaces composed of dimensions other than the physical world we are familiar with. In a sense, He says I am the Lord of the Easts in order to introduce the notion of infinite dimensions, which contemporary physics is just beginning to discover. But why only the Easts? Because in the definition of dimensions, the first dimension is the East, whereas the West is simply an extension of the Eastern dimension in the opposite direction. We can say that this verse clearly heralds the existence of thousands of spaces and worlds embedded in an infinite-dimensional matrix.

Many other meanings derive from the verse besides the meaning discussed above. I would like to mention two of these.

The meaning ‘births’ can also be derived indirectly from the plural mashariq. In this case the meaning points to a different scientific truth. The East, which is where the sun rises, also symbolizes the direction in which the earth moves around the sun. But, do we have only one East, or only one motion in the universe?

No. While the earth revolves around the sun within the solar system, the sun is also revolving around the Milky Way galaxy together with its family of planets. The Milky Way, in turn, is revolving around the central axis of the supergalaxy or local cluster of galaxies to which we belong. Thus, we may well speak of three different Easts.

This meaning, therefore, is also hidden within the statement ‘Lord of the Easts’ (rabbul-mashariq). The very fact that magharib (Wests) does not succeed mashariq (Easts) in this verse is a confirmation of this. We shall see while interpreting future verses that there are many statements in the Qur’an pointing to the rotation of the earth. For this reason ‘East’ in reference to the earth’s revolution is in the plural, indicating that these rotations occur at many levels.

If we take the verse from the standpoint of a direction on earth, the concept of the East differs for each location on the globe. The east of Turkey is in the east with respect to its western regions, while our east is actually west from the standpoint of Iran, which lies even further east. Therefore, the East concept is different at every point on earth, and these concepts form an ensemble of Easts. This concept geometrically defines the surface of a sphere.

Let us now reread the verse in order to discover another significant scientific observation: He is the Lord of the heavens and of the earth, and all that lies between them; He is the Lord of the Easts (Saffat, 37.5).

The heavens, as we also see from other Qur’anic verses, are very diverse spheres. So what does the expression ‘between the heavens and the earth’ mean? It is known that meteors, stars, even angels and various unknown beings, can be encountered at various levels of the sky. What are ‘those between earth and the sky’? As far as we can tell, they are invisible rays which form the basic building blocks of matter and energy. These rays, earlier lumped together under the generic term ‘cosmic rays’, are differentiated in modern physics within the broad categories of nucleons, haryons, leptons and fermions. These are the subatomic constituents of matter and energy.

With the expression ‘He is the Lord of the heavens and of the earth, and all that lies between them’ God explains that all these energetic particles and rays constitute a vast physical order subject to God’s attribute of Lordship. Modern physics has viewed these incomprehensible energy dissipations and rays with unease, almost seeing them as dangers threatening the destruction of the universe. The Qur’anic verse reveals that, on the contrary, they form a gigantic physical balance under the superintendence of God.

It was at this time, before his call to prophethood, that Muhammad said to his uncle, al-‘Abbas:

‘Your brother, Abu Talib, has a large family. People, as you see, have been afflicted by this severe drought and are facing starvation. Let us go to Abu Talib and take on the care of some members of his family. I am ready to look after one of his sons and you might do the same for another’

Al-‘Abbas agreed; they went together to Abu Talib and made their offer Abu Talib accepted:

‘If you allow me to keep ‘Aqil [one of his sons older than Ali], you may do otherwise as you please.

In this way ‘Ali came into the household of the future Prophet, upon him be peace, Jafar into the household of al-‘Abbas.

Ja’far closely resembled the Prophet. It is said there were five men from the Hashim clan who resembled the Prophet, so much as to mistaken for him. They were: his two cousins Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith and Qutham ibn al-‘Abbas; Al-Sa’ib ibn ‘Ubayd, the grandfather of Imam al-Shafi’-i; Hasan ibn ‘Ali, the grandson of the Prophet, who resembled him most of all; and Ja’far ibn Abi Talib.

Ja’far stayed with his uncle, al-‘Abbas, until he was a young man. Then he married Asma bint Umays, a sister of Maymunah, later to become a wife of the Prophet. After his marriage, Ja’far went to live on his own. He and his wife were among the first persons to accept Islam. He became a Muslim at the hands of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, may God be pleased with him.

The young Ja’far and his wife were devoted to Islam. They bore the harsh persecution of the Quraysh with steadfast patience, because they understood that the way to Paradise must pass through hardship.

The Quraysh made life intolerable for them as for all their brothers and sisters in faith. They would prevent them from observing the duties and rites of Islam or, failing that, from tasting the sweetness of worship undisturbed. They would waylay them and hamper their freedom of movement.

Ja’far eventually went to the Prophet, peace be upon him, and sought permission for himself and a small group of the companions, including his wife, to emigrate to Abyssinia. With great sadness, the Prophet gave his permission. It pained him that these pure, upright souls should be forced to leave their homes, the cherished scenes of their childhood and youth, not for any crime but only because they said, ‘Our Lord is One. God is our Lord’.

The group of Muhajirin (Emigrants) left Makka under the leadership of Ja’far and settled down in Abyssinia under the protection of the Negus, its just and righteous ruler. For the first time since becoming Muslims, they enjoyed freedom and security, and could practise their worship undisturbed.

When the Quraysh learnt of the departure of this small group, and of the peace they enjoyed, they made plans to secure their extradition back to Makka. They sent two of their most formidable men, ‘Amr ibn al-‘As and ‘Abdullah ibn Abi Rabi’a, providing them with many valuables to aid their ‘persuasion’ of the Negus and his bishops.

In Abyssinia, the two Quraysh emissaries first presented their gifts to the bishops and to each of them they said:

‘There are some wicked young people moving about freely in the King’s land. They have attacked the religion of their forefathers and caused disunity among their people. When we speak to the King about them, advise him to surrender them to us without troubling to ask about their religion. The respected leaders of the people [meaning the bishops] are more knowledgeable of them and understand better what they believe.’ The bishops agreed.

‘Amr and ‘Abdullah then went to the Negus and presented him with gifts which he greatly admired. They said to him;

‘O King, there is a group of evil persons from among our youth who have escaped to your kingdom. They practice a religion which neither we nor you know. They have forsaken our religion and have not entered into your religion. The respected leaders of their people, their own parents and uncles included, and from their own clans – have sent us to you to request their return. They know best what trouble they have caused.’

The Negus looked towards his bishops who said:

‘They speak the truth, O King. Their own people know them better and are better acquainted with what they have done. Send them back so that they themselves may judge them.’

The Negus was incensed at this suggestion and said:

‘No, by God, I will not surrender them to anyone until I myself call them and question them about what they have been accused of. If what you two men have said is true, I will hand them over. If not, I will protect them so long as they desire my protection.’

The Muslims were summoned. Before appearing in the King’s court, they consulted one another and agreed that Ja’far lbn Abi Talib and no one else should speak for them all.

In the court, the bishops, dressed in green surplices and impressive headwear, were seated on the right and left of the Negus. The Quraysh emissaries were also seated when the Muslims entered and took their seats. The Negus turned to them and asked:

‘What is this religion which you have introduced for yourselves and which has led you to be cut off from the religion of your people? You have not adopted my religion nor the religion of any other community.’

Ja’far ibn Abi Talib then delivered a most moving, eloquent speech, still considered a most compelling brief account of Islam, of the appeal of the noble Prophet, and of the condition of Makkan society at the time. He said:

‘O King, we were a people in a state of ignorance and immorality, worshipping idols and eating the flesh of dead animals, committing all sorts of abomination and shameful deeds, breaking the ties of kinship, treating guests badly, and the strong among us exploited the weak. We remained in this state until God sent us a Prophet, one of our own people whose lineage, truthfulness, trustworthiness and integrity were well-known to us.

‘He called us to worship God alone and to renounce the stones and the idols which we and our ancestors used to worship besides God.

‘He commanded us to speak the truth, to honour our promises, to be kind to our relatives, to be helpful to our neighbours, to desist from all forbidden acts, to abstain from bloodshed, to avoid obscenities and false witness, and not to appropriate an orphan’s property or slander chaste women.

‘He ordered us to worship God alone and not to associate anything with Him, to uphold salah, to give zakah and fast in the month of Ramadan.

‘We believed in him and what he brought to us from God and we follow him in what he has asked us to do and we keep away from what he has forbidden us from approaching.

‘Thereupon, O King, our people attacked us, visited the severest punishment upon us to make us renounce our religion and take us back to the old immorality and the worship of idols. They oppressed us, made life intolerable for us, and obstructed us from observing our religion. So we left for your country, choosing you before anyone else, desiring your protection and hoping to live in justice and peace in your midst.’

The Negus was impressed and eager to hear more. He asked Ja’far:

‘Do you have with you something of what your Prophet brought concerning God?”

‘Yes,’ replied Ja’far

‘Then read it to me,’ requested the Negus.

Ja’far, in his rich, melodious voice recited for him the first portion of sura Maryam which deals with the story of Jesus, the son of Mary, upon him be peace. The Negus was moved to tears and said to the Muslims: ‘The message of your Prophet and that of Jesus came from the same source.’

Turning to ‘Amr and his companion, he said: ‘Go. For, by God, I will never surrender them to you.’

That, however, was not the end of the matter. The wise and determined ‘Amr made up his mind to go to the King the following day ‘to mention something about the Muslims’ belief which will certainly fill his heart with anger and make him detest them’.

‘O King, these people, to whom you have given refuge and protection, say something terrible about Jesus the son of Mary [that he is a slave]. Send for them and ask them what they say about him.’

The Negus summoned the Muslims once more with Ja’far again acting as their spokesman. The Negus put the question:

‘What do you say about Jesus, the son of Mary?’

‘Regarding him, we only say what has been revealed to our Prophet,’ replied Ja’far.

‘What is that?’ enquired the Negus.

‘Our Prophet says that Jesus is the servant of God and His Prophet, His spirit and His word which He cast into Mary the Virgin.’

The Negus was obviously excited by this reply and exclaimed:

‘By God, Jesus the son of Mary was exactly as your Prophet has described him.’

The bishops around the Negus grunted in disgust at what they had heard, but were reprimanded by the Negus. He turned to the Muslims and said:

‘Go, for you are safe and secure. Whoever obstructs you will pay for it and whoever opposes you will be punished. For, by God, I would rather not have a mountain of gold than that anyone of you should come to any harm.’

Turning to ‘Amr and his companion, he instructed his attendants:

‘Return their gifts to these two men. I have no need of them.’

‘Amr and his companion departed broken and frustrated. The Muslims stayed on in the land of the Negus who proved to be most generous and kind to his guests.

Ja’far and his wife Asma spent about ten years in Abyssinia which became a second home for them. There, Asma gave birth to three children whom they named ‘Abdullah, Muhammad and ‘Awn. Their second child was possibly the first child in the history of the Muslim ummah to be called Muhammad after the noble Prophet, may God bless him and grant him peace.

In the seventh year after the Hijra, Ja’far and his family left Abyssinia with a group of Muslims and headed for Madina. When they arrived there, the Prophet was just returning from the conquest of Khaybar. He was so overjoyed at meeting Ja’far that he said:

‘I do not know what fills me with more happiness, the conquest of Khaybar or the coming of Ja’far

Muslims in general and the poor among them especially, were just as happy with the return of Ja’far as the Prophet was. Ja’far was so concerned for the welfare of the poor and indigent that he got the nickname, the ‘Father of the Poor’. Abu Hurayrah said of him:

‘The best of men towards us indigent folk was Ja’far ibn Abi Talib. He would pass by us on his way home and give us whatever food he had. Even if his own food had run out, he would send us a pot in which he had placed some butter-fat and nothing more. We would open it and lick it clean…’

Ja’far’s stay in Madina was not long. At the beginning of the eighth year after the Hijra, the Prophet mobilized an army to confront Byzantine forces in Syria after one of his emissaries, who had gone there in peace, had been treacherously killed by a Byzantine governor. He appointed Zayd ibn Haritha as commander of the army and gave the following instructions:

‘If Zayd is wounded or killed, Ja’far ibn Abi Talib must take over the command. If Ja’far is killed or wounded, then your commander must be ‘Abdallah ibn Rawaha. If Abdullah ibn Rawaha is killed, then let the Muslims choose for themselves a commander.

The Prophet had never given such instructions to an army before. The Muslims took it as an indication that he expected a tough battle with major losses.

When the Muslim army reached Muta, a small village situated among hills in Jordan, they discovered that the Byzantines had amassed a hundred thousand men hacked up by a massive number of Christian Arabs from the tribes of Lakhm, Judham, Quda’a and others. The Muslim army numbered only three thousand.

Despite the great odds against them, the Muslim forces engaged the Byzantines in battle. Zayd ibn al-Haritha, the beloved companion of the Prophet, was among the first to fall. Ja’far ibn Abi Talib then assumed command. Mounted on his ruddy-complexioned horse, he penetrated deep into the Byzantine ranks. As he spurred his horse on, he called out:

‘How wonderful is Paradise as it draws near!

How pleasant and cool is its drink!

Punishment for the Byzantines is not far away!’

Ja’far continued to fight vigorously but was eventually slain. The third in command, Abdullah ibn Rawaha, also fell. Khalid ibn al-Walid, the inveterate fighter who had recently accepted Islam, was then chosen as commander. He made a tactical withdrawal, redeployed the Muslims and renewed the attack from several directions. Eventually, the bulk of the Byzantine forces fled in disarray.

The news of the death of his three commanders reached the Prophet in Madina. The pain and grief he felt was intense. He went to Ja’far’s house and met his wife Asma. She was getting ready to receive her absent husband. She had prepared dough and bathed and clothed the children. Asma said:

‘When the Messenger of God approached us, I saw a veil of sadness shrouding his noble face and I became very apprehensive. But I did not dare ask him about Ja’far for fear that I would hear some unpleasant news. He greeted and asked, “Where are Ja’far’s children?” I called them for him and they came and crowded around him happily, each one wanting to claim him for himself. He leaned over and hugged them while tears flowed from his eyes.

“O Messenger of God,” I asked, “Why do you cry? Have you heard anything about Ja’far and his two companions?”

“Yes,” he replied. “They have attained martyrdom.”

The smiles and the laughter vanished from the faces of the little children when they heard their mother crying and wailing. Women came and gathered around Asma.

‘O Asma,’ said the Prophet, ‘don’t say anything objectionable and don’t beat your breast.’ He then prayed to God to protect and sustain the family of Ja’far and assured them that he had attained Paradise.

The Prophet left Asma’s house and went to his daughter Fatima who was also weeping. To her, he said:

‘For such as Ja’far, you can (easily) cry yourself to death. Prepare food for Ja’far’s family, for today they are beside themselves with grief.