In today’s cellular communication systems, cellular phones operate in several frequency bands. European systems use the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) at around 900 MHz and 1800 MHz; American systems use 850 MHz and 1900 MHz, frequencies that fall between the operating frequency ranges of televisions and microwaves. This frequency range is called non-ionizing, for the wave’s energy does not release electrons from atoms in living tissue. For instance, an X-ray is an ionizing wave that, to a degree, damages exposed biological material. Therefore, most concerns deal with RF energy’s heating effect rather than with ionization.

Technical Motivation

The electromagnetic spectrum extends from DC (direct current) to ionizing radiation. Scientists divide this spectrum into subregions. Cellular phones fall into the ultra-high frequency (UHF) regime, specifically from 300 MHz to 3000 MHz. By itself, a continuous UHF wave carries no information and does not enhance communication. It only becomes useful when modulation, defined as means carrying the information on a high frequency carrier, like UHF, is applied. The most common modulation techniques are amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM).

The capacity of the spectrum’s given section to carry information is limited by the Shannon Theorem. According to this theorem, channel capacity can be increased by increasing the system’s signal-to-noise ratio. In wired communications, channel capacity can be increased by adding more parallel optical fibers. Channel capacity in wireless communications can be increased by transmitting weak signals that attenuate rapidly near the transmitter and thus provide a given portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to be utilized many times. How a given spectrum is allocated among users affects the channel capacity. Therefore, there are several coding techniques, the most common of which are Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

Neglecting some small details, an electromagnetic (EM) wave’s energy is expressed in terms of power density (W/m2) across a surface. Power density measures an incident EM wave’s strength. Easily measured, it is a very preferable metric to UHF fields. For uncontrolled environments, the American National Standards Institute and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (ANSI/IEEE C95.1) recommend a 2 to 20 W/m2 for an average external exposure to UHF. The International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) has similar power density recommendations for limiting the general public’s exposure to RF energy so that people will not be overheated by RF energy. As a comparison, for example, summer sunshine peaks around 1000 W/m2.

However, as power density is not a good indicator inside a living organism, scientists have defined a Specific Absorption Rate: SAR (in W/kg). For uncontrolled environments, ANSI/IEEE limits the spatial-average SAR to 0.08 W/kg whole body and to 1.6 W/kg averaged over any 1 gram of tissue. Also, 1998 ICNIRP restrictions are similar to ANSI/IEEE’s. The SAR can be estimated in three ways.

– Micro-antenna: Small antennas can determine a tissue’s electric field as well as its SAR. But it is difficult to place the antenna, and the tissue’s properties may not be known.

– Miniature thermal probes: Since RF energy heats the tissue, this technique detects the heat and the SAR in the neighborhood of the temperature cell, which then can be computed accordingly. However, this method also seems very difficult technologically.

– Numerical modeling: The numerical modeling of macroscopic bodies enables a numerical simulation, known as the Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD), that can estimate the SAR. However, this process can be time-consuming and expensive.

Possible Health Issues

An EM wave can effect a biological change in living tissue in two ways: Depositing enough energy while passing through the biological material to alter some structures, or depositing packets of energy larger than the bond energy. Yet neither way seems to be possible, for the photon energy within the UHF zone is far less than the bond energy or the energy required to alter a living tissue’s structures. Therefore, many scientists now argue that UHF radiation at subthermal power levels can cause some biological damage.

Due to relatively low exposure levels, relatively small populations, and a lack of reliable dose estimates, proving or disproving the existence of RF exposure’s biological hazards remains an issue for epidemiology (e.g., statistical analysis of health records and animal studies).

Epidemiological Studies

Epidemiological studies were conducted among people who worked in a high frequency environment, such as radar stations. Search criteria were not limited to cellular and personnel communication system (PCS) frequencies. Due to the nature of radar and other military equipment, broader frequency ranges were covered. The epidemiology of cancer and RF radiation includes studies of cancer mortality rates among those exposed to RF energy.

Throughout these studies, people’s records were searched to determine if their cancer was due to RF exposure. These studies were made in various institutions, including the Radar Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the U.S. Navy and Air Force, and the Polish military. There was no conclusive evidence that RF exposure increases the risk of cancer. Also, due to the lack of comparisons with total cancer, it was suggested that RF exposure does not have a strong effect on cancer.

Since brain cancer takes a long time to develop and epidemiological studies tell nothing about future risks, these studies have not proved or disproved that RF exposure increases the risk of cancer.

Animal Studies

Animals are the other source of information that potentially may answer people’s concerns. Experiments have studied rats exposed to certain power levels of RF energy. However, these studies found no link between cell phones and cancer.

In 1999, a Motorola-funded research program concluded that exposing rats to pulse-modulated 837 MHz RF energy, very close to that radiated by a digital cell phone, does not cause or develop brain cancer. A study in April 2000 reported that this conclusion is valid for continuous-wave RF (analog cell phones). But a 1995 study at the University of Washington (Seattle) reported that exposing rats to RF radiation at an average whole-body exposure of 1 W/kg of body weight caused breaks in their brain cells’ DNA, which is an indication of cancer. No other study has confirmed this finding.

Other studies have focused on different aspects of RF radiation rather than brain cancer. They searched animals for certain diseases and noticed an increase in disease rate. However, despite such research findings, animal studies seem to be far removed from human health.

Conclusion

Epidemiological findings and animal studies have neither proved nor disproved the health hazards of mobile phones. A February 2000 essay by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated that: There is currently insufficient scientific basis for concluding either that wireless communication technologies are safe or that they pose a health risk to millions of users. Research activity continues. For example, France’s International Agency for Research on Cancer has received a research project of 8 million euros from the European Commission for a 3-year, wide epidemiological study. Also, the FDA and the Cellular Telephone Industry Association have undertaken a $1 million research project to clarify the health risks of mobile phones.

Meanwhile, some researchers are trying to find the head’s SAR by using electromagnetic simulations (FDTD). So far, they have discovered that it is strongly affected by the cell phone’s position as well as the head’s shape and properties. Therefore phone-makers are trying to design handset designs to reduce the SAR. However, it seems that the debate will remain until scientific proof is confirmed and made available.

• References
• http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/ocd/mobilphone.html.
• IEEE Spectrum. Are Mobile Phones Safe? (August 2000): 23-28.
• Moulder et. al. Cell Phones and Cancer: What is the Evidence for a Connection? Radiation Research Society, 151 (1999): 513-31.

A brief history of lasers

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scientists made many improvements to our life. One of the most important was a more accurate understanding of light, currently defined as traveling electromagnetic waves. Like the ocean’s waves, light also has an amplitude (which determines its power) and a frequency (which determines its color and energy). The better we understand light, the more uses we find for it in our life. For example, today we are faced with many technological devices based on light, such as printers, CD writers and readers, and fiber optic devices for telecommunications.

Many scientists are very interested in photons, for they can be used in communication, computation, and many other fields. Also, many researchers think that the technology of the future will be built on optoelectronics”photons and electrons.

The invention of lasers is a very important step in the science of optics. While lasers started out as a major component of science fiction stories, science fiction is rapidly becoming scientific reality due to continual improvements and discoveries.

Lasers defined

By definition, a laser is amplified light. However, its amplification is very different from a normal amplification, for this amplification makes the photons coherent by causing them to have the same energy and same direction. Such coherence enables a laser light to travel over long distances without diverging. If the laser beam is kept in a dispersionless media, theoretically it can keep the same waist size forever. However, the only media that currently can serve as a dispersionless media is a vacuum.

In a laser system, many atoms have to have electrons in the same high energy levels. If this is the case, any effect that stimulates the atoms’ system will emit coherent light. For the emission to continue, the system should be constructed so that there are always some electrons changing their energy level.

Observing several laser systems will give us a clearer understanding of lasers.

Ruby lasers

The first lasing structure was the ruby crystal (see Figure 1), devised by Dr. T. H. Maiman in 1960. This was a surprising development, for researchers thought that gases would be the first lasers. The ruby crystal is Al2O3 (called sapphire), and has an impurity level of 0.05% Cr+3 ions.

The ruby laser consists of a ruby crystal surrounded by a flash tube enclosed within an aluminum cylindrical cavity that is cooled by forced air. The laser cavity is pumped by a flash light. When the light’s power exceeds a certain limit, it begins to re-excite some ions inside the ruby crystal to higher state. The cavity ends are coated with evaporated silver. However, one side has a lower reflection ability so that some light can pass through it.

Gas lasers

Most elements and many molecules can be made to lase in a gaseous state. The first example of a gas laser is the HeNe (helium neon) laser, as depicted in Figure 2. In a high voltage tube, colliding helium and neon atoms transfer energy to neon atoms, which then assume a meta-stable state. After this, spontaneous emission occurs when neon atoms transit from a higher energy level to lower energy level. Like other lasers, the HeNe laser also needs to have a population inversion. The high population for neon’s meta-stable state is achieved by applying a high voltage to the tube. Although the stimulated emission decreases the number of atoms in the meta-stable state, the high voltage pumps the system back into the population inversion condition.

Having many different wavelengths (colors), HeNe laser are useful for all sorts of applications, from semiconductor technology to construction leveling.

Improvements in semiconductor technology have made many contributions to laser technology. Data storage on CDs, computer, printers, and telecommunication tools are just a few examples of the places where semiconductor lasers are used.

Semiconductor lasers

Three different materials have the properties necessary to serve as electron (carrier) conductors: metals, insulators, and semiconductors. Metals are good conductors for carriers, whereas insulators do not conduct electricity. In a solid state material, electrons stay in the bands determined by the attraction between positive and negative charges (electrons and nucleus). The further band for an electron is called the conduction band. In metals, the conduction band is partially filled, while in insulators the conduction band is totally empty. There is also a very large energy difference between the conduction band the valence band (the band just before conduction band). Thus, a large amount of energy has to be supplied in order to produce some carriers in the conduction band.

Conduction occurs when electrons are present in a conduction band, for they are somehow free in that band. They are not so free that they can escape it, but they are free enough to walk around in it. Research is revealing many other surprises or gifts that the All-Wise Creator has put in front of us.Our discovery of certain materials’ ability to serve as insulators and/or conductors has made our life much easier.

A very important step in the field of semiconductors is the use of optics during experiments. The electron in the conduction band can loose energy by radiating light, and one can use this energy to build lasers. The laser’s wavelength mainly depends on the energy gap between the conduction and the valence bands. If this energy gap is known, researchers can grow appropriate semiconductor structures to lase.

As growth techniques for semiconductors improve, the quality and variety of semiconductor lasers increase. Early semiconductor lasers were built from bulk structures. But after the 1980s, scientists discovered that layering different semiconductors could increase optical efficiency. The commercial state-of-art now is semiconductor quantum well lasers. In these structures, the electron’s mobility is restricted on a plane, giving carriers a two-dimensional freedom. Lasers using quantum dots (quasi-zero dimensional structures with superior optical properties) also have appeared during the last 5 years.

Conclusion

To see how our life will change via improvements in optics, just look at how fast communication has become, thanks to telecommunication lasers. Old thick and slow copper wires are being replaced by fast thin fibers. A computer and a camera gives one access to visual telecommunication via the Internet. All of this used to belong to science fiction. Not any more!

I believe that one we will develop a technology to transport material instantly, as stated in Qur’an: One who had knowledge of the Book said: I will bring it to you within the twinkling of an eye! When (Solomon) saw it placed firmly before him, he said: This is by the Grace of my Lord! – to test me whether I am grateful or ungrateful! If anyone is grateful, truly his gratitude is (a gain) for his own soul. But if any is ungrateful, truly my Lord is free of all needs, supreme in honor! (27:40).

In conclusion, we have to learn how to read the Book of the Universe and to understand it so that we can make even more beneficial discoveries.

References

• Arakawa, Y. and H. Sakaki. Multidimensional Quantum Well Laser and Temperature Dependence of Its Threshold Current. Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, no. 11 (June 1982): 939-41.
• Davis, Christopher C. Lasers and Electro-Optics: Fundamentals and Engineering. Cambridge Univ. Press: 1996.
• Hecht, Eugene. Optics. 4th ed. Addison-Wesley: 2001.
• Hitz, Breck et al. Introduction to Laser Technology. 3d ed. IEEE: 2001.
• http://home.achilles.net/~jtalbot/
• Kirstdter, N. et al. Low Threshold, Large T Injection Laser Emission from (InGa) as Quantum Dots. Electron. Lett. 30, no. 17 (Aug. 1994): 1416-17.
• Ledentsov, N. N. et al. Quantum-dot Heterostructure Lasers. IEEE J. Select. Topics Quantum Electron. 6 (May-June 2000): 439-51.
• Maiman, Theodore. The Laser Odyssey. Laser Press: 2000.
• Svelto, Orazio (ed.). Principles of Lasers. Translated by David C. Hanna. 4th ed. Plenum Publishing Corp.: 1998.

Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattentiveness, impulsivity, and excessive activity (DSM IV; American Psychiatric Association 1994), and has a prevalence rate of 3 percent to 5 percent (Pelham, Wheeler, and Chronis 1998). Children with ADHD also have a high risk of experiencing academic (Henker and Whalen 1989) and social problems in school (Landau and Milich 1988).

ADHD is one of the most prominent expressions used in schools to describe children who do not stay put,” meaning that they have too much energy and excitement during class and recess time. Although these observations could be the results of teacher or staff misperceptions, they also may be symptoms of ADHD, childhood depression, or consequences of an unstructured environment. In most cases, behavior that differs from peers is a combination of the above factors.

However, sometimes we have to identify those with ADHD to serve them appropriately via proper individualized programs and possibly medicine. Longitudinal studies suggest that such children are likely to experience problems related to social functioning at an early age and throughout adolescence and into adulthood (Weiss and Hechtman 1986). These problems can be seen in various situations (e.g., home, school, community), across people (e.g., parents, siblings, teachers, peers) and activities (e.g., academic work, play, recreation) (Carey 1996).

For example, Fischer et al. (1993) studied the behavioral ratings of 108 children meeting research diagnostic criteria for hyperactivity, as well as a control sample of 61 children. They ranged in age of 4 to 12, and were followed over 8 years into adolescence and young adulthood. Those diagnosed as hyperactive remained more deviant in the ratings than the control children during follow-up observations. A decline in deviant behavior was observed for individual children, although the end results were still more deviant than those of the control children.

Hansen, Weiss, and Last’s (1999) more recent longitudinal study produced some encouraging results. This study compared the psychosocial functioning in 18 young adult men who had been diagnosed with ADHD 10 years ago. Their average age at the time of follow-up was 21. The researchers matched their subjects with 18 male controls who had never had any kind of psychiatric illness.

Through the use of interviews to assess subjects’ educational, occupational, residential and marital status, as well as use of mental health services and psychological status (experience of depression, anxiety, drugs and alcohol problems), they discovered that young adults with ADHD were significantly more likely than control subjects to be using mental health services, report psychological problems, and have fathered children. School dropout rates were higher for subjects with ADHD; however, they were likely to attain a graduate equivalency diploma. Men with ADHD had higher rates of trouble with the law; however, they did not differ significantly from controls in terms of current legal problems.

This study gives hope for the future of young adults with ADHD, as they appear to have overcome the various educational and legal difficulties experienced during high school. In the area of psychological functioning, results are consistent with the findings of other longitudinal studies. In general, though, the above studies indicate that we should expect the children with ADHD to continue to have problems in the social domain, since they remained at a disadvantaged state in psychological functioning and still rated behaviorally as being deviant after 8 and 10 years.

Peer relationships

The longitudinal study of Cowen et al. (1973) demonstrates the link between early peer problems and later maladjustment. In this study, children were asked to nominate their peers according to both positive and negative qualifications. Negative nominations of third-grade class peers were found to be the best predictor of psychiatric problems when a follow-up was conducted when the children were 11 to 13 years old. This result indicates the seriousness and consistency of problems experienced in peer relationships as early as 9 years of age.

In addition, peer rejection has been found to correlate with premature dropping out of school, juvenile delinquency, job termination, poor military performance, police contact, and psychiatric hospitalization (Parker and Asher 1987).

However, the difference between correlation and causation needs to be considered when interpreting these studies. In their chapter of Assessment of Children’s Social Status and Peer Relations (1990), Landau and Milich emphasize that linkages found between peer rejection and later difficulties are correlational, and not causal.

Generalization of social skills training programs

There are many social skills training programs designed to increase peer acceptance. Some of the most common are ACCEPTS (not an acronym), ACCESS (not an acronym), Skillstreaming, Think Aloud, ASSET (not an acronym), RECESS (Reprogramming Environmental Contingencies for Effective Social Skills), and PEERS (Procedures for Establishing Effective Peer Relationship Skills) (DuPaul and Eckert 1994). Although these programs are taught as solutions to peer relationship problems, teaching children in isolation and then expecting them to perform successfully in real life is usually not a successful strategy.

DuPaul and Eckert reviewed the literature and found a total of only seven studies that had used commercially available social skills training programs that considered generalizing skills to real-life situations. To assess the generalization over time, those seven studies did follow up assessments 1 to 3 months after treatment ended. The authors concluded this period too brief to be able to assert that intervention is generalized. They stress the effects of treatment being more prominent in those studies using multiple strategies to promote generalization. Among those strategies, teaching social skills within a real environment seemed to be the most fruitful one.

The generalization issues of social skills trainings also are discussed by Carey and Stoner (1994). They suggest considering a technology of applied behavioral analysis and application of strategies to ensure the maintenance of newly learned behaviors reinforced by natural contingencies In this context, applied behavioral analysis is defined as studying what happens in the environment before, during, and after the problematic behaviors’ occurrence, and then rearranging the environmental factors to promote the desired behaviors and suppress the problematic behaviors.

Another similar discussion is found in Moore (1994). She argues that behaviors which are not functional for the child, will not generalize. The behavior’s functionality is defined as how much the behaviors are linked to socially meaningful outcomes or elicit natural reinforcements from the environment. She further states that an increase in social interaction and eliminating negative behaviors do not ensure peer acceptance. Instead, documenting concomitant increases in positive, reinforcing, pro-social behaviors, which have been linked to peer acceptance, popularity, and friendship, was suggested. She also mentions the importance of designing interventions for particular children in particular settings, rather than using a one-size-fits-all program.

Most recently Sheridan, Hungelmann, and Maughan (1999) explained the contextualized framework for the purpose of linking assessment to intervention and generalization planning. They state that identifying target behaviors that are critical for a child to socialize successfully is poorly understood. In other words, behaviors that predict positive social status in immediate social context are unclear, although clinicians and researchers often assume that the skills being taught in structured settings are those that are relevant in places and at times that extend beyond training. However, little empirical research has been done on whether these skills are actually important for children’s abilities to develop and maintain social relationships (Sheridan et al. 1999).

According to Sheridan et al., two methods can be used to select meaningful target skills. The first one is to normatively compare the target child with children considered socially adjusted. This involves listing the behaviors believed to increase peer acceptance and decrease rejection, and comparing the rating of each child in the peer group. This social comparison method allows researchers to determine whether the child’s behavior following intervention is similar to the peers’ behavior.

The second method is template matching, or identifying relevant and meaningful social behaviors based on input from significant others and peers by asking them to identify the most important behaviors for them in a particular social context. Sheridan et al. emphasize doing direct observations of socially desirable behaviors, recording the narrative descriptions, and then collecting them from the social recipients. Then the intervention would focus on decreasing the discrepancy between the template and the target child’s behaviors, utilizing the qualities listed in the template as the intervention’s objectives.

What are the social dynamics?

Hymel (1986) demonstrated that children interpret identical actions in different ways, depending on their liking of the actor. They tend to credit liked peers for positive behavior, and make excuses rather than blame them for negative behavior. Moreover, for children who are disliked, positive behavior is perceived as a result of unstable causes that are unlikely to recur. Children were found to be not so eager to change their perceptions of disliked peers or to expect more positive behaviors from them in the future when they notice behavioral improvements.

In 1949, 24 boys from similar backgrounds were brought to an isolated site to test two hypotheses:

1. When individuals having no established relationships are brought together to interact in group activities with common goals, they produce a group structure with hierarchical statuses and roles.

2. If those artificially formed groups are brought into a functional relationship under conditions of competition and group frustration, reciprocal hostile attitudes and actions will arise across groups.

The results obtained through direct observations of the children’s behavior confirmed those two hypotheses. The study was replicated later with the addition of a new component. Superordinate goals that could be accomplished only by the cooperation of both groups were induced to reduce inter-group tension and integrate the two hostile groups. Sheriff and Harvey reduced the inter-group tension and formed a new group by integrating the two groups back together by creating a problem that would affect both of them negatively.

Conclusion

The above-mentioned empirical studies calls for a reconsideration of the issue, and possibly the addition of new conditions: Children with ADHD are likely to be rejected by their peers and therefore will drop out of school and will be in trouble with law, unless more effective programs specializing in manipulating social dynamics are developed, along with equipping children with ADHD with the necessary social behaviors by using direct instruction and guided practice.

References

• Achenbach, T. M. Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: Univ. of Vermont: 1991.
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
• Bloom, M., J. Fischer, and J. G. Orme. Evaluating Practice: Guidelines for the Accountable Professional. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1999
• Carey, S. P. and G. Stoner. Contextual Considerations in Social Skills Instruction. School Psychology Quarterly 9 (1994): 137-41.
• Carey, J. P. Training Parents To Arrange and Monitor Peer Social Activities for Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Oregon, 1996.
• Cowen, E. et al. Long-term Follow-up of Early Detected Vulnerable Children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 41 (1973): 438-46.
• DuPaul, G. J. and T. L. Eckert. The Effects of Social Skills Curricula: Now You See Them, Now You Don’t. School Psychology Quarterly 9 (1994): 113-32.
• Fischer, M. et al. The Stability of Dimensions of Behavior in ADHD and Normal Children over an
• 8-year Follow-up. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 21, no. 3 (1993): 315-37.
• Hansen, C., D. Weiss, and C. G. Last. ADHD Boys in Young Adulthood: Psychosocial Adjustment. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38:2 (1999): 165-71.
• Henker, B. and C. K. Whalen. Hyperactivity and Attention Deficits. American Psychologist 44 (1989): 216-23.
• Hook, C. L. and G. J. DuPaul. Parent Tutoring for Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Effects on Reading Performance at Home and School. School Psychology Review 28, no. 1 (1999): 60-75.
• Hymel, S. Interpretations of Peer Behavior: Affective Bias in Childhood and Adolescents. Child Development 57 (1986): 431-45.
• Landau, S. and R. Milich. Social Communication Patterns of Attention-deficit Disordered Boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 16 (1988): 69-81.
• Assessment of Children’s Social Status and Peer Relations. In Through the Eyes of the Child, edited by A. M. La Greca. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1990, 259-91.
• Moore, Lisa A. The Effects of Social Skills Curricula: Were They Apparent Initially? School Psychology Quarterly (1994): 9.
• Parker, J. G. and Asher, S. R. Peer Relations and Later Personal Development: Are Low Accepted Children At Risk? Psychological Bulletin 102 (1987): 357-89.
• Pelham, W. E. Jr., T. Wheeler, and A. Chronis. Empirically Supported Psychosocial Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, no. 2 (1998): 190-205.
• Sheridan, S. M., A. Hungelmann, and D. P. Maughan A Contextualized Framework for Social Skills Assessment, Intervention, and Generalization. School Psychology Review 28, no. 1 (1999): 84-103.
• Sheriff, Muzafer and O. J. Harvey. Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman, OK: Institute of Group Relations, 1961.
• Weiss, G. and L. Hechtman. Hyperactive Children Grown Up. New York: Guilford Press: 1986.
• White, Karen J., K. Jones, and Michelle D. Sherman. Reputation Information and Teacher Feedback: Their Influences on Children’s Perceptions of Behavior Problem Peers. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 17, no. 1 (1998): 11-37.

The Biblical account, found in Genesis 2:4-3:24, has been fundamental in religious and social life. As a primal depiction of man and woman and their roles and relationships, it functioned as a constitutive element in establishing social and religious concepts as we know them today.

Two of the most debated topics are Eve’s supposed inferiority to Adam, as she was created from one of his ribs, and that she is a temptress who caused humanity’s fall and expulsion from the Garden by persuading Adam to join her in eating the forbidden fruit.

Islam has a different interpretation of these events.

Male and female equality

While the Qur’an does not mention a rib, it is mentioned in a hadith. However, many experts believe that that particular hadith has been misinterpreted and is not really relevant to this matter. (1)

Whenever the Qur’an discusses humanity’s creation, it focuses not on who was created first or on gender, but on the broader concept of the creation: O men! Fear your Lord Who created you from a single original human self, and out of it created its mate; and out of the two spread many men and women (4:1). The original Arabic for a single original human self is nafs wahida (a single self or soul). Nafs has two cardinal meanings: a being’s self, and the animating energy or faculty that is the source or mechanism of the person’s or jinn’s life. Thus, the preferred translation of nafs wahida is a single original human self.

This translation is supported by other Qur’anic verses: And of His signs is that He created for you, from your selves, mates, that you might repose in them, and He has engendered love and mercy between you (30:21); God has given you, from your selves, mates, and He has given you, from your mates, children and grandchildren (16:72); The Originator of the heavens and Earth; He has given you, from your selves, mates, and from the cattle mates (42:11).

The first couple

O Adam! Dwell you, and your wife, in the Garden, and eat (of the fruits) thereof to your hearts’ content where you desire, but approach not this tree, or you shall both be among the wrongdoers.

The first couple led a life of bounty in the Garden. They did not need to eat the fruit of the forbidden tree. But the tree was a predestined element in the humanity’s life. As humanity is easily tempted into disobedience, the tree was a test. It brought out the weak side of humanity. Adam and Eve knew the risk associated with this act, for God had made it clear to them that Satan was their enemy and what they could expect if they obeyed him.

Then Satan whispered to him, saying: O Adam! Shall I lead you to the Tree of Eternity and to a kingdom that will never waste away? Then they both ate of the tree, and so their private parts appeared to them, and they began to stick on themselves the leaves from the Garden for their covering. Thus did Adam disobey his Lord, so he fell into error(20:120-21).

Notice the pronouns. Eve is not the sole wrongdoer or tempter, as she is portrayed in the Bible and the Torah. The Qur’an holds both Adam and Eve responsible for the mutual disobedience, and casts Satan as the tempter and enemy, for he was the one who whispered to Adam. Rather than blaming and curing the couple, God accepts their repentance and forgives them, saying that they had forgotten and blundered. There is no expulsion from the Garden by a fierce and unforgiving God who hangs a fiery sword above the gate to ensure that they will never return.

In Genesis, Adam blames Eve, and Eve blames the serpent (Satan) for their misfortune. The Qur’an depicts a more modest and mature reaction. There is no blaming, but rather two people admitting their mistake and seeking God’s forgiveness: They said: Our Lord! We have wronged ourselves. If You forgive us not, and bestow not upon us Your Mercy, we shall

certainly be of the losers (7:23).

Humanity is not destined to be banished forever. True, they have been dismissed from it, but they still have the hope of return. Thus, after a period of mourning and regret, God forgave Adam and made him His first Prophet: Then his Lord chose him, turned to him with forgiveness, and gave him guidance (20:122).

The image of Eve

The story of Eve is found in the second creation story in Genesis. After this, the Bible does not mention Eve, the temptress or refer to women of bad reputation as Daughters of Eve. However, the early Church fathers developed this interpretation and imagery, and thus referred to Eve (and women in general) as their first mother who was seduced by Satan and so brought death to humanity.(2)

Tertullian, a second century theologian, reminds women of their shameful legacy: And do you not know that you are (each) an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil’s gateway: you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree: you are the first deserter of the Divine law: you are she who persuaded him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack.

Many people, especially feminist activists, fought against the idea of the Fall because it encouraged society to think of women in very negative terms. Eve (evil) was the primal source of blame for human suffering. Therefore, women must endure pain at childbirth and subjection to their husbands, men must toiland eat the sweat of their brow, and all humanity must taste a bitter death.

The images of these monstrous fertile women with supernatural powers were sealed in the minds of early believers, and contributed to the generally negative attitude toward women. The parallels with Eve’s image are obvious, and their effects can be seen in religious illustrations of the Fall painted during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Ave and Eva

Mary was presented as a substitute for Eve: the new Eve. With her came the hope that humanity could re-enter the Garden. Mary (Ave), the absolute opposite of Eve (Eva), obeyed Gabriel (and through him God); Eve obeyed Satan. Mary was a symbol of innocence and chastity; Eve represented corruptive sexual desire. Mary was the mother of God; Eve was to be the mother of all mortals. Mary brought mercy and salvation; Eve brought death and destruction.

There was an underlying feeling that women (Eve) could be blessed (Mary) if they suppressed their femininity, the alleged source of human weakness and disobedience.Christian women followed the image of Mary to be closer to God. They remained virgins, as virginity was the innocent state of the Garden. Some chose a monastic life, for such a lifestyle enabled them to pursue a somewhat intellectual and active life instead of the traditional role of mother and wife. Such women traveled to the Holy Land, engaged in scholarly dispute with fellow nuns, and enjoyed social respect and authority.

The early Church fathers promoted celibacy over fourth-century Roman society’s objections. Stories about Thecla, a woman who followed Paul’s call to a virgin life, were popular among Roman women. She refused to marry her appointed husband, cut her hair short like a man, and followed Paul as he preached all over the country. Once she was harassed by a king who had her thrown to wild beasts when she refused to comply with his wishes. Her strong belief and Divine protection saved her from this and many other such events.

If all women chose to remain virgins, however, humanity would disappear. The Bible told men to increase and multiply. Jerome, an early Church father, stated that he praised wedlock and marriage, for the result was virgins.

Reform and the woman’s bible

The Protestant Reform, brought on by Martin Luther (1483-1546), led to a critical study of biblical concepts. The Church considered marriage as inferior to virginity, and sexual and domestic relations were shadowed by the interpretations of the Adam and Eve story. However, reformists found Divine sanction for marriage: It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him (Genesis 2:18).

By the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, female moralists and activists were seeking to change society’s view of woman as a victim of sinful nature. They discussed such issues as female education, equal rights to employment, and possession of goods throughout society via literature, poetry, and protest meetings. In her novel Shirley (1849), Charlotte Bronte condemned a social system which requires women to scheme,’ to plot,’ to flirt’ and manoeuvre in order to win a husband.3 Women argued that beliefs like if a woman can cook a dinner or dress herself well she has culture enough were forcing women into being mischievous and empty-minded Eves.

The Woman’s Bible, published in 1895, was a collection of essays written by women opposed to the Bible’s portrayal of women. In one essay, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902) wrote that the Darwinian theory of evolution was less degrading for women than the allegory of Eden.

Conclusion

Unfortunately, human interpretations of holy texts have caused many people to abandon religion, and the truth for which they are searching is often hidden by shadows of ignorance and prejudice. Even worse is that Islam is usually overlooked as a pure source of Divine Knowledge. Ignorance and misrepresentation by Muslims, and prejudice by non-Muslims, have polluted the clear image of Islam’s message: No one can be judged for another’s sins.

Footnotes

1. Found in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.
2. The Qur’an does not mention Eve by name. Various hadiths call her Hawwa (created from a living thing). Muslims honor this wife of the first Prophet and mother of all believers by calling her Mother Hawwa.
3. Pamela Norris, Eve: A Bibliography (New York: New York Univ. Press, 1999), 292.

References

• Al-Hilali, Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (interpreter). Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran.
• Saudi Arabia: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam, 1994.
• Armstrong, Karen. In the Beginning. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.
• Kurucan, Ahmet. Dusunce Kaymalari. Izmir: Kaynak A.S., 1996.
• Kvam, Kristen E., Schearing, Linda S, and Ziegler, Valarie H. (editors). Eve & Adam: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Readings on Genesis and Gender. Bloomington and Indiana: Indiana Univ. Press, 1999.
• Norris, Pamela. Eve, A Bibliography. New York: New York Univ. Press, 1999.

A:Jihad literally means striving or doing one’s best to achieve something, and its practitioners (mujahidin) are those who devote themselves fully to obtaining God’s good pleasure by opposing those forces that seek to defeat His religion and the upholding of His word. It is far more complex and abstract than actual war, known in Arabic as qital.

A major principle of jihad is enjoining good and forbidding evil (amr bi al-ma˜ruf wa nahiy ˜an al-munkar), which involves promoting virtues and trying to block the spread of vices. The Islamic community, introduced by the Qur’an, is envisioned as a model community that makes every effort to exemplify what the Prophet brought to its members: Thus We have made you a community justly balanced, that you might be witnesses for all people, and the Messenger may be a witness for you (2:143).

Aspects of jihad

The first Revelation contained the command Read!, although there was little to read among the Arabs and most of them were illiterate. Thus, many scholars have deduced that this command means that believers should use their intellectual and spiritual faculties to discern God’s acts in the universe and His laws in the universe’s creation and operation, and thereby purify their minds of superstition through acquiring true knowledge based on observation and contemplation.

By satisfying their minds through studying the Divine signs in the universe and cleansing their hearts of sins, people secure a balanced life. Constantly aware of His supervision and of their need to seek forgiveness at all times, people will break their carnal selves’

forbidden desires and, through prayer, be able to do good deeds.

Thus Read! signifies an action. For God’s Messenger, pure and without superstition, it meant he would have to start his mission of informing his people of God’s revelations and how to read the signs in the universe in order to purify their minds of superstition and their hearts of sin. He would enlighten them, intellectually and spiritually, by instructing them in both the Qur’an and the universe: We have sent among you, of yourselves, a Messenger who recites to you Our signs, purifies you, and instructs you in the Book and in the Wisdom, and also instructs you in what you know not (2:151).

People are like raw minerals waiting to be purified and refined by Prophets, who remove the seal from their hearts and ears and lift the veils from their eyes. Thus enlightened, people can understand the meaning of the Divine laws of nature, which are signs of His Existence and Unity, and penetrate into the subtle reality of things and events. Only those who are guided by Prophets can attain the high status that God expects them to attain. Prophets also instruct people in the Book (the Qur’an) and in Wisdom (the Sunna¹).

The Prophet teaches us what we do not know, and we will continue to learn from him about how to purify ourselves from sin until the Day of Judgment. Such great saints as ˜Ali ibn Abu Talib, ˜Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, Imam Ghazzali, Imam Rabbani, Fudayl ibn ˜Iyad, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Bishr al-Khafi, and others who might have been Prophets if God had not ended that function with Prophet Muhammad, have followed this way.

Jihad, which enables believers to keep their belief vigorous and active, has two aspects. The first is the greater jihad, which involves fighting superstition, wrong convictions, carnal desires, and evil inclinations in the pursuit of intellectual and spiritual enlightenment. The second is the lesser jihad, which involves encouraging others to follow this path. While usually understood in a military sense, it is far more than that”it consists of every action done by a believer or a believing community to advance the cause of Islam for His sake by ways of which He has approved. These two aspects cannot be separated, for success in one helps the believer achieve success in the other.

The Prophet perfectly combined these two aspects. Testimonials to his unequalled courage when facing his enemies are found in numerous history books, as are accounts of his spiritual battles during the nights and while fasting. Even though God had forgiven all of his sins, he once asked ˜A’isha, when she thought his persistence in prayer to be excessive: Shall I not be a slave grateful to God? He also would pray: O God, I seek refuge in your pleasure from Your wrath, in Your forgiveness from Your punishment, and with You from You. I cannot praise You as You praise Yourself.

His Companions followed his example as best they could. They were as sincere and humble as dervishes in worshipping God at night. Sincere in their deeds, they did everything only for His sake. If our jihad is to be successful, this is the path that we must follow. We must defeat our pride, self-regard, and insincerity, and strive to acquire self-control, spread the truth to others, overcome our carnal desires and animal impulses, and encourage others to do likewise in order to obtain God’s good pleasure. The Prophet said about these two aspects: The eyes of two people will never witness the fire of Hell: The eyes of the soldier who guards the frontiers and on battlefields, and the eyes of one who cries for fear of God.

In Surat al-Nasr, the Qur’an describes both types of jihad: When the help of God comes, and victory, and you see people entering God’s religion in throngs, then glorify the praise of your Lord, and seek His forgiveness, for He is Relenting, Merciful (110:1-3).

Stages of jihad

After he received the first Revelation, the command Read!, God’s Messenger returned home in excitement. He was sleeping wrapped in a cloak enwrapped by the suffering of people and the heaviness of his responsibility, when God commanded him: O enwrapped one! Keep the vigil the night long, save a little (a half of it or diminish a little or add a little), and recite the Qur’an in measure. For We shall charge you with a word of weight (73:1-5).

The short period between the first revelation and the public preaching was meant to prepare the Prophet for what lay ahead. He was to keep night vigils and recite the Qur’an in measure, because during the night impressions are keener and recitation is more penetrating. Shortly thereafter, it was revealed: O enshrouded one, arise and warn. Magnify Your Lord, purify your robes, and flee defilement. Show no favor, seeking worldly gain. And, for your Lord’s sake, be patient (74:1-7).

Thus was the Prophet ordered to begin his mission. He began with his relatives and nearest kin, and then reached out to his tribe after receiving the revelation: Warn your tribe of nearest kindred (26:214). This was followed by public preaching and various reactions: derision, threats, torture of followers, offers of the most alluring kind, and boycott.

In Makkah, God’s Messenger never resorted to or allowed retaliation, for Islam came only to bring people out of the darkness of unbelief and into the light of belief, to free them from serving that which is not God to serving the One God, and to elevate them from the pit of earth to the height of heaven. Islam also came to establish inner peace, which leads to people being at peace with themselves, with God and nature, and then engenders peace on a global scale. As peace and order are fundamental in Islam, it always seeks to spread peacefully and only uses force as the last resort to maintain its existence against those who seek to maintain the corrupted order they built on injustice, oppression, self-interest, exploitation, the usurpation of others’ rights, and the blocking of freedom of belief.

Some rules related to jihad

Believers cannot exceed the limits established by God. In the case of jihad, some of these rules are as follows:

– As believers have sold themselves to God in exchange for Paradise (9:111), they cannot strive for any causes based upon fame, material gain, and racial or other similar ideological beliefs. They can strive only to attain God’s good pleasure.

– They cannot fight those who do not oppose them, cannot engage in indiscriminate killing and pillage, and must remain honorable while fighting (no deliberate killing of women, children, or the elderly, mutilation of corpses, and destruction of land and crops). Force is to be used only when there is no other choice (2:190).

Conclusion

We must consider jihad in its entirety. Those who say one thing and then do another cause nothing but trouble in the ranks of Muslims. Since they cannot discipline themselves and overcome self-regard, ostentation, and the desire to dominate, they bring only disharmony to the cause of Islam. On the other hand, those who live in almost total seclusion and try to attain some high spiritual station without working to promote the truth reduce Islam to mere mysticism, like certain aspects of yoga. Such people argue that a Muslim’s foremost duty is to acquire spiritual maturity so as to be saved from Hell. What they fail to realize is that those who regard themselves as safe from Hell are deceived, for God decrees that we should continue to serve Him as long as we live (15:99).

Thus we can say that jihad is a balance of internal and external strife. Reaching spiritual perfection and helping others do so are points of consideration. Attaining internal perfection is the greater jihad; helping others attain it is the lesser jihad. When you separate one from the other, jihad is no longer jihad. Indolence is born from one and anarchy from the other. However, we expect one Muhammadan spirit to be born. As is always the case, this is possible only by following and conforming to God’s Messenger. How happy are those who search for a way to salvation for others as much as they do for themselves. And how happy are those who remember to save themselves while saving others.

Footnotes

1. The Sunna is the record of the Messenger’s every act, word, and confirmation, as well as the second source of Islamic legislation and life (the Qur’an is the first one). In addition to establishing new principles and rules, the Sunna clarifies the ambiguities in the Qur’an by expanding upon what is mentioned only briefly in it, specifies what is unconditional, and enables generalizations from what is specifically stated and particularizations from what is generally stated. (Ed.)

For all these reasons I consider Tuesday’s terrorist onslaught against America to be not only an attack against America but also to be an outrageous,despicable sabotage against world peace.Such an atrocity can only be perpetrated by barbaric souls and is inhuman.Besides, terror can never ever be used in the name of Islam or for the sake of any Islamic ends.

A terrorist cannot be a Muslim and a Muslim cannot be a terrorist. A Muslim can only be the representative and symbol of peace,welfare, and prosperity.

Let me clarify this with the analogy of a ship. If nine criminals who have been sentenced to death and one innocent person are on board a ship, Islam does not permit the ship to be sunk in order to punish the criminals, in case the rights of that one innocent person are violated. These rights in Islam are a fact. They may not be ignored. There is no lesser or greater right. An innocent person’s rights may not be sacrificed even for the sake of a whole community. The Qur’an, Islam’s sacred Book, declares that if one takes a life unjustly, it is as if he or she has taken the lives of the whole of humankind, and if one saves a life, it is as if he or she has saved the lives of all. Also, our Prophet Muhammad says that a Muslim is one who does no harm with either his or her tongue or hand.

For this reason, I strongly condemn the terrorist actions which were carried out on Tuesday, the biggest terrorist onslaught the United States has suffered in its history. I strongly condemn such atrocities no matter from whom they came and no matter their intentions or aims. Such acts deserve only hatred and condemnation and should be despised and condemned by all.

I extend my most sincere condolences and deepest sympathy to all those who lost their relatives and to all American authorities and statesmen, along with all American people.

Condolence message by Fethullah Gulen released to press on September 12, 2001, right after the terrorist attacks on the USA.

At first, air seems to be quite simple” gaseous mixture of atoms, ions, and molecules; 78.1 percent nitrogen, 20.8 percent oxygen, and some trace amounts of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, and krypton, just like spice and salt for a meal. So far, nobody has disliked this meal,’ whose mysteries and secrets are revealed upon investigation.

Air as a Light Source

Air is a mirror that illuminates our surroundings. We cannot read a book or a magazine in outer space, for there is no illumination there. Outer space is a vacuum. Since it contains no molecules or atoms off which the sun’s light and heat can reflect, its darkness cannot be pierced. Since the moon has no atmosphere or layer of gaseous matter to scatter the sun’s light beams, its surface is bright but the space just above it is dark. The Creator of the sun and the eye also created the atoms and molecules in the air and put them at our disposal so that we could see.

Now let’s analyze air, since we depend upon it for our very lives. We inhale oxygen with every breath, and once in our body it burns our food and thereby provides the energy for all bodily functions and maintains bodily heat. It exits through the throat, mouth, and teeth in the form of words.

Nitrogen, the largest component of air, dilutes the concentration of oxygen and makes the air we respire more pleasant. Without it, oxygen would be hazardous and irritating to our lungs. Nitrogen also is a natural fertilizer absorbed by soil and passed onto various micro-organisms in the soil and then to plants. As a result, one of our basic nutrition source components is produced: proteins. This flow of nutrition from plants to animals to people is a fascinating example of mutual benefit and co-operation.

Carbon dioxide, another gas, has only a trace (0.03 percent) presence in air. And yet every year, with the help of plants, it is used to synthesize billions of tons of sugar in a process known as photosynthesis. Plant leaves absorb carbon dioxide, the roots absorb water, and when sunlight is added the final product is glucose, the vital food for every living organism.

Oxygen is another by-product. The resulting energy produced by burning glucose enables all bodily cells to function. Photosynthesis stores the energy from the sun as bond energy between carbon atoms in the sugar. Thus the sun is our food source, as the Qur’an points out: And if you ask them who sends down rain from the sky and gives life therewith to Earth after its death, they will reply, Allah!’ Say: Praise be to Allah!’ But most of them do not understand (29:63).

Let’s travel in the atmosphere to learn more about this Divine source of resources. Now we are 10 kms above Earth’s surface. We cannot breathe here, and so must use our oxygen tanks. At 13 kms, we start to feel a great pressure that almost causes our eyes and blood vessels to burst.

The Unfelt Load

The gases forming the air apply a pressure of 1 kg per cm2 on our skin. The resulting air pressure plays the biggest role in the meteorological events, for strong storms and hurricanes occur when there is a 1 percent change in it. All living things live comfortably and unconsciously with this pressure.

As we go higher into the atmosphere, the density of gases and atmospheric pressure decrease. Also, the pressure of our bodily fluids rises (our bodies are 75 percent water) so much so that we might wonder if they will vaporize or rush out of our bodies. The air has a great weight, although we think the opposite. Most of us do not know that air applies a pressure equal to 1 kg on a fingertip-sized part of our bodies. We do not feel such pressure”calculated to equal 15 tons of air”because its Creator balances it with an inner pressure that is equally intense. Any disturbance in this balance threatens human life. This is why people cannot live at high altitudes, why mountaineers experience severe headaches and nosebleeds, and why astronauts have to wear pressurized space suits.

Layers of Atmosphere

Scientists divide the atmosphere into several layers, each of, which is unique in terms of its heat, pressure, humidity, and the events taking place within it. The first layer is the troposphere, which extends as high as 16 kms above sea level. This layer, which features the perfect circulation of air and matter, is the home for such events as rain, snow, and wind. At its upper edge, its temperature can reach -56’C.1

But the Owner of the universe, following His own rules, makes the atmosphere work as a giant water distribution center. Light breezes circulate thousands of tons of water (as clouds) and guide the water to the soil that needs it. Air’s circulation is moderated so perfectly that no area is ever always wet or dry, and even deserts and rainforests receive what they need to survive.

As Earth’s axis has a slant of about 23′, northern countries receive less energy than southern countries. The result of this seeming disparity in energy levels is the efficient flow of hot air to colder areas so that each area has its energy needs met. Hot air forms low pressure systems as it rises, while cold air forms high pressure systems as it sinks. Wind patterns blow cold air to the south and hot air to the north, forming an ideal system that spreads water vapor, as well as heat, energy, and even pollen, throughout the globe according to need. All of this allows the storage of heat at the equator in the form of energy to spread air and wind around the planet”a sort of global heat machine programmed by its Creator to serve life.

Air temperature drops by 0.61’C for every 100 meters increase in altitude.2 When the ascending air goes into troposphere (the kitchen of the atmosphere), its steam condenses into small droplets. Then clouds, a sign of God’s Mercy, start to form. The thin droplets in these clouds transform into separate ice crystals whenever the temperature drops below 0’C, just like a large army, and fall to Earth as snow.

While doing all of this, the air in our lungs and veins helps to weave colorful motifs on each plant’s leaves and blossoms. While bringing rain with clouds, it conveys pollen from one flower to another. On its weak shoulders it carries tons of water as well as airplanes, spreads light and transports heat, and brings sounds of all frequencies to our ears and many different smells to our noses. No mistake is ever made.

In warm weather, air’s lightness and gentle blowing bring subtle and deep meanings to our heart’s ear. Sometimes it assumes the form of a storm, a blizzard, or a tornado that rips apart everything in its path to warn those who do not understand its acts and do not thank God for the blessings it conveys. Through such events, people understand their weakness and turn to their Creator. Those who read and ponder the Book of Universe carefully, especially the page for air, observe such events as Divine indications of truth or warnings that should be heeded.

An Amazing Filter

The troposphere, the atmosphere’s first layer, is 8 kms thick at the poles and 17 kms thick at the equator. Its highest point is around 22 kms. After this comes the stratosphere, which is about 50 kms thick and has a higher temperature. This layer prevents the sun’s high energy radiations from reaching Earth. The ozone layer, which is vital for life on Earth, is located in the stratosphere. Ozone, which filters the sun’s hazardous rays, is a compound made of three oxygen atoms. The ultraviolet rays convert oxygen molecules into ozone by combining with oxygen.

Some human-made chemical products harm the ozone layer and thus enable ultraviolet rays to reach Earth’s surface. One result has been an anomalous increase in cancer rates, as high-energy ultraviolet rays have very short wavelengths and thus can potentially break the bonds of DNA molecules. These waves, if they reach Earth, also heat up Earth’s atmosphere. An increase of 10 C is enough to cause blood and sap to boil.

Thus we can understand the ozone layer’s role in maintaining this very sensitive balance. Those who claim that such perfection is casual are unable to read the signs God sends to His creatures.

A Comparison

To appreciate these blessings, consider the moon: Its diurnal temperature reaches 120’C, while its nocturnal temperature plunges to -150’C. It is a desolate, silent, and dead place constantly afflicted by meteor showers and ultraviolet rays. This does not happen on Earth, because the carbon dioxide and water molecules in its atmosphere absorb the sun’s excess radiation. This limits the temperature rise during the day and preserves heat for the night. The atmosphere screens hazardous radiation from the sun during the day and preserves the temperature at night. This roof’ gives our planet a moderate climate, while other planets suffer from extreme temperatures.

The water in oceans and seas, which cover approximately 75 percent of Earth’s surface, regulates Earth’s climate. It protects the land from the freezing polar climate and from the scorching temperature of the tropics. Land easily radiates the energy absorbed from the sun’s radiation and thereby ensures a moderate climate.

Although the oceans and seas face higher radiation rates, it is hard to raise their temperatures. Millions of solar calories from the sun are needed to raise the water’s temperature by only a couple of degrees Celsius. Also, this water does not cool easily. This resistance to temperature change enables it to regulate the climate and provide water to the land via evaporation. If the land-sea/ocean ratio were lower, Earth would be full of deserts. Given this, how can we not see the plan of the Artist who created the universe with infinite wisdom?

Meteors

The next level, the mesosphere, extends for the next 80 kms.3 It protects Earth from the meteors that used to scare the Vikings. This is vital, for many meteors fall to Earth every day, as Earth’s gravitational pull attracts them. Also known as shooting stars, they disappear when they enter the atmosphere, for the combination of great speed and atmospheric air reduces them to dust. Without this shield, we would face the meteors every day, just as the astronauts who visited the moon discovered. This dust then goes on to form clouds by joining with water particles until a certain density is reached and the resulting mercy of rain falls to Earth according to a physical and mathematical plan.

A Mirror for Radio Waves

Now we come to the ionosphere, which extends for the next 400 kms. Here, all particles have either a negative or a positive electrical charge.

People were astonished when the wireless radio was invented. However, scientists saw a huge problem: Since radio waves must travel on a straight path, and Earth is a sphere, they could travel only 100 kms. But in 1901, England and Canada were able to communicate via wireless radio across the Atlantic ocean because particles in the ionosphere have an electric charge that makes them reflect radio waves coming from Earth back to Earth. The ionosphere was seen to be like a large echo chamber in space.

Thus we see that God took the needs of all centuries into consideration when creating Earth. As our knowledge increases, we discover what He placed there at the time of creation to benefit us at a later date.

Magnetic Shield

Next comes the exosphere, which extends another 2,000 to 3,000 kms. Here, there is almost no air and friction. Molecular collisions gradually decay, and the relative meaning of temperature no longer applies. Thus most satellites are placed in orbit at this layer.

A compass always points north on Earth because of the magnetic field lines. If we follow this direction, we reach the North Pole. Such knowledge enables us to navigate on land, sea, and air quite easily.

The poles are situated at opposite ends of a hypothetical axis passing from the middle of a hypothetical circle forming the equator. But they are only geographical”not magnetic”poles. The magnetic North Pole is located at the edge of the Ellef Ringes islands in northwestern Canada, 1,290 kms south of the geographical North Pole. The magnetic South Pole is located at Adelie Land in Antarctica. There are various explanations, but no solutions, about what causes these magnetic fields. One theory claims that magnetic field lines (Van Allen Belts) surround the Earth because of the hot liquid iron and nickel at its center.

This layer, the seventh, largest, and final layer, functions as a magnetic shield. The magnetosphere consists of belts formed by magnetic densities. The closest belt to Earth is 4,000 kms distant. The second belt is 16,000 kms distant and can effect things up to 30,000 kms distant. These invisible belts catch and prevent dangerous cosmic rays and charged particles from entering the lower levels by changing their direction. Thus these cosmic rays (having the force of atomic bombs) and solar winds (high-energy electron-carrying atoms) do not reach Earth. Before any of the atmosphere’s properties were discovered, the Owner of Earth and the sky told us about the atmosphere’s shielding: And We have made the sky a roof withheld (from them). Yet they turn away from its portents (21:32).

The Balance in the Atmosphere

Atmospheric gases, because of their nature, seek to scatter into space while gravity works to pull them down and keep them. However, a perfect balance ensures that neither development will happen. Using Earth’s mass, radius and gravity, and several other factors, the precise calculations and adjustments that maintain this balance are beyond even the imagination of humanity.

If Earth were closer to the sun, its air would be hotter and these hot gases would rise and leave the atmosphere. If Earth were further away from the sun, they would be pulled down onto Earth’s surface. If gravity were a little more or less than its current value, the same situation would occur. In addition, the incoming heat must be held for some time. This is done by carbon dioxide.

And yet our planet is a warm and lighted home moving rapidly in cold, dark space. In this home, we have everything we need. To appreciate what we have, all we have to do is compare it with the moon. Do those who seek the source of these actions in blind nature or unconscious and unintelligent reason know that they must assume that all lifeless and unconscious particles must have the knowledge of how to create the universe; how to meet every need and action of all parts of existence (especially of humanity), and also have absolute power to make these processes function with complete perfection for all of eternity?

Footnotes

1. www.geog.ouc.bc.ca/physgeog/contents/7b.html.
2. Ibid.
3. www.onlineastronomy.com/astr161/lect/earth/atmosphere.html.

A point of Divine Unity*

In His Name, be He glorified.

There is nothing but it glorifies

Him with praise.

My dear and faithful brothers and sisters! While reflecting on air during a mental journey, a subtle point related to Divine Unity suddenly became clear to me in the word He in There is no deity but He and Say: He is God. I observed that the way of belief is so easy as to be necessary, and that the way of misguidance and associating partners with God is so difficult as to be inconceivable. I shall explain this comprehensive matter briefly.

A handful of soil serves as a flowerbed for hundreds of flowers. If this process is attributed to nature or causality, each handful must contain hundreds of minute machines or factories [to produce the flowers] and an immaterial factory [to determine and govern their lives in place of the Divine Knowledge and Destiny]. Or, each particle must know how to make each flowers different characteristics and living elements. In other words, each particle would possess infinite knowledge and power, both of which are unique to God.

Each air molecule (a conductor of Divine Will and Command) in each gust, each shift of air making the sound He, must have minute centers, exchanges, receivers, and transmitters of all human means of communication so that each air molecule could perform those countless acts simultaneously. Or, each particle or molecule must control all relevant faculties (of mind, spirit, personality, etc.) of all means ofcommunication, know their users languages, and transmit them to the other particles simultaneously. Unbelievers, naturalists, and materialists ask us to believe this impossibility.

(If attributed to the Majestic Maker, however, all air particles become soldiers under His Command. Through their Creators permission and Power, their connection to and reliance on Him, and the manifestation of their Makers Power, they perform their innumerable universal duties as easily as if they were one particle with only one duty.)

Their duties are performed instantly, and with the ease of uttering He and the movement of air. And so air becomes a page for the Pen of Powers endless, wonderful, orderly inscriptions. Its particles become the Pens ribs, and the particles duties become the points inscribed by the Pen. All of this is done with the same ease as it takes to move one particle.

While observing and studying the world of air, I saw this truth clearly and in detail. I realized with a certainty based on knowledge that this is so because the actual word He and its utterance are both brilliant proofs and gleams of Divine Unity. I understood that its meaning and resonances contain a radiant manifestation of Divine Oneness and strong proof of Divine Unity. Moreover, that proof contains an indication to the identity of the One to Whom the indefinite, third-person, singular pronoun He refers. I came to know that both the Quran of Miraculous Expression and those who constantly recite the Divine Names frequently repeat this sacred word to express Divine Unity.

If several points are jumbled around one, it is almost impossible to distinguish that point. If you do several jobs simultaneously, you will be confused. If a living creature is loaded with many burdens at once, it will be crushed. If you listen to or say many words simultaneously, they become confused and muddled.

However, I saw with a certainty based on clear observation that although thousands of points,letters, and words are deposited in each air molecule ” even in each particle ” they are conveyed without confusion or irregularity. Also, the air performs its duties simultaneously and without confusion. Each air molecule or particle bears heavy burdens without lagging behind or displaying any weakness. Also, I witnessed countless words enter ears and leave mouths with perfect order.

(By carrying out all of its extraordinary duties, each particle and air molecule proclaims in the tongue of its being and functioning, in ecstasy and perfect freedom, and through its testimony: There is no deity but He and Say: He is God, the One. All of them travel among air-clashing waves like lightning and thunderstorms in perfect order and harmony.)

Given this, can we assert seriously that each particle or air molecule necessarily has infinite wisdom, knowledge, will, power, and all qualities needed to dominate all other particles so that it can perform those functions? Or, from a position of certainty based on knowledge, clear observation, and personal experience, can we assert logically that air functions here as a changing page for the Pen of Power and Destiny, used by the All-Majestic One with infinite knowledge and wisdom, and as a signboard (the Tablet of Abrogation and Confirmation) reflecting a changeable copy of the Divine decrees preserved on the Supreme Preserved Tablet?

Air shows the above-mentioned wonders and manifestation of Divine Oneness by transmitting sound, and shows the impossibility of what the misguided assert. In the same way, it performs other duties (e.g., transmitting such subtle forces as electricity and light, attraction and repulsion) while simultaneously transmitting sound. It also carries out duties essential for plant and animal life (e.g., respiration and pollination) with perfect order and without confusion.

Air is a very important means of conveying the Divine Will and Command. It performs its duties without any real or imagined interference from random chance, blind force, deaf nature, confused and aimless causality, or powerless, lifeless, and unknowing matter. I also understood that each particle and air molecule proclaims in the tongue of its being and functioning: There is no deity but God and Say: He is God, the One. Just as I witnessed these wonders in the physical aspect of air with the key of He, so air itself became a key, like He, to the World of Symbols or Ideas and the World of Meaning.

Peace be upon everybody!

* Adapted from Bediuzzamans Thirteenth Word.

As this news spread throughout the world, people began to ask if one day a human being could be cloned. Certainly, at least in theory, it seemed possible. Some people even claimed that it would be a good idea to clone such geniuses as Einstein and others who had passed away. On the other hand, others argued that such knowledge could lead to cloning such people as Hitler, and that this was reason enough never to open the door to this potentially dangerous technology. 

The role of environment

But is DNA everything? Is DNA the only item that makes us human? Case studies of same egg twins’ show that there is more to us than DNA. Researchers have noticed that such twins, despite having the same DNA and being brought up mainly in the same environment and the same manner, somehow follow different paths, acquire unique personalities, and show evidence of different characteristics, although they may show similarities during childhood. Thus we can see that environment is an important factor on human behavior.

Used in this context, environment refers to the surrounding society, culture, belief, and moral values in other words, that which separates human beings from animals. DNA, the acronym used for a person’s genetic code, plays the key role in the beginning of any biological life form. This key molecule functions similarly in both animals and plants to produce living cells.

Human beings have a special life-giving feature: the soul. Although its nature remains a mystery, its existence is felt deeply in the conscience and gives us a distinct nature that is not shared by non-human life forms. Although a person’s first biological body is evident in the DNA even before it assumes an identity, it is the soul that determines his or her character and temper. Another shaping factor that should not be underestimated is the surrounding society (e.g., family, school, and economy) that unites with the soul and contours the body.

The era in which one lives also has a role in determining one’s character. Given that a society is made up of individuals, it is subject to changes in moral values over time. Thus it is quite likely that if Einstein or Hitler were cloned, the resulting person would be an ordinary contemporary man who is obsessed with sports cars and the Internet, and a man who carries his cellular phone wherever he goes.

What made Hitler a monster was the era and society in which he lived, not his genes. What made Einstein a genius was the chance to explore and use his own capabilities and intelligence. It is quite certain that genes are the sole parameters that affect a person’s intelligence and other intellectual features. In addition, the wonderful and unknown nature of a human being would be more conclusive and understandable if the complex interactions between the spiritual properties and cultural effects were taken together as a whole.

The role of the soul

People can be cloned. In fact, clones that are biologically similar and yet behaviorally unique would be the best proof of the soul’s existence. Since the soul cannot be cloned, as it issues from a different world, cloning a person’s body may not be that dangerous. But it also would not make any sense. Moreover, the cloned individual could end up as a dangerous animal.

Consider the following example of inter-species breeding: When a horse and a donkey are mated, the resulting animal is a non-fertile hybrid. If a female horse and a male donkey are mated, the result is a non-fertile mule. If a male horse and a female donkey are mated, the result is a smaller and weaker animala hinny. But since half of the DNA comes from each animal and thus each hybrid offspring has the same DNA, how can this difference be explained? Obviously, the DNA contained within the mitochondria of the female horse’s egg cell makes a huge difference.

Other issues

The patent dilemma: The patent (copyright) system prevents any illegal copying and imitating and ensures that the actual researcher and inventor is rewarded. Drugs and chemical substances are the most patented items in medicine. After a large portion of the human DNA puzzle was solved, the issue of how to patent this information was put on the American agenda.

President Clinton declared that most parts of human DNA had been determined. However, such information was not to be placed in the hands of humanity at large, for the pharmaceutical companies had spent vast sums of money to produce this information. Also, it would be a serious violation of basic commercial sense for the companies to just give this information to the general public for free.

In addition, paying for the copyrights to acquire the technology does not mean that you are totally free to with it what you want, for these same copyrights limit the usage of that particular technology. This means that if cures are found for AIDS, cancer, and other currently incurable diseases, only the wealthy will be able to afford them.

Determining does not mean understanding: DNA consists of exons and introns. Exons form the meaningful parts of DNA by uniting with each other. We call the result genes. Introns are the non-meaningful parts of DNA. What is interesting here is that these non-meaningful introns make up 97 percent of all DNA. One wonders if they have functions, other than protecting and shielding the meaningful parts from external radiation and ultraviolet light, that are unknown to contemporary scientists? For example, each human cell contains about 4 meters of DNA chain in its nucleus. Surprisingly, introns and exons are represented by the same symbolic letters (A, C, G, and T), so determining the DNA chain is nothing more than a new beginning. The more important task is to identify the genes made of exons, which are non-trivially embedded into the introns.

The exact number of human genes remains unknown. According to some scientists, this number is either 25,000 or 32,000. Determining the DNA chain written with a four-letter alphabet is like trying to determine the meaning of an ancient inscription. Just seeing what it looks like does not mean that one can read it, for the latter is far more difficult than the former. This suggests that just determining the DNA chain is not enough, and that truly understanding the genes and their exact locations requires more time.

Conclusion

Human DNA has been determined, but we must remember that there are as many combinations as there are people. Also, the claim that DNA has been determined’ is true only for a select group of people. Human DNA differs from race to race, society to society, and even from disease to disease. Thus it will take more time to develop a full comparative table of human DNA. It would be great if our current technology somehow could devise a single formula to represent the gene map of every individual.

References

• Anderson, Kenneth N. (ed.), Lois E. Anderson (ed.), and Walter D. Glanze. Mosby’s Medical Dictionary. 5th ed. Mosby Year Book, Inc.: 1997.
• Erturk, Hikmet, DNA Her Sey mi?’ Siziniti, no. 269 (June 2001): 228-29. Translated by Emrah Altunkaya.

According to the author, Islams response to modernity has passed through three stages: revivalism, reform (including nationalism), and fundamentalism. Each has emerged from the former ones failure: the inability to achieve true independence, self-sustaining economic and scientific infrastructures, and a realistic alternative to a now-globalized system that marginalizes and ignores the Muslim world.

Lawrence builds his book around several arguments. First, Islam and being Muslim are not synonymous with being Middle Eastern Arabs, who are a minority within the fold of Islam. Second, the Islamic world is not a unified bloc, as shown by failures at attempts to unify individual countries or even to agree on what constitutes real Islam. Thus there is no basis for the Wests fear of a so-called clash of civilizations. Lawrence maintains that the likelihood of this happening is as remote as Canada, the United States, and Mexico uniting because they profess Christianity.

Third, fundamentalism has surged since the 1970s because of the failure of Arab nationalism, the use of oil money to create dependent rentier states, and the success of the Iranian revolution (1979). Other reasons include an omnipresent nation-state structure that blocks all outlets of legitimate protest, as well as the practices of every party trying to justify itself in terms of Islam because that is the most effective rallying cry.

Fourth, fundamentalists are mainly educated urban or newly urbanized young men who have little hope of finding a job after graduation, instead of the stereotypical types often presented in the media. Frustrated and angry, yes; but far from being uneducated, illiterate, and easily swayed by demagogues. What attracts them to fundamentalism is its black-and-white nature and its promises of a better and more just future. Unfortunately, fundamentalism preaches idealism and utopia, is destructive instead of constructive, and offers no viable alternative (Iran being the sole exception).

Throughout this book, Lawrence maintains that Iran is worth watching, for it is the social laboratory in which Islam is grappling with modernity on a daily basis. Another Muslim country worth watching is Malaysia, which has moved jihad from the battlefield to the economic and development plane by striving to become a fully modern industrialized nation by 2020. It appears to be the first Muslim country actively trying to disprove the assertion that Islam precludes such a transformation.

The author also discusses the role of women, a favorite media topic. Basing himself on several geographically distinct Muslim countries, he concludes that attempts to restrict women to the home, while often justified in Islamic terms by a patriarchal sociopolitical order, reflect the fact that there are not enough jobs to go around even for men. As long as the army remains one of the few ways of social and economic advancement, economies do not develop and expand, modern technical education remains beyond reach for most young people, and skilled foreign workers are hired because there are not enough trained local workers, this problem will persist.

Lawrence has done the reading public a great service by reaching beyond stereotypes and lazy scholarship to give us a much more realistic view of the Muslim world and its inhabitants.