A: Genuine knowledge (ilm) is a source of infinite light covered with truth, which leads enlightened people toward the righteous path. Modern science is built and developed upon existing information gained through experimentation and correcting previous errors. In general, science represents theories and hypotheses that we devise and pursue in order to acquire knowledge. From this point of view, knowledge and science are not the same and must not be considered as synonyms. For example, sometimes ilm is mistranslated as science, because the translators do not take into consideration the genuine meanings of the words. This mistake can be excused when it is made by the general population, who might not be aware of the difference; however, we expect scientists and professionals to use these terms correctly, according to their core meanings, so that their different meanings become obvious and clear.

Knowledge is born and developed between our hearts and minds. On the contrary, science is totally material, belongs to this world and all physical beings, and depends fully upon Earth’s natural rules. Science is born through theories, and its continued development always engenders doubt. Initially, science was built on rationalism and developed through positivism. It sprouts in the world of the five senses, and continues its life with reference to the theoretical mind. Most of the time, science rejects things that cannot be seen or heard. In fact, its eyes are blind to the concealed meaning of existence, and its ears cannot hear it. Modern science accepts only those objects and events that can be perceived by the five senses.

Scientific developments in the classical Islamic world have had a tremendous influence upon the achievements of modern science. Several Western scholars and writers, among them Maurice Bucaille, Jacques Cousteau, Alex Carrel, Thomas Carlyle, and Roger Garaudy agree with this fact, and state that the West totally owes all its achievements to the East. Andalusia, a Muslim state in Spain, was a perfect example of this process. In some cases, Western scientists considered the roots of the knowledge derived from the East to be abstract theories, and so they did not consider what they had given to humanity and upon what basics and pillars they had been built.

The West has mixed its materialistic ideas in the development of these ideas and sciences, and by restricting their analysis only to subjectivity, they alienated the roots from their origins. As a result, religion in the West was confined to the church and people could learn about their religion only when they came to the church to participate in religious ceremonies. Thus religion could not enter fully into the people’s lives. In fact, after Constantine, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, proclaimed Christianity to be the empire’s official religion in 315, the government strictly controlled its all relations with life. This approach toward religion was a bad luck for Christianity. The first 3 centuries of Christianity was the best time for this religion, despite the severe pressure that it faced, for it was a time of blossoming and purity. After became the official religion, Christians no longer faced oppression. However, the religion fell under the control of the government and was corrupted. According to the state, religion belonged in the church, and while people occasionally would come to the church to practice their religion, they could not make it an intimate part of their life. As a result, Christianity was divorced from everyday life, society had to accept that there was life without religion, and that there was religion without life. Given this reality, scientific research and implications had nothing to do with Christianity, and that religion became a moral institution whose only responsibility and activities were the ceremonies connected to birth and death.

The West’s scientific roots lie in the classical Greek and Roman civilizations. This knowledge was incorporated into the Islamic civilization, whose scholars and scientists developed it, made original contributions to it, and passed it on to the West. Unfortunately, Western scientists developed modern science as an independent enterprise completely separate from religion. Thus, its scientific development was built of unbelief and differs dramatically from the understanding of science and knowledge in the East.

On the other hand, knowledge and science flourished for centuries in the Islamic world. Some of its luminaries are Jabir, Ibn al-Haytham, al-Khawarizmi, al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina, and al-Farabi. Ancient Greek scholars claimed that the smallest particle of being is an atom. However, theologian Ibrahim al-Nazzam (d. 835/845) said that substance could be divided into pieces an infinite number of times, and spoke as a modern scientist who would say the same thing today. If we look at this from the theory of particles, it would be clear that al-Nazzam’s statements are true.

Muslim scholars never rejected or separated their inventions and discoveries from religion. Rather, knowledge and science reinforced their belief and understanding of religion. Even though they argued about various scientific matters, their attitude toward religion never differed from one another. For example, a Muslim physician-scholar like al-Razi had mystically spiritual intellect. Muslim scholars explored the universe in the name of The Creator, and every single discovery and invention brought a new passion, a new enthusiasm, and a spirit of new devotion. That is why they always traveled in the horizons of is there any more? and they lived in a state of continual passion of searching for the truth.

It is true that Muslim scholars understanding of knowledge developed their understanding of religion and created metaphysical tension in their lives. Several Qur’anic verses, such as: Behold! In the creation of the heavens and Earth, and the alternation of night and day, are Signs for men of understanding(3:190), always attracted Muslim scholars. Using such verses to inspire them, they devised their theories with a feeling of prayer toward God and built their knowledge upon a foundation of such an understanding and approach. Muslim scientists explored the heavens and Earth in the light of such verses, and learned and researched the relationship between the universe and Earth, such as the connection between a flower and the sun, the association of the smallest animals and living things to the sunlight, and so on. As a result of this approach, and by reciting the Qur’n while studying the universe (the Book of Existence), Muslim scholars strengthened their faith in and closeness to God.

However, due to today’s materialistic theories, Western scientists will never be free of the fear, anxiety, and unexpected surprises that might arise in their fields even though they reach the heavens and continue to solve the mysteries of the universe. On the contrary, Muslims believe that they can build castles even in the center of black holes, for: God’s Existence, Divine Beauty, and Power are behind everything. Perhaps black holes are no more than dark hallways toward brightness and light. As we enter the grave and come out of it toward Paradise, these undesired and unwanted black holes just might be bridges between the heavens and this world.

Western society, confined within the limits of discoveries and scientific inventions, cannot see the true beauty of the material world. But Muslim scholars and scientists, while learning and exploring life by means of Divine guidance and assistance, could read the wisdom and hidden purposes behind the things and events occurring in the material world and see God’s Divine Power behind everything in the universe. For example, consider the Islamic point of view toward the human face and appearance. Muslims never attributed such things to nature, which is unconscious and blind, but rather saw in that wonderfully beautiful human complexion the reflection of The Most Merciful and The Most Compassionate God. By seeking to increase their limited understanding, they made the limited unlimited and decorated simple mirrors with the most beautiful crafts and designs. From this point of view, Muslim scientists had the chance to see hidden wisdom and knowledge side by side, and could observe and witness clearly the things and events that were taking place in the material world.

The following Qur’anic verse describes such people: He grants wisdom to whomever He wills, and the one to whom wisdom is granted receives a benefit overflowing. However, none will grasp the Message but men of understanding (2:269). Such people with intellect can see the concealed wisdom. People who look to the universe without the glasses of wisdom and concealed truth see and observe things as unreasonable and useless.

Islam understands ilm to be that knowledge that was built and developed upon these fundamental basis. As a matter of fact, Islam considers the purpose of knowledge as bound to knowledge about God, His Divine Power, and His All-Mighty Wisdom. The result of knowing God is love for God, and the result of this love is spiritual happiness. Given this reality, Muslim scholars and scientists do not feel anxiety and hopelessness, for as they pursue their studies, they discover new existences, feel closer to God, and varying degrees of spiritual peace. For those who study the universe from such perspectives, knowledge is the way to reach material and spiritual happiness; for those who follow the path of materialism, knowledge can become the way to see the undesired consequences of existence and the final end of the universe. Such knowledge will cause them to be in a state of constant unhappiness.

For those who do not know The Most Merciful and The Most Compassionate Lord of the universe, the sun will burn out in 5 billion years. Such knowledge will spread fear into their hearts, for they will think that œafter the sun burns out, the horrible end of the worlds will begin and we will dissolve into atomic pieces and face non-existence. They will suffer from being a part of this universe. In short, following a materialistic approach to science results in hopelessness, fear, and disappointment. At this point, knowledge (in the Islamic context of this world and the Hereafter) gives confidence, and science (in the materialistic context of being limited to what the five senses can perceive) gives hopelessness. Thus, the two contradict each other. Those who follow the path of knowledge, by His help and guidance, always will walk in enlightenment and will never be disappointed or have doubts about the future.

In order for such things to happen, all of the aspects of knowledge (ilm) and science must be taken into consideration. That is why many modern scholars and scientists are trying to change and direct existing materialistic theories and approaches toward the Islamic understanding of knowledge and science. A number of them are convinced that the contemporary Western approaches are based upon unbelief and that they cannot be changed. If materialistic science makes no effort to find God, and if it does not strive to become a mirror showing His Divine Beauty, humanity’s future may be unexpectedly dramatic.

In our increasingly diverse societies, we interact with people of different faiths. At times, this poses a great challenge: something deeply sacred and true for one faith might be in stark contrast with what is true in another religious tradition. How can we share our values in such a way that the true messages of our different faiths benefit people from other religious traditions? Interfaith dialog is a means for achieving this greater goal by persons of different faiths meeting to have a conversation. But dialog is not debate. notes Leonard Swindler. In dialogue, each must listen to the other as openly and sympathetically as s/he can in an attempt to understand the other’s position as precisely and, as it were, as much from within, as possible. Such an attitude automatically includes the assumption that at any point we might find the partner’s position so persuasive that we would have to change. There is a need to recognize that differences do exist and the objective is not to correct but to hear and listen to the other side.

Religion is usually cited as the cause of or at least a factor to conflict around the world. Drawing upon the experiences of the contributors, the goal of Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding is to identify the ways in which we can engage in productive interfaith dialogue. Rabbi Arthur Schneier, one of the contributors of the book, points out that religion is never the real cause of conflict within or between societies, but it is often identified as an excuse for other causes such as ethnicity, economic disparities, and regional differences. The main assertion of the book is that interfaith dialogue can be used as an effective tool to advance peace building around the world.

Based on his experience and studies on conflict resolution, Professor Mohammed Abu-Nimer identifies four phases of development in an effective experiment of interfaith dialogue. He suggests that the earlier encounters should focus on individual and group similarities in theologies and scriptures. One example could be to jointly study the sacred texts of each religion. It must be remembered that the goal for these studies is not debate or conversions. Professor Marc Gopin notes that these shared studies should yield deeper bonds through invitations to homes and meetings with families. The second phase is to deepen the relationship through joint prayers that are not contradictory to the other faith and by participating in the other faith’s rituals. Having established trust and an understanding of the other faith, the third phase is to discover and confirm differences in religious values and faith practices. The final step should be exploring the ways in which messages of different faiths can benefit people from other religious traditions in the same community.

Articles in the book encourage us to re-think elements within our religious traditions that call on us to engage in interfaith dialog. It encourages us to breakdown stereotypes we have of the other faiths and reflect critically on the practices of our co-religionists. Contributors’ experiences show that in order to be effective, talks should be accompanied by deeds. As Professor Diana Eck affirms One world cannot be built on the foundation of competition and polarization between the superpowers. One world cannot be built on the foundation of science, technology and the media. One world cannot be built on Christian, Muslim, Jewish or Sikh triumphalism. One world cannot be built on the foundation of fear and suspicion….Laying the foundations of one world is the most important task of our time. These foundations are not negotiated statements and agreements. These foundations are, rather, in the stockpiling of trust through dialog and the creation of relationships that can sustain both agreements and disagreements.

Within this framework, servants become engrossed in a combined feeling of fear and hope. Away from the sight of others, we supplicate from the heart only to God, and pray in secret. This sentiment, which is reflected in The Qur’an 7:55, describes an essential element of prayer that we must observe while praying. However, only the Legislator can permit and encourage this attitude at various times, and only He can determine the degree to which it is allowed.

God enjoins us to pray to Him only, in fear as well as full of hope and to know that His Mercy is with those whose hearts beat with the consciousness of His constant supervision over them. (7:56) He even shows us the door toward which we should walk, and teaches us the rules and principles of how to wait in front of it.

Turning to God all the time and in every condition, opening our hands in supplication, and revealing our concerns and problems to Him are all an honor and an initial prize. In addition, they are very significant initial steps taken to earn a favorable response from Him. He states: If my servants direct their wishes to Me, they must know that I am closer to them than anything else. I respond to the prayer of those who turn to Me with prayers. (2:186) However, there is a condition: All of these prayers and supplications are to be performed as indicated in: You pray from the heart with utmost sincerity and seeking God’s pleasure. (7:29, 40:14, 65) Instead of praying when among people, as if showing off to others, we should entreat the All-Knowing God, Whose hearing and seeing is worth far more than any person’s, by sighing in secret and with utmost sincerity, in complete privacy so that we are closed to others but open to Him. Meeting these conditions will enable us to implore Him with the alchemy of secrecy, and will prevent our voices and sighs from being fouled with the sparks of irrelevant thoughts.

No one returns empty-handed from His court. In fact, those people who pour out their deepest needs and desires, and present such personal grievances about themselves only to Him, are drawn closer to Him. They have to ask the One Who can meet all of their needs, just as they have to complain to a doctor who can heal their illnesses.

Each servant who enters the Nearest One’s Presence is required to be in possession of his or her self and in full control of his or her speech, vocal vibrations, and groaning. Moreover, each servant’s mind, intelligence, and senses must be in a receptive state.

Loyal servants frequently filter their thoughts and supplications through their intentions and sincerity, for they strive to keep their expressions and feelings free of any disturbance. They become like mute people so that no one can hear them, to such a degree that they even become jealous of their own voice and words.

In addition to being sincere while praying, servants should search for moments and seconds during which their pulses beat with the remembrance of God. They should make full use of holy days and nights, for these are the times when divine blessings pour forth. Especially when it is time to pray and to break the fast, all prostrations and bows should be performed in such a way that not even one second is wasted. Loyal and sincere servants are expected to fulfill these obligations, for doing so is essential for the prayer to be accepted. As all such servants know, a prayer may be answered either positively or negatively, or circumstances may ‘become’ favorable or unfavorable.

Believers in God do not mind if summer is as cold as winter, if spring seems to resemble autumn, or if days become as dark as blind graves. Who cares about darkness when God reminds us of His All-Encompassing Power: Who saves you from the darkness of the land and the sea when you pray in destitute?! (6:63) Who cares about such things when God makes His Existence known in their conscience by saying: Who else, other than God, accepts the prayers of the poor and takes care of their problems?! (27:62)

The Qur’an is the Divine Book that guides us through existence, interprets events, and interprets both the macro- and micro-worlds. It is the language of the World of the Unseen in this life; a contract of divine blessings for humanity; and the essence, essential nature, glory, and light of Islam. As if that were not enough, it is also the map for the worlds of the afterlife, a means of happiness for believers, and a book of prayer.

The Qur’an introduces a prayer by glorifying Him, and then asks to be set on the straight path as it sets off, sprinkling its most brilliant jewels with Surat al-Fatihah. Next comes Surat al-Baqarah, which calls us to pray by means of implicit expressions of prayer, raising its voice with the tune of its explicitness, and teaches us what to ask from God: Our Lord! Grant us good in this world and good in the Hereafter (2:201). After a few pages, it shows us the greenhouses and shelters in which we can shelter while facing difficult conditions and asking for help: Our Lord, pour down upon us patience (endurance), make our steps firm (make our foothold sure), and help us against the unbelievers (2:250).

The last verse of this surah points to the following prayer, which is a gift from the Prophet’s Ascension and which should be repeated constantly: Our Lord, do not punish us if we forget or make a mistake. Our Lord, do not lay on us a burden as You did on those before us. Our Lord, do not impose upon us that which we have not the strength to bear. Pardon us and grant us protection, and have mercy upon us. You are our Patron, so help us against the unbelievers. (2:286)

The next surah, Surat Al-i ‘Imran, also starts with and reminds all believers of a very significant prayer: Our Lord, do not let our hearts deviate now after You have guided us. But grant us Mercy from Your Presence, for You are the Grantor of bounties without measure. (3:8) A few verses later on, we are invited again with an allusion to the prayers of the pious, who supplicate with the following cries: Our Lord, we have indeed believed. Forgive us, then, our sins, and save us from the agony of the Fire (3:16) and: Our Lord, we believe in what You have revealed and we follow the Messenger, so write us down with those who bear witness. (3:53) These draw our attention to the supplication of Jesus’ apostles, who also are filled with a sense of responsibility.

Right after this comes a gift of prayer from the mouths of the devout ones, the scholars who gathered around the Messengers and strived: Our Lord, forgive our sins and anything We may have done that transgressed our duty. Establish our feet firmly, and help us against those that resist faith. (3:147) The section of contemplation toward the end of the surah ends with a wish for a good end: Our Lord, lo, we have heard a crier calling unto faith: ‘Believe in your Lord!’ So we believed. Our Lord, therefore forgive our sins, blot out our evil deeds, and make us die the death of the righteous (3:193). Those who shake fearfully, thinking that they have treated themselves unjustly, pray: Our Lord, we have wronged ourselves. If You do not forgive us and have mercy upon us, surely we are of the lost (7:23) and remind us through a distinctive cry that unleashes tremors into our souls. Our Lord comprehends all things in knowledge. In God do we put our trust. Our Lord, decide with truth between us and our folk, for You are the best of those who decide (7:89) whispers a unique style of entreaty of a submissive Prophet who murmurs ‘establishment of justice’ with full confidence, asking for God’s action against an extremely impertinent disbelieving society.

In accordance with the context, the Qur’an frequently presents examples of the Prophet’s supplications, sighs, and pleas for help. For example: You are our Guardian, therefore forgive us and have mercy on us (7:155); O our Lord, do not let us be subjected to the persecution of the unjust people (10:85); and There is no god but You, glory be to You. Surely I am of those who make themselves to suffer loss. (21:87) Hundreds of Qur’anic verses call us to interrogate ourselves, plea, and complain about our evil features. Such verses reveal that prayer is a source of strength for those in charge, a fountain of absolution for those who have committed sins, a solution for the needy, a hand extended to help those struck by disaster, a key to a treasure for the poor, a doctor for the sick, a breeze of hope for the desperate, and a dispatch order of a gift for the oppressed and the victim. The Qur’an always points out that prayer and humble supplications lead to salvation from worldly problems and concerns with the Hereafter, and that those who see (the Book) with the heart and murmur with the soul are traveling toward and praying to God.

In parallel with the Qur’an’s prayer-colored horizon, the life of Prophet Muhammad, the sultan of prayer, is a lacework adorned with entreaties and supplications. He would open hands, turn to his Lord, overflow with thanks and glorification, bow and double himself up in prayer, and constantly supplicate to Him. He did this throughout his life: when he woke up in the morning, lived until the evening, and stood in God’s Presence at night; while performing the ritual ablutions and daily prayers, observing these prayers (each a heavenly ascension), listening to the call for prayer, and during and after each prayer as a means for getting closer to God; while eating, going to bed, traveling, returning from a campaign, confronting an enemy; and while experiencing worldly or heavenly disasters and surprising events, witnessing miraculous events, suffering from illnesses or troubles, and when concerned or pleased with something. Prayer books give more details about all of his prayers and supplications.

Prayer is a mysterious key to His everlasting treasures, a point of support for the poor and hurt, and the most secure shelter for those in distress. Those who step into this shelter are considered to have obtained this key, and the poor, weak, and needy who join this governance attain that for which they had hoped.

The inhabitants of the heavens carry along the sincere prayers of such needy people, who are deprived of any other solution. These destitute people, who are in a state of desolation and demise, know what they are asking for and are aware of what they are doing. They turn to Him and unburden themselves of all thoughts. Such prayers would make the heavens burst into tears; hurricanes threatening the world would change its course, waves overturning everything would calm down, and peace would rise on the horizon. Broken fault lines would surrender to unexpected rulings, and released gases would easily evaporate into the atmosphere. The breeze of such a prayer enlivens Earth and brightens the skies. Hearts beat with exhilaration, and nature rises in order to dance and to send forth smiles.

Through prayer, people offer their sacred requests, which are beyond causes, to the Most Glorified One, and acknowledge that God see whatever is hidden or open. Humanity, as well as the jinns and the angels, pray to Him, especially about issues that subjugate their strength and control, and expect a remedy from Him. However, such a remedy is forthcoming only if we take all of the required measures and fulfill all of the necessary conditions.

O Remedy for all in need! Send a light from Your presence for those suffering in darkness, especially these days, when there is no means left to resort to, social circumstances are in complete disorder; when only the tyrants’ voices are heard everywhere and the people sway and bump into obstacles. Extinguish the fires of tyranny and injustice with Your Infinite Power, destroy the Devil’s homes, and place inescapable collars around the necks’ of the evil ones.

We are not exposed to the winds of inspiration any more, the enthusiasm in our hearts has been subdued, and a stammer has started to appear upon our tongues. Send us a reviving breeze from Your land of mercy. Raise our hopes and goodwill for You to the borders of Your Mercy, give us faithful excitement, and accept us as hopeful supplicants thereof. Untie our tongues so that we do not commit another sin.

We are wronged, fallen, and devastated. Never have we been so far from You. Never have we entered such depths of failure. Never have we been so without You.

O Shelter for the miserable, Power Source for weak, Physician for the ill, and Truthful Guide for the lost! Once more we take refuge in You and unburden ourselves to You. We have been chasing after useless things and longing for the fulfillment of ridiculous dreams. Those whom we approached with hope and in whom we trusted never even looked at or paid any attention to us. No one but You have heard our voices and caressed our heads. Our feelings have been mocked, and our thoughts have been regarded as crimes. So many places have been sabotaged, fires of mutual separation have been inflamed, and all of what has been committed now hurts the purity of the faith.

Broken-down feelings, clumsy behaviors, souls in the dirt, feeble feet, paralyzed hands ‘ most of us have lost all hope ‘ the weather is foggy-gray ‘ people in the West are filled with longing ‘ people in the East are in need of Your blessings. We have come to You in such chaos. We are neither the first nor the last to come. Your Mercy is the door of hope for those who regret, and we are pitiful beggars in front of this door. Until now, all who have waited by Your door have returned with a blessing, and no fugitive or repentant person has ever been rejected. It is Your door, and thus it differs from others because only it opens upon the forgiveness that You bestow upon all those who wait by it. Strengthen us with Your mildness and peace. Make Your Existence heard by the tyrants.

O the Sultan of the exalted throne Who answers all prayers! Thousands, hundreds of thousands of us stand in Your Presence now. Opening our hands to You and knocking upon Your door of mercy, which is always open or at least ajar, we sigh. We believe from the depths of our hearts that You see and watch over everyone and everything, that You show compassion for every praying voice and person. Therefore, we ignore our disobedience for the time being, imagine our sins washed away in the falls of Your Mercy, and disregard our faults while regarding Your forgiveness. If You exist ‘ You are the only One who exists on its own ‘ we cannot be deserted. If You are our companion, then who cares about the wilderness that surrounds us on all sides?! As long as You are together with us, it does not matter even if Satan and his followers are everywhere. You are the one and only Sovereign over everything, and Your ruling cannot be overthrown. You see the smallest thing, hear the most silent sound in the domain of Your Sovereignty, and do not discard anything or anyone without a reply.

Yet again do we present ourselves at Your door, which is as large as Your Mercy, with the capacity that You have given us to ask from You, and with the belief that You will grant us our wishes. You know our situation, and so what we are going to tell You is just a small part of Your Knowledge. Give us a remedy for all the troubles that we have suffered from for centuries. O Most Merciful, Most Compassionate, accept our prayers!

In his Models of My Life, social scientist Herbert Simon stated that science’s purpose is to find meaningful simplicity in the midst of disorderly complexity. Although the systems in nature and society seem to be very complex, we need simple theories to understand them. The key to finding these simple rules or principles, which Plato called perfect form and thing-in-itself and Kant described as a kind of untouchable essence behind physical things or systems, is mathematics.

Mathematics and social science

One of mathematics’ main challenges is its uses in social sciences. But does mathematics, which is considered rigid and restrictive and the best tool for explaining matter, have laws for human life? The latest studies in sociology, biology, and epidemiology show that such laws and meaningful patterns do exist and can be discovered. One of the great achievements of mathematics and physics in sociology is explaining the six degrees of separation (i.e., the small world) phenomenon.(1)

Almost everyone has met someone far from our home who is a friend of a friend. This is so common that it has become a clich: It’s a small world “ even though there are now more than 6 billion people. Even more surprising is the structure of social networks, the map of who knows whom, which shows that all people are closely connected.(2)

A social network is a collection of people, each of whom is acquainted with some subset of others. This can be represented as a set of points (nodes) denoting people, joined in pairs by lines (edges) denoting acquaintance, in a company, university, or even a global community. Social scientists have studied such networks, both empirically and theoretically, for at least 50 years.

A revealing experiment

One of the first and famous empirical studies was conducted in 1967 by Stanley Milgram, a Harvard psychology professor: the small world phenomenon. He asked: Starting with any two people in the world, what is the probability that they will know one another? In a large social network, although X and Z might not know each other, they might have a mutual acquaintance. Moreover, X might be linked to Z by a series of links. In other words, X knows a, who knows b, who knows c … who knows y, who knows Z. But how many intermediate acquaintance links are needed, on the average, to connect X and Z?

According to Milgram (3), this phenomenon raises the issue of a certain mathematical structure in society, one that often plays a part in discussions about history, sociology, and other disciplines. For example, during western Europe’s Dark Age, cities became isolated because inter-city communications broke down and thus severely limited the network of individual acquaintances. Thus, social disintegration was expressed in the communities’ growing isolation and people’s infrequent contact with non-local people.

Milgram asked his test subjects, chosen at random from Nebraskan and Kansan telephone directories, to get a letter to one of his Boston stockbroker friends. The letters were to be sent passing them from one person to another, but only if both parties were on a first-name basis. Since it was unlikely that the letter’s initial recipient and a Boston stockbroker would be on a first-name basis, their best strategy was to pass the letter to someone whom they felt would be socially or geographically closer to the stockbroker.

A moderate number of the letters eventually reached their destination. Milgram discovered that the average number of steps in this process was about six. This is usually considered evidence of the small world hypothesis: Most pairs of people, even in a very large population, can be connected by a short chain of intermediate acquaintances.

Milgram’s work passed into folklore and was immortalized in John Guare’s 1990 play Six Degrees of Separation, where Ouisa claims: Everybody on this planet is separated by only six other people. Six degrees of separation. Between us and everybody else on this planet. The president of the United States. A gondolier in Venice…. It’s not just the big names. It’s anyone. A native in a rain forest. A Tierra del Fuegan. An Eskimo. I am bound to everyone on this planet by a trail of six people. It’s a profound thought…. How every person is a new door, opening to other worlds.(4)

Watts and Strogatz used this model to explain the six degrees of separation in society- and nature-based networks.(5) Their model employs mathematical graph theory, which consists of nodes (people) and links (acquaintance). They modified the regular network, in which every node has short-range fixed number of connections, by adding long-range connections to the regular network to simulate the short path length between nodes. This model is now used in such areas as networks connected with biological metabolism, genomes, proteins, the Internet backbone, power grids, companies, and the stock market.

Research on social networks has helped health professionals understand how epidemics spread. Epidemiological models help them to predict how fast a disease will spread and to develop small world theory strategies to combat them, for scientists now realize that this social network property is a main cause for the outbreak of epidemics. This network offers a super-connected web of stepping stones for infectious diseases. After analyzing the social network’s structure, public health specialists can devise new vaccination strategies to slow or stop the epidemic. The small world theory also explains the rapid spread of news, rumors, fashions, and gossip.

Other types of systems show similar properties: networks of actors involved in the same movie, scientific collaboration networks of scientists who coauthor an article, and even the Internet, where millions of web pages are connected via mutual links. Recent research shows that in all of these networks, there are only a few steps between one node and any other node. The average shortest path between a network’s nodes, is 3.5 for the actor network and 9.5 for the scientific collaboration network. Despite the Internet’s more than 800 million nodes, there are, on average, only 19 steps between one web page and any other.(6)

Conclusion

The small world theory is a great success of the theory of complexity in nature and social life. It reveals an underlying dynamic of interconnectedness that expresses itself indelibly in who we are and how we think, behave, and communicate. Such close interconnectedness reveals one important fact for constructing a peaceful and beneficial world: There are no strangers, for everyone is one of our friends’ or neighbors’ friend or relative. The key element in understanding people is communication. Mutual love and good relations continue as long as we understand each other. We are loyal and faithful to the extent that we share our friends’ troubles, because ignorance only builds an impenetrable wall between us.(7)

Hasan Guclu is a doctoral student in the field of very large complex systems, such as computer networks, social networks, epidemics, and surface growth.

Footnotes

1. See, respectively, A. L. Barabasi, Linked (Perseus Publishing: 2002); D. J. Watts, Small Worlds (Princeton University Press: 1999); and M. Buchanan, Nexus (W. W. Norton: 2002).
2. D. J. Watts and S. H. Strogatz, Collective Dynamics of Small World Networks, Nature 393 (1998):440-42.
3. S. Milgram, The Individual In A Social World (Addison-Wesley: 1977).
4. J. Guare, Six Degrees of Separation: A Play (Vintage: 1990).
5. Watts and Strogatz, Collective Dynamics.
6. A. L. Barabasi, Linked.
7. F. Gulen, Pearls of Wisdom (The Fountain: 2001).

But two important developments in modern physics during the 1930s gradually undermined their certainty. These developments were based upon experimental, intellectual, and theoretical observations. The experimental field revealed new particles, and the relevant tools and techniques became far more sophisticated. The results showed that subatomic components were not elementary particles, for they were not even elementary. And, the number of fundamental particles continued to grow: 6 in 1935, 18 in 1955, and more than 200 today.

Subatomic particles challenge old assumptions

Classical physics held that an object’s mass was connected to an elementary material that could not be annihilated or divided. But Einstein’s theory of relativity disproved this by showing that mass was not related to a concept like essence, and that energy was an expression of a quantity associated with activity, process, and movement. Since a particle’s mass is equivalent to a specific energy, the particle cannot be a static and stable object. Thus, a particle’s mass has to be considered a dynamic entity. This energy process shows itself as mass.

The theory of relativity’s most interesting aspect appeared when the process of extracting matter from pure energy was explained. Given that matter’s elements were considered indivisible and non-changeable units or compounds that could be reduced to their origins, could matter be fragmented ad infinitum or would the smallest indivisible unit eventually appear? The theoretical physicist Dirac (1902-84) answered this question by showing that when two particles collide at a high speed, they generally are smashed. However, the residual pieces are not smaller than their originals, for these remnants are constituted as the same particles via kinetic energy.

Subatomic particles are split by using high energy levels to crash them into each other. Thus matter can be split forever, and no particle so obtained can be smaller than its original. Such collisions result in new particles, for the two colliding particles’ energy is delivered between the particles so that new ones are formed. If there is enough such energy is produced, more particles are constituted than before the collision, meaning that subatomic particles are both divisible and indivisible.

As this is one of the best ways to study a particle’s basic features, this field is called high energy physics. The necessary kinetic energy is obtained by using particle accelerators, which are a couple of miles in diameter, to accelerate protons almost to the speed of light and then crash them into another proton or neutron. It is interesting that such huge super-microscopes are used to analyze infinitely small objects.

Since 1960, the number of known subatomic particles has grown. There were electrons in the nucleus, and protons and neutrons in an atom’s orbit. But what was in the proton? In 1970, Swiss researchers discovered a quark in the protons and neutrons. Its electric charge was explained by the charge value of protons and neutrons. But they could not explain what the energy was. Energy, which chained the quarks forming the proton in the nucleus, was called the strong nuclear force. But how could this energy bind the quarks together? Scientists postulated that energy was not an invisible force, but a feature formed by tiny granules and motes. Thus, these gluon (adhesive) particles bound the quarks together by pasting and clamping them in such a way that nuclear power was developed. In other words, the essence nuclear power was the gluon.

Photons, defined as particles carrying electromagnetic energy, were postulated to be the result of an exchange, a shifting between two particles. Thus, electromagnetism was a field of quantum, carried its energy through particles with no electric charge, had a spin value of 1, and was not radiating but rather perceived. Although photons had been known for a long time, scientists did not realize that they provided the force of attraction between protons and neutrons. Photons were the smallest energy packages forming the light. Now, the only thing left to be discovered was the weak nuclear force that controlled radioactive decay.

These forces had to be carried by particles. These particles (bosons), when discovered, were found to be of three types: positive (W), negative (W), and neutral (W). Thus, scientists learned that the universe’s three elementary forces were carried by particles. But the particles (gravitons) carrying gravity, the weakest force, remained undiscovered. 

Non-atomic particles

Non-atomic particles are depicted as objects having a mass in terms of space, and as events and activities having as much energy as the quantity of the mass. Given this, the matter found in space is unstable and changes due to continuous activity and movement. This is surprising, for it means that particles move and consist of movement. In other words, matter’s presence and movement are not different of each other, but represent different features of the same mechanical truth.

Based on these observations, particle physicists consider force to be an energy transition between matter, which it affects, and think that it is caused by the smaller particles’ diffusion and absorption. For instance, charged particle’s state of movement changes when it diffuses a photon. If another charged particle absorbs the photon, it gains energy and thus changes its condition of movement. Here, as the mutual movement changes between two particles occur as force, the change’s total effect is perceived as force. And so there are no external forces, but only interactions via some inter-particles between the particles. In this way, quantum mechanics adds an unusual approach to non-atomic events and engenders a completely different description for force. In fact, force does not exist, because it is no more than tiny particles, motes, and rays. So, the interaction and continuous communication between particles give rise to force, which has no reality or presence by itself.

This truth disturbed materialists and determinists, for it showed that matter and force, which brought forth and sustain this magnificent universe, are based on another existence that indicates omnipotence. According to Said Nursi, the existence of this power is more definite than the existence of the universe, and each visible item is a proof and the sign of the Holy Power of God, the source of all objects and forces. He states: Every creature, either on its own or altogether, is this Power’s solid word. Scientific names like ˜dynamic process,’ ˜energy form,’ or ˜effect mechanism,’ are given to this governing power. However, modern science is beginning to show that the effect mechanism, which cannot be associated to any reason and is reduced to one truth, is really the manifestation of the ˜Holy Power.’ Said Nursi further says The motion of particles is the vibration and motion from that writing and transcription, which occurs while beings pass from the World of the Unseen to the Manifest World, as they pass from knowledge to power. (The Words, Vol. 2, 30th Word, Second Aim, Footnote) 

Conclusion

In conclusion, the activities and creation of creatures are manifested as wave-vibration-movement passing from the field of knowledge to the field of power. Then, the pen of Divine Power writes its fate and ushers it into the world of material existence. 

References

• Hawking, Stephen, The Universe in a Nutshell, Bantam Books, Incorporated, 2001
• Penrose, Roger, The Emperor’s New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics, Oxford University Press, 1990
• Weinberg, Stewen, The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of Universe, New York: Basic Books, 1988
• Hooft, Gerart T., In the Search of the Ultimate Building Blocks, Cambridge University Press, 1996
• Davies, Paul, God and New Physics, Simon & Schuster 1984. For other books by the same author: http://aca.mq.edu.au/pdavies.html

Although this industry had been an effective instrument for advertising and increasing political and social efficiency, the wide screen is being used for different purposes. In contrast with earlier films, which were dominated by guns, money, and status and also promoted authority, individualism, adventure-seeking, and atheism, the last 5 years have seen movies highlight something else: material gain should not be the ultimate purpose, the necessity of unity and cooperation, and life after death. This reflects the severely deteriorated structure of the American family and wondering how it can be restored.

Movies with social themes

Family themes. In The Kid (2000), Bruce Willis plays a workaholic who long ago forgot his past and family and refuses to see his father. Then one day his childhood appears before his eyes in the form of himself as a child. Thanks to this event, he makes peace with his past and gradually regains his lost values. This movie is one of many recent movies depicting weakened family ties: a lack of spousal love, children leaving home at earlier ages and forgetting their families, and elderly parents being left unprotected by their children.

In The Family Man (2000), Nicholas Cage is a passionate businessman desperate to achieve as high a status as possible. He does not know that real pleasure can be found in a lovely wife and children. One day, he wakes up and finds himself married with two children. As fictitious as it is, he cannot realize how his life changed all of a sudden, but later realizes real happiness with his new family. The first thing he does after this so-close-to-real dream is to search for the woman he is going to marry.

American Beauty, which won the Oscar in 1999, made its way through many other big-budget movies. Spousal mistrust and the widening generation gap were the main topic in this movie, and the fact it won The Best Picture award shows the importance given to the concept of family.

Life after death themes. Life after death also has been a popular theme. The Sixth Sense (1990), a nominee for The Best Picture award in 1999, features a child who sees dead people walking around like regular people. They have an explicit message: The universe is more than what we can perceive through our five senses. In Ghost (1990), Patrick Swayze is a dead person whose soul is still in touch with this world and his beloved wife, whom he tries to protect from danger. What Dreams May Come (1998) takes Robin Williams into Heaven and Hell so he can meet his wife and children again. Gladiator (2000), awarded five Oscars including The Best Picture award, is the story of the Maximus, commander-in-chief of the Roman army, who is willing to leave behind status and fame so that he can reunite with his family for happiness. He is an invincible ” but praying ” commander, who teaches his soldiers about what comes after death, and tragically reaches his family at the end.

Angels and the Devil. Angels and the Devil also are frequent topics. City of Angels (1998) is a good example. Meg Ryan is a person who can exercise free will, taste worldly pleasures, and is expected to know God, whereas Nicholas Cage is an angel who lives in a different dimension and has none of these abilities. Likewise, Brad Pitt portrays the angel of death in Meet Joe Black (1998) and shows us a fictional perspective through an angel’s eyes.

In the digitally remastered and remixed version of The Exorcist (2000), a family tries to reclaim their possessed teenage daughter through every possible medical treatment. In the end, however, two priests are called to exorcise the demon. In The Devil’s Advocate (1997), Al Pacino portrays the Devil, who seeks to control people with lust, status, and money. Keanu Reeves portrays a very successful lawyer who has never lost a trial. He finds himself in a struggle between the Devil’s intrigues and his human virtues.

In End of Days (1999), Arnold Schwarzenegger is an ex-cop who believes in the brute power of muscles and weapons. However, he comes to realize that conventional methods of combat do not work on Beelzebub (the Devil), and so has to devise other solutions. Throwing away his machine gun, he kneels at the altar and prays for help.

Destiny. Destiny is another hot topic. Destiny is a significant part of the belief that keeps societies up and strong. Such a belief lets us know that everything comes from God, which gives us the strength to bear life’s difficulties. Almost 100 years ago, speculation that a comet might hit Earth scared many people who did not believe in destiny. Final Destination is about a group of young people who attempt, but fail, to challenge the destiny that is chasing them. The Green Mile and Fight Club are also good examples for movies with metaphysical content that show that life is not all that we can see.

Religion. Christianity is being questioned in Hollywood movies. In Stigmata (1999), during the 1940s some scripts ” supposedly the original New Testament scriptures from Jesus’ time ” written in ancient Aramaic on leather pieces are found rolled in several jars. They are sent to Rome, after which nothing is heard about them. In the meantime, Frankie, a young girl in her twenties, is attacked brutally by an unseen assailant. She consults doctors and psychiatrists, but nobody can help her. The only man who can help is Andrew Kiernan (Gabriel Byrne), an investigator sent by the Vatican to stop demons from taking over her life.

Bless the Child (2000) tells about a child with supernatural powers. Her evil occultist mom and stepfather want to take her back from her aunt who raised her. The girl talks with her stepfather just like Jesus talked with the Devil, as recorded in the Bible. Her aunt tries to save her from a Biblical prophecy, and in the end angels help them out. In Dracula (2000), people realize that they can defeat Dracula’s supernatural powers only by seeking help from God.

Hollywood also has become interested in other religions. Several movies have been made about Buddhist Tibet and the Dalai Lama. Islam, despite its close and popular association with terrorism in the minds of many, has appeared in a few movies with some positive images. For example, Antonio Banderas played a Muslim envoy (Ahmad Ibn Fadlan) from Amawis in the 13th Warrior (1999), who was an educated and refined person. In Robin Hood (1991), during the Fourth Crusade Kevin Costner brought with him back to England a scholarly Muslim who was admired by the English because he could use binoculars and gunpowder.

Conclusion

These movies inspire us with a promising future, as materialism appears to be less popular and people are interested in searching for the soul, the Hereafter, brotherhood and sisterhood, peace, and love. We can only hope that this trend will continue.

References

• www.hollywood.com
• www.movies.go.com

“Now I’d like you to step forward over here. They’re not that different from you, are they? Same haircuts. Full of hormones, just like you. Invincible, just like you feel. The world is their oyster. They believe they’re destined for great things, just like many of you; their eyes are full of hope, just like you. Did they wait until it was too late to make from their lives even one iota of what they were capable? Because, you see gentlemen, these boys are now fertilizing daffodils. But if you listen real close, you can hear them whisper their legacy to you. Go on, lean in. Listen, you hear it? …(1)

In order to emphasize the point, he brings them closer to the photos and whispers in their ears:

Carpe… hear it? …carpe, carpe diem, seize the day boys, make your lives extraordinary.”(2)

In this article, we will look at the phrase carpe diem in detail and find answers for such questions as: What is carpe diem? Why is it so important? What if we don’t carpe diem? and How can we live by this phrase?

Carpe diem defined

Carpe diem is a quotation from the Roman poet Horace (65-8 bce). It appears in the last line of Poem 11 in the first book of his Odes, which was published in 23 bce. The Latin word carpe refers to seize, and diem refers to day.

Carpe diem is a way of thinking, perceiving, and approaching daily life. It simply means to seize the day and to know that yesterday has already left you, and as for tomorrow, you have nothing to prove that it will be yours. In which case, your true life is the present day.(3) Thus, make the present day the most important day of your life. Seize the day, catch the wind, and use all of your potential before it is too late to reach your goals and to realize your dreams.

Yesterday is history. Tomorrow is mystery. Today is a gift. That’s why they call it the present. Babatunde Olatunji

Carpe diem does not suggest that yesterday was unimportant or that tomorrow is not critical. Rather, it means that today is the only day over which we have some control, and that today is the day during which we can introduce differences into our life.

This idea is stated clearly in a Sanskrit proverb:

Look to this day,

This very life of life.

In its brief course lie all

The realities and verities of existence:

The bliss of growth,

The splendor of action,

The glory of power.

For yesterday is but a dream,

And tomorrow is only a vision.

But today, well lived,

Makes every yesterday a dream of happiness,

And every tomorrow a vision of hope.

Look well, therefore, to this day.

The importance of seizing the day.

A Senegalese proverb says: If you wait for tomorrow, tomorrow comes. If you don’t wait for tomorrow, tomorrow comes. In other words, time marches on. However, we should not forget that every day is unique in itself, since each one of us has only one chance to live each day. No one has another life in the bank. Let’s ask ourselves: If I knew that today was my last day, what would I do? We most certainly would make good use of this day! This is what carpe diem means, and the reason why it is important.

The same idea can be seen clearly in the carpe diem cliché read by Prof. Keating to his students in the Dead Poets Society:

Gather ye rosebuds while ye may

Old Time is still a-Flying;

And this same flower that smiles today,

Tomorrow will be dying.(4) Robert Herrick

In addition, we should know that carpe diem is the key to understanding how nice, valuable, and important the current day is. When we realize this, we get a better understanding of what is really happening now, as well as a chance to respond to it with our full capacity on time so that we can make use of the opportunities provided by the current day. Thanks to this approach, we can live a more present-centered life, achieve our goals, and become more successful and happy. Richard Carlson’s formula for success illustrates this quite well: “When you focus your attention in this moment, instead of moments that are over or yet to be, you will maximize your productivity, creativity, and ability to accomplish your goals. Too many future-oriented or past-oriented thoughts cloud your vision and distract you from what you are doing. The more present-moment oriented you become, the easier it will be to stay on track, get focused, concentrate, and achieve your goals. In short, an undistracted mind is able to make wise, appropriate decisions.”(5)

No yesterdays are ever wasted for those who give themselves to today. Brendan Francis

What if we do not seize the day?

In this case, we never truly understand what is really happening around us. We either live in the past or the future – not today. If we do not capture the day and do not shape our life, we let other people and factors shape and direct our own life and so loose control of our own boat. We start making zigzags with every storm in the ocean that is our world. As a result, this vicious circle does not let us become who we really are and does not allow us to reach our goals and dreams, although we have the potential to do so.

Fr. Alfred D’Souza says: For a long time, it had seemed to me that life was about to begin – real life. But there was always some obstacle in the way. Something to be got through first, some unfinished business, time still to be served, a debt to be paid. Then life would begin. At last it dawned on me that these obstacles were my life.(6) source needed. Those who do not live by carpe diem will always face such obstacles. They will always get ready to live, but in reality, they will never live.

Furthermore, we must remember that every day is a new door with a new hope for a new beginning. If we do not seize the day, we think of today as past hardship and difficulty, as troubles and misfortune. Distressed, we imagine the possible future sorrows of disaster, become impatient and pessimistic, and feel unhappy. In being so, we resemble a foolish commander, who, although the enemy’s right flank joined his right flank and became fresh forces for him, sent a significant force to the right flank, and weakened the center. Then, while there were no enemy soldiers on the left flank, he sent a large force there and gave them the order to fire. No forces then remained in the center. The enemy understood this and then attacked and routed him.(7) As it is seen in this example, we ruin the center (the present day) by focusing more on past worries and future concerns than on the present day.

How to seize the day?

First, we should remember that “every day is a new door for new beginnings. And for everyone, every day has a private world out of this world, and its nature is dependent on the person’s heart, thoughts, and actions. [This is] like a splendid palace reflected in a mirror, [which] takes on the color of the mirror; if it is black, the mirror appears black; if it is red, it appears red. Also it takes on the qualities of the mirror; if the mirror is smooth, it shows the palace to be beautiful, and if it is not, it shows it to be ugly.(8) As we understand this and alter the shape of our own world with today’s heart, mind, actions, and wishes, we will make differences in our lives and acquire a more hopeful and positive perspective in order to achieve our goals and to become happy.

When one door closes another door opens; but we so often look so long and so regretfully upon the closed door, that we do not see the ones which open for us. Alexander Graham Bell

Second, we should perceive the past as destiny, which cannot be changed, and the future as a new place that can be built with today’s thoughts and actions. Otherwise, we will always be occupied with past worries and future concerns.

Today’s opportunities erase yesterday’s failures. Gene Brown

“As for future days, they have not yet arrived, and to think of them now and feel bored and worried is a lunacy like thinking today of future hunger and thirst, and starting to shout and cry out.(9) Since this is the truth, reasonable people will think only of today in connection with hardship, suffering, and so on.

Third, we should recognize, accept, and appreciate who we really are and the conditions in which we live. Thus instead of complaining or admiring, we should look at those who are living in worse conditions than us and be thankful for the things that we have. In addition, we should use our wings of hope and determination to become like those who are living in better conditions than us. Doing so will help us to become more realistic and to live a more present-time-oriented life. Otherwise, our minds will be engaged with time-consuming, unproductive ideas and opinions. And, as a result, there will be no room remaining for carpe diem.

Fourth, we should be well-organized, systematic, and more focused toward our goals. We should not postpone anything, but rather should do things on time by making good use of each moment, for it is almost impossible to seize the day if we do not even know what to do, how to do, and when to do it. Such people can be blown from one coast to another by any little change of wind in their life.

You may delay, but time will not. Benjamin Franklin

Fifth, and last, we should not worry about anything; rather, we should make a serious effort to continue with a new eagerness and fresh enthusiasm each day.

Conclusion

Carpe diem is a way of life that makes people more successful and happier by helping them to live more in the present time. We should recognize that if we practice this idea, if we make today the best that it can be, if we can be attentive and sensitive to what is happening now, as well as make wise and appropriate decisions today, then we should be hopeful. Why? Because all of the efforts exerted and the hardships endured are like melodies of the happy future world in whose warmth the past and the future will be embraced and the present will unburden itself to its blessed friends.

Footnotes

1. Tom Schulman, 1989, Dead Poet’s Society Movie Script
2. Ibid.
3. Bediuzzaman, The Words, 21st Word, First Station, Fifth Warning
4. “To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time”, Robert Herrick
5. “You Can Be Happy No Matter What”, Richard Carlson
6. Fr. Alfred D’Souza, www.quotationspage.com
7. Bediuzzaman, The Words, 21st Word, Third Station, Fifth Warning
8. Bediuzzaman, The Words, 21st Word, First Station, Fifth Warning
9. Bediuzzaman, The Words, 21st Word, Third Station, Fifth Warning

When reviewing their lives and educational methods, we must keep their era and mission in mind. For example, global dissemination of God’s message became possible only after the time of Prophet Muhammad. Thus, all previous Revelations were restricted to a specific people and period, and so stressed certain principles. Also, God bestowed special time-dependent favors upon each Prophet and community. For example, Noah was endowed with steadfastness and perseverance; Abraham was honored with intimate friendship with God and being the father of numerous Prophets; Moses was given the ability to administer and was exalted through being God’s direct addressee; and Jesus was distinguished with patience, tolerance, and compassion.(1)

Their miracles reflected that which their societies valued the most at that particular time. For instance, medicine was highly valued by Jesus’ society. Thus, his miracles of raising the dead and curing the blind had the greatest possible impact upon his people. During the Prophet’s time, poetry and eloquence were highly valued, and famous poets were celebrities. The Qur’an, his most significant miracle, was a literary miracle. In the words of a non-Muslim translator of the Qur’an: ‘The Koran is the earliest and by far the finest work of Classical Arabic prose’. It is acknowledged that the Koran is not only one of the most influential books of prophetic literature but also a literary masterpiece in its own right.'(2)

While all Prophets share some of the praiseworthy qualities, each of them surpasses the others in one or more of them because of his mission.(3)

Moses as a Teacher

The Israelites lived a wretched life in Egypt before Moses was sent to them. Due to the Pharaohs’ despotic rule and oppression, slavery had become part of the Israelites’ character. To purge this trait, Moses was sent with stern and rigid rules: the Torah (Law). Thus, he was a somewhat stern and unyielding reformer and educator. The story of the golden calf indicates an important social lesson: Yielding on essential principles of faith is detrimental to a faith-based society. In Egypt, the cow was the main ‘tool’ used to cultivate the land that made Egypt rich. Eventually, its importance caused it to be raised to a divine status.

Although the Israelites were monotheists, this belief, symbolizing wealth, became ingrained in their subconscious. When they settled in the Sinai peninsula, God called Moses to Mount Sinai to talk to him. Moses left his brother Aaron in charge. During his absence, a Sumerian fellow (al-Samiri in the Qur’an) among the Israelites made a golden calf and declared it to be a god that Moses had forgotten. Fearing division, Aaron was lenient. Upon his return, warned the Sumerian and was angry with Aaron, as he had expected Aaron to prevent the reappearance of pagan beliefs. In other words, Moses was sensitive to matters that were critical to the community’s preservation. As monotheism was the main bond of communal identity, Moses worked to prevent future deviations.

Jesus as a Teacher

Jesus was sent to the Israelites at a time when the clergy had been corrupted by their unlimited power and materialism was prevalent. He invited his people to leave conventional wisdom behind in order to live by an alternative wisdom. His wisdom teachings consisted of short memorable sayings and parables that included ‘crystallizations of insight that provoked and invited further insight,'(4) such as: ‘If a blind person leads another blind person, they will both fall into a ditch’ and ‘Leave the dead to bury the dead.’

His parables included short stories and invitations to see the world differently, such as in the story of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37). Both concise sayings (aphorisms) and parables are evocative and provocative forms of speech. But more importantly, they are invitations to see something previously unseen or to see things differently. We observe an important principle of education in this style: repetition. ‘No great speaker of one-liners tells a great one-liner only once, no great teller of great stories tells a great story only once.'(5)

How we see things and events makes all the difference in our thinking, attitude, and behavior. Jesus pointed to the world of conventional wisdom as a world of blindness, and invited his audience to see differently. Comparing Jesus’ alternative wisdom with that of the Prophet reveals many parallels:

Jesus Trained His Apostles

Let’s examine how Jesus trained his apostles by means of a program based upon a detailed pedagogical program6 that provided a comprehensive education.7 According to Schirrmacher, the main tenets were the following:

1. Jesus limited his group, for just as a parent can properly care for only a few children, he could train properly only a few followers at a time.

2. The goal of this intensive fellow-ship and dependence was mission preparation.

3. The training program followed a clear plan. The apostles were to be trained by living and working for several years with Jesus, who served as a prototype. He followed a clear order: He first preached alone, then preached while the apostles watched, then let them preach while He watched, and then sent them out in groups of two and afterwards discussed the results with them. This first, short-term assignment is described in Matthew 10:1-11, Mark 6:7-13, and Luke 9:1-6. Finally, he sent them out alone as described in Matthew 28:18-20. The Apostles trained other Christians in the same way.

4. His training program included all aspects of instruction and life, theory and practice, individual and group counseling, personal and public activity, activity and rest, professional and private life. Teaching and counseling formed a single unit.

Jesus’ miracles also played an important role here. Just like the miracles of other prophets, they removed the doubt in some believers’ hearts, challenged the unbelievers’ view, and further strengthened his followers’ bonds. 

Analyzing how the Prophet interacted with his Companions reveals that he employed various educational methods. He emerges as a resourceful educator who sometimes asked, and at other times answered, questions. Sometimes he limited his answer to the question; other times he went beyond the question. Sometimes he illustrated a concept through parables, diverted a question to a different path, or told his Companions to write down his words. He drew figures and used body language, repeated a statement three times when it contained a critical lesson, and used symbolic language with implications or else clear and unambiguous words. He also used humor, puzzles, comparisons, and asking seemingly obvious questions to raise curiosity. The most important educational principle was using himself as a living example.

Teaching by Character. One of the first lessons of public speaking is that one’s character speaks louder than one’s words. The Prophet, whose words and actions were in perfect agreement, was a perfect leader and educator. For example, he often advised his Companions to pray during the night, for such a time provided an ideal, uninterrupted environment for reflection, thanksgiving, and prayer. His wife ‘A’isha related that he would wake up in the middle of the night and ask her for permission to pray. He prayed so much that one time she asked him if doing so was really necessary. He replied: ‘Shall I not be a thankful servant to my Lord, Who has bestowed upon me so many bounties?’

Gradual teaching of principles. Ibn Mas’ud, a Companion, relates: ‘We would learn 10 verses from the Prophet, and would not continue with new verses until we internalized and practiced those 10 verses.’

Be moderate and prefer ease over difficulty. The most authentic books of the Prophetic Traditions, Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim relate the following saying: ‘Make it easier and not difficult. Give good news (endear) and do not alienate and repel.’8 ‘A’isha related: ‘When the messenger of God was left with a choice, he would always prefer the easier option, other things being equal.’

Observing the learner’s circumstances. Bukhari 7:140 relates: ‘A man asked the Prophet for permission to fight in God’s cause. The Prophet asked him: ‘Are your parents alive?’ The man said: ‘Yes.’ The prophet told him: ‘Go and serve them as best as you can.” Many Companions asked him what was the best deed in God’s sight. The Prophet answered according to the situation. When Abu Dharr asked: ‘O messenger of God, advise me (a good deed).’ He replied: ‘Be God-conscious wherever you are, clean your sins by immediately following them with a good deed, and treat the people around you in the best manner possible.’ Another Companion asked: ‘O messenger of God, advise me (a good deed), but keep it short so that I can remember.’ He replied ‘Don’t get angry.’ The man repeated his question two more times, and the Prophet gave the same reply.

Teaching by dialog or asking questions. Questions demand attention. Starting a dialog with a question prepares one for the message. The Prophet made great use of this technique. Bukhari (2:9) relates that the Messenger of God asked: ‘If a river ran by your door and you bathed in it five times a day, would any dirt remain on your body?’ The Companions answered that no dirt would remain. He continued: ‘The daily prayer is such a river. God cleanses you of sins with these prayers.’ We also see this technique in Bukhari (32:1:6251), where Abu Hurayra narrates that the Messenger asked: ‘Do you know who is the real bankrupt among my people?’ The Companions answered: ‘The one without money or property.’ He said: ‘The real bankrupt is the one who comes on the Day of Resurrection with prayers, fast, and charity but nevertheless finds himself bankrupt on that day. He will have exhausted his good deeds because he reviled others, brought calumny against them, devoured their wealth unlawfully, shed their blood, and beat them. So his good deeds will be credited to the account of those (who suffered at his hand). If his good deeds do not clear the account, their sins will be added to his account and he will be thrown in the (Hell) Fire.’

Teaching by comparison and parable. Comparisons and parables help people understand a new concept. Bringing a similar concept as an example makes the new aspects of the concept in question easier to digest. Comparisons and parables that refer to common and strong experiences improve the memory of the new concept that is learned. Muslim (6:83) relates that the Prophet told his Companions: ‘A good friend is like a person who carries amber (which has a fragrant pleasant smell). If nothing else, his pleasant smell will get on you. A bad friend, on the other hand, is like a blacksmith. Even if the dust of his work does not touch you, its fumes do.’

Using body language. Our visual memory far surpasses our audio memory. We remember images and scenes with great ease and speed. With body language, a good educator can make a lasting impression. Bukhari (9:389) relates that the Messenger of God said: ‘One who cares for an orphan and I will be this close in Paradise,’ and he pointed to his index and middle fingers.

Taking advantage of the occasion. Bukhari (8:458) relates that the Companion Jarir ibn Abdullah al-Bajali relates that: ‘One night we were watching full moon with the Prophet. He looked at it and said: ‘All of you will see your Lord on the Day of Judgment just like you see this full moon. None of you will be denied the opportunity to see your Lord.’

Using humor. In Abu Dawud,9 it is related that a man asked the Prophet for a riding animal. The Prophet asked: ‘Would it be alright if I put you on the calf of a female camel?’ The man said: ‘O Messenger of God, what good will that do me?’ and received the following reply: ‘Isn’t every camel the calf of a female camel?’

These are just a few of the many methods the Prophet used to educate his people. Other methods include, but are not limited to, the following: teaching by drawing, diverting the answer toward a different path, asking for the question to be repeated, letting the audience answer, teaching by approval, repeating to emphasize and establish, hiding the culprit or target or subject, describing a concept briefly and then in detail, leaving something ambiguous for the audience to discover, listing and then describing, combining encouragement and discouragement, teaching by stories and stories of past people.

Conclusion

Prophets were sent to the humanity to deliver God’s message in the most effective manner. Every Prophet strove to accomplish his mission by using those educational methods that were best suited to their mission. Today’s educators and parents can learn many lessons from their lives.

Footnotes

1. M. F. Gulen. Online at: www.pearls.org/prophets
2. N. J. Dawood, The Koran (Penguin Classics: 1997).
3. Gulen, www.pearls.org.
4. M. Borg, Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus & the Heart of Contemporary Faith (Harper San Fransisco: 1994). Online at: www.united.edu/portrait/wisdom2.shtml.
5. Ibid.
6. T. Schirrmacher, Jesus as Master Educator (1999). Online at: www.visi.com/~contra_m/ab/schirrmacher/educator.html.
7. A. B. Bruce, The Training of the Twelve (Kregel Publications: 2000 [1894]).
8. M. Khan (trans.), Sahih al-Bukhari: The Translation of the Meanings (Darussalam Publishers: 1997), 1:163 and A. H. Siddiqi (trans.), Sahih Muslim (Kitab Bhavan: 2000), 12:42. All subsequent Tradition citations are taken from these two sources.
9. Harf Information Technology, Hadith Encyclopedia (Egypt: 1996).

One of the main concerns of inter-human dialogue (2) as well as religious pluralism is the concept of the other(s). This concept uses such social/ethnic divisions, categorizations, and labeling as believers/non-believers, Jew/Gentile, Christian/non-Christian to maintain traditional religious polarity. From the very beginning of history, human nature has led people to construct the other(s) and then try to challenge and change it/them. If this goal has not been possible, one side has tried to destroy the other. In this regard, history is full of religious commitments to and wars for absolutism.

Huntington has claimed that the twenty-first century will see clashes of civilizations, by which he means clashes of the others. Marshood echoes this sentiment: Civilizations have always constructed ˜the other’ in forms that serve their own interest, and have treated ˜the other’ very violently history has been very much filled with this kind of violence. Tolerance is rare. Indeed, the term ˜civilization’ implies that a ranking hierarchy is always present and that the social construction of civilization is a product of competing interactions between groups. Although some religions are more exclusionist than others, virtually all of them either assert or imply that their own version of the world is true, thereby rendering competing worldviews inferior. In religious language, ˜the other’ is always evil and dirty. Humans couldn’t have created a loving and caring God without creating evil. It is the creation of a jealous god that can’t coexist alongside that of ˜the other’.(3)

One of religious pluralism’s main concerns is the concept of the other(s), for this attitude is essentially an attempt to understand differences in order to promote life and the universe.

This article considers the following questions: How did Said Nursi (1876-1960), a twentieth-century Turkish Islamic scholar, view others who believe and worship differently? Can believers coexist peacefully within the same societal structure? Is there any way to share the world with those who have different religious practices and beliefs? Is a person of another faith saved? How should unbelievers be treated? His responses to such questions will be used to connect the issue of religious tolerance with contemporary events. Especially after 9/11, we discuss practical aspects of his approach to the other(s), and their different doctrines, ideologies, and religions in order to promote different views of life and the universe that reflect Islamic universalism.

Said Nursi and non-Muslims

According to Nursi, non-Muslims are not the enemies of Muslims. In fact, he even gave a number of reasons why Muslims should see them as friends: They are the means for awakening the Muslims from their centuries of slumber, Muslims could obtain modern scientific knowledge from them, Muslims have an obligation to persuade them that Islam is the religion of peace, and, since they are the Muslims’ neighbors, there must be bonds of friendship between both communities.(4)

Nursi maintained that there was no harm in loving non-Muslims. Since they are developed in science and civilization, such love comes from the improvements they have made in those areas as well as in the public order, which is the basis of all worldly happiness. This type of loving is even mentioned in the Qur’an.5 He wrote: Yet a man is not loved for himself. Maybe the love comes from his attribution or art. It therefore does not necessarily have to be right that all the attribution of a Muslim is Islamic and, contrary to this, all the attribution of an unbeliever is un-Islamic. Nevertheless the attribution or the art which are Islamic might be observed by those who are not Muslim.(6)

The background to Nursi’s approach to tolerance is explained by Michel: Many years before, in 1910-1911, Said Nursi was questioned concerning his desire to build relations of friendship with Christians. He was confronted with the restrictive interpretation that some Muslims had placed on the Qur’anic verse: O you who believe! Do not take the Jews and the Christians for your friends and protectors (5:51). In the light of this verse, he was asked, why did he say that Muslims and Christians should be friends? His answer is instructive, not only for understanding Said Nursi’s desire to encourage love and friendship between Muslims and Christians, but for his approach to Qur’anic interpretation. In his view, the Qur’anic prescription is not general but absolute and, as such, can be restricted. Time is a great interpreter; if it determines its limits, it cannot be gainsaid. That is, when a matter becomes clear in the course of time, one cannot object to it. Moreover, if the judgment is based on derived evidence, the source of the derivation shows the reason for the judgment.(7)

In applying this principle to the interpretation of this verse, he holds that Muslims cannot be friends with Jews and Christians only when these groups reflect Jewishness or Christianness. But, he concludes, Just as not all of the characteristics of an individual Muslim necessarily reflect the teaching of Islam, so also, not all of the qualities of individual Jews or Christians reflect unbelief.(8)

If Muslims discover that a Jew or Christian possesses certain qualities that agree with Islamic teachings, they should consider those qualities as praiseworthy. Thus, it is those good qualities that form the basis for friendship with Jews and Christians. Can a Muslim love a Christian or Jew? he asks, and replies with an example of a Muslim man who is married to a woman of the People of the Book. Of course, he should love her. His argument is the very fact that the Qur’an permits a Muslim man to marry a Jewish or Christian woman presumes that he can and should love her.(9) Nursi’s understanding and his openness to the an individual’s personal qualities reflect pluralism.

Nursi also indicated his acceptance of pluralism by writing that Muslims should ally themselves with Christians to fight atheism,(10) and that all of the People of the Book should cooperate against the common enemy of atheism or other unreligious ideologies. He wrote: It is even recorded in authentic traditions of the Prophet that, at the end of time, the truly pious among the Christians will unite with the People of the Qur’an and fight their common enemy: irreligion. And at this time, too, the people of religion and truth need to unite sincerely not only with their own brothers and fellow believers, but also with the truly pious and spiritual ones among the Christians, temporarily [disengaging] from the discussion and debate of points of difference in order to combat their joint enemy “ aggressive atheism.(11)

Michel states: Writing during one of the most tragic periods in the history of Anatolia, Said Nursi could not ignore the reality of the deaths of so many innocent persons. It is to his great credit that he rose above sectarian loyalty to address the question of innocent Christians as well as Muslims who fell victim to the times. ˜Even if those innocent people were unbelievers,’ he stated, ˜in return for the tribulations they suffered due to that worldly disaster, they have such a reward from the treasury of Divine mercy that if the veil of the Unseen were to open, a great manifestation of mercy would be apparent in relation to them and they would declare: ˜O Lord, thanks be to You! All praise belongs to God.'(12)

Nursi considered Europe as having two faces. Europe is two. One follows the sciences which serve justice and right and activities beneficial for the life of society through the inspiration it has received from true Christianity. This first Europe I am not addressing. Rather, I am addressing the second, corrupt Europe which, through the darkness of the philosophy of naturalism that considered the evils of civilization to be its virtues, has driven humankind to vice and misguidance.(13)

Nursi and the diversity of truth

Nursi asserted that since truth is not limited to one understanding, there can be many different understandings that vary in form according to time and place. Even sacred laws change according to the times. Indeed, one age may have seen several Prophets,(14) and there were different Prophets and laws in the same continent during the same century.(15)

Regarding the diversity of the schools of law, Nursi replies: If you say: The truth is one; how can the different ordinances of the four, or twelve schools be true? The answer: The same water governs in five different ways in five ill people of different dispositions, thus: for one, the water is a cure for his illness, and according to medicine, necessary. For another, it is like poison for his sickness and harmful, and medically prohibited. For another, it causes a small amount of harm, and is reprehensible medically. For another the water is beneficial and without harm; according to medicine that is sunna for him. And for yet another it is neither harmful nor beneficial; he can drink it with good health, and for him it is medically permissible. Thus, here the truth has become numerous; all five are true. Are you able to say: The water is only a cure, only necessary, and it governs no other way?(16)

On the diversity of Islamic faith, Nursi states: When you know your way and opinions to be true, you have the right to say, ˜My way is right and the best.’ But you do not have the right to say, ˜Only my way is right.’ According to the sense of ˜The eye of contentment is too dim to perceive faults; it is the eye of anger that exhibits all vice,’ your unjust view and distorted opinion cannot be the all-decisive judge and cannot condemn the belief of another as invalid.(17)

Given this context, John Voll opines that Nursi’s approach can be considered pluralistic. Voll writes: In terms of Qur’anic commentary, Said Nursi argues that the verses of the Qur’an reflect the vastness of God’s message and depths of meanings. He then quotes Nursi: As the Qur’an of Miraculous Exposition expresses truths through its explicit, clear meanings and senses, so it expresses many allusive meanings through its styles and forms. Each of its verses contains numerous levels of meanings. Since the Qur’an proceeds from all-encompassing knowledge, all its meanings may be intended. It cannot be restricted to one or two meanings like man’s speech, the product of his limited mind and individual will. It is because of this that innumerable truths contained in the Qur’an’s verses have been expounded by Qur’anic commentators, and there are many more which have not been expounded by them.(18)

According to Voll: This openness to many different levels of understanding reflects a pluralism that is not a relativist position, but rather emphasizes the importance of the role of the individual in the interpretation.(19)

Nursi’s use of metaphors to promote pluralism

Speaking metaphorically, Nursi maintains that the palace of the universe contains four categories of workers: angels, animals, plants and inanimate creatures, and humanity. In a sense, their diverse duties of worship also admit pluralism.(20) His characterization of the universe displays a universal pluralism, for: Man is the place of manifestation of all the Names, but the Names being various has resulted in the universe’s variety and the differences in the angels’ worship, and has also caused a degree of variety among men. The different laws of the prophets, the different ways of the saints, and the different paths of the purified scholars have arisen from this mystery.(21)

Basing himself upon: O humanity, We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other, Nursi writes that this can be understood as: I created you as peoples, nations, and tribes, so that you should know one another and the relations between you in social life, and assist one another; not so that you should regard each other as strangers, refusing to acknowledge one another, and nurturing hostility and enmity.(22) Thus, being divided into groups and tribes should lead to mutual acquaintance and mutual assistance, not to antipathy and mutual hostility.(23)

The following metaphor aptly summarizes his recognition of pluralism: If someone is both a teacher, and a policeman, and a clerk of the court, and an inspector in the civil service, in each office he has both relations, and duties, and obligations, and salaries, and responsibilities, and promotion, and enemies and rivals who are the cause of his failures. He appears before the king with many titles, and he sees the king. He seeks help from him with many tongues. He has recourse to many of the ruler’s titles, and seeks his help in many forms in order to be saved from the evil of his enemies. In just the same way, man, who manifests many Names and is charged with many duties and afflicted with many enemies, invokes many of the Names in his prayers and supplications. Muhammad the Arabian (Peace and blessings be upon him), the cause of pride of mankind and truly the most perfect man, supplicated with a thousand and one Names in his prayer, Jawshan al-Kabir.(24)

Using his concept of pluralism, he defended Muhyiddin ibn al-˜Arabi, an Islamic scholar of the Unity of Existence, in the following words; Yes, himself, Muhyiddin was rightly-guided and acceptable, but in all his works cannot be the guide and instructor. However, he himself is free of misguidance. Sometimes, a word may appear to be unbelief, but the one who spoke it is not an unbeliever.(25) He also quoted Muhyiddin: Those who are not one of us and do not know our station should not read our books, for it may be damaging for them.(26)

Nursi’s efforts to legitimize Sufism and to reach common understandings with the Shi˜a also manifest pluralism.(27) Although he opined that some people attached too much importance to Sufism at the expense of serving the cause of spreading the truths of belief, he paid attention to legitimizing sainthood and Sufism and choosing the middle way.(28)

His concept of pluralism even extended to salvation. As we read in The Letters: The two parts of the confession of faith cannot be separated; they either prove each other, comprise each other; one cannot be without the others. Since the Prophet (Upon whom be blessings and peace) was the Seal of the Prophets and the heir of all the prophets, he is at the start of all the ways leading to God. There can be no way to reality and salvation outside his mighty highway. All those with inner knowledge of God and the authorities of these who have researched into reality have said like Sa’di Shirazi: ˜It is impossible, Sa’di, to be victorious on the way of salvation, except by following Mustafa [Prophet Muhammad].’ They also said: ˜All ways are closed except the highway of Muhammad.’ However, it sometimes happens that people may be on the highway of Muhammad and within it, without knowing that it is the highway of Muhammad. And it sometimes happens that they do not know the Prophet, but the road they take is part of the highwayof Muhammad(29)

Nursi spent his life pursuing his quest to strengthen belief and reform society by means of a moral-based discourse.(30) Throughout his long life, he raised a voice of reasonable pluralism in the Islamic world by viewing one person as having numerous personalities, all of which display different qualities.(31) He accepted that truth could be understood in more than one way, and therefore he was neither an absolutist nor a relativist in matters ranging from religiosity to ethnicism, and from moderation to salvation.(32)

Conclusion

In a sense Nursi’s approach to non-Muslims amounts to pluralism. He wrote: Our action towards non-Muslims is persuasion, for we know them to be civilized, and to show Islam to be elevated and worthy of love.(33)

Believing Islam to be the middle way, Nursi emphasized the importance of moderation and keeping away from want and excess saying Too much or too little of anything is not good. Moderation is the middle way….(34) Finally, by advocating a middle way, Nursi communicated a message of hope and tolerance to others (35) when he wrote: The thing which is most worthy of love is love, and that most deserving of enmity is enmity. It is love and loving that render people’s social life secure and that lead to happiness, [it is these] which are most worthy of love and being loved. The time for enmity and hostility is finished.(36)

In conclusion, we can say that Nursi approaches this world and the Hereafter with a pluralistic view. He accepts different views, ideologies, and races, and his understanding of ethnicity demonstrates pluralism. For him, pluralism or tolerance does not necessarily mean integration or conversion; rather, it means the necessity to promote universal life. The importance that he places upon one innocent individual shows an impressive attitude of religious pluralism.

According to Michel: In any study of the development of Christian-Muslim dialogue in the 20th century, special attention must be given to the writings and preaching of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. As one of the first religious thinkers in the course of this century to propose and promote dialogue between Muslims and Christians, Said Nursi’s advocacy of this dialogue dates back to 1911. This was a full half century before the Catholic Church’s Second Vatican Council urged Christians and Muslims to resolve their differences and move beyond the conflicts of the past to build relations characterized by respect and cooperation. Bediuzzaman’s repeated promotion of Muslim-Christian dialogue is even more striking in that his recommendations frequently date from times of tension and even warfare between Muslim and Christian communities.(37)

Footnotes

1. This article originally appeared as H. Horkuc, New Muslim Discourses on Pluralism in the Postmodern Age: Nursi on Religious Pluralism, The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 19, no. 2 (spring 2002): 68-86.
2. As opposed to interfaith or inter-religious dialogue. I consider both of these terms to be too limiting for the issue being discussed.
3. N. Marshood, Religious Pluralism and Social Change. Hudson County Community College. Online.
4. See I. Canan, The Chief Questions Facing the Islamic World and Their Solutions according to Bediuzzaman, in Second International Symposium on Bediuzzaman Said Nursi: The Reconstruction of Islamic Thought in the Twentieth Century and Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (Istanbul: Yeni Nesil, 1992).
5. See B. S. Nursi, Munazarat, in Kaynakli-Indeksli-Lugatli Risale-i Nur Kulliyati (The Epistle of Light), (Istanbul: Nesil Basim Yayin, 1996), 1944.
6. Ibid.
7. T. S. J. Michel, Muslim-Christian Dialogue anda Co-operation in the Thought of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, The Muslim World 89, nos. 3-4 (1999): 332.
8. Ibid., 325.
9. T. S. J. Michel, Muslim-Christian Dialogue and Co-operation in the Thought of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, in Fourth International Symposium on Bediuzzaman Said Nursi: A Contemporary Approach towards Understanding the Qur’an: The Example of Risale-I Nur (Istanbul: Yeni Nesil: 1998).
10. In this regard, see John Obert Voll, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi and Religion in the 1950s, The Muslim World 89, no.s 3-4 (1999): 255-56.
11. B. S. Nursi, The Flashes, in Risale-i Nur 1.0 CD. (Istanbul: Yeni Nesil, 200), 203, note 7.
12. Michael, Muslim-Christian Dialogue.
13. Ibid., 160.
14. Compare this with B. S. Nursi, The Words, in Risale-i Nur 1.0 CD (Istanbul: Yeni Nesil, 2000), 501. Then, since with the coming of the Prophet of the end of time, man as though advanced from the primary to the secondary stage, and through numerous revolutions and upheavals reached a position at which all the human peoples could receive a single lesson and listen to a single teacher and act in accordance with a single law, no need remained for different laws, neither was there necessity for different teachers. But because they were not all at completely the same level and did not proceed in the same sort of social life, the schools of law became numerous. If, like students of a school of higher education, the vast majority of mankind were clothed in the same sort of social life and attained the same level, then all the schools could be united. But just as the state of the world does not permit that, so the schools of law cannot be the same.
15. See conclusion in ibid., 500.
16. Ibid., 501.
17. B. S. Nursi, The Letters, in Risale-i Nur 1.0 CD. (Istanbul: Yeni Nesil, 2000), 314.
18. Voll, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, 255-56.
19. Ibid.
20. Horkuc, New Muslim Discourses, 77.
21. Nursi, The Words, 343.
22. Nursi, The Letters, 379.
23. Ibid., 380.
24. Nursi, The Words, 344.
25. Nursi, The Flashes, 371.
26. For more on this see Ibid., 369-70.
27. See Horkuc, New Muslim Discourses, 80.
28. In one of his treaties concerning the Nine Allusions, Nursi explains the ways of sainthood and Sufism, deals with the definition of the Sufi path, and explains the truth underlying the terms Sufism, path, sainthood, and spiritual journeying. Nursi, The Letters, 518.
29. Ibid., 394.
30. Horkuc, New Muslim Discourses, 81.
31. In this treatise, Nursi explains how a person may have numerous personalities in respect of his different duties. Nursi, The Letters, 377.
32. Horkuc, New Muslim Discourses.
33. Cited in Canan, The Chief Questions
34. Nursi, The Flashes, 43.
35. See Horkuc, New Muslim Discourses, 77.
36. As cited in Michel, Muslim-Christian Dialogue.
37. Ibid., 325.

This Word presents a brief comparison between the Qur’an’s sacred wisdom and human philosophy, a concise summary of the Qur’anic instruction and training for humanity’s personal and social life. 

First fundamental

Differences between the Qur’anic wisdom and human philosophy: A religious, skillful, and renowned ruler wanted to make a copy of the Qur’an as beautifully as required by its sacred meanings and miraculous wording in order to adorn its wonderful words in a worthy fashion. So, he wrote it in a truly wonderful fashion with all kinds of precious jewels. To point out the variety of its truths, he wrote some of its letters in diamonds and emeralds, others in pearls and agate, brilliants and coral, and gold and silver. He adorned and decorated it in such a way that everyone was full of admiration and astonishment. That Qur’an became a most precious artwork for the people of truth, for its outer beauty indicated its brilliant inner beauty and striking adornment.

The ruler showed this Qur’an to a foreign [non-Muslim] philosopher and a Muslim scholar. Seeking to test and reward them, he told each one to write about it. The two men complied. The philosopher discussed the letters’ shapes, decorations, and interrelationships, and the jewels’ properties and methods of use. He said nothing of its meaning, for he saw only an ornamented object and was unaware that it was an invaluable book with depths of meaning. As he was well-informed about engineering and chemistry, could describe things, and knew a great deal about jewelry but nothing about Arabic, he wrote his book accordingly. But the truth-loving Muslim scholar, understanding that it was the Clear Book (the Wise Qur’an), ignored its outward ornamentation and the letters’ decorations and described the sacred truths and secret lights behind the veil of decorations, for they are far more valuable and worthy of respect, more useful and comprehensive.

Both men presented their books to the ruler, who began with the philosopher’s book. Seeing that he had worked very hard, the ruler nevertheless refused his book and expelled him from his presence. Why? Because he had written nothing of the bejeweled Qur’an’s true wisdom, understood none of its meanings, and showed his disrespect for it by thinking that this source of truths consists of meaningless decoration. Looking through second book, and seeing that the truth-loving scholar had written a very beautiful and useful interpretation, a wise and illuminating composition, he congratulated him. It was pure wisdom, and its author was a true scholar, a genuine sage. As a reward, the scholar was given 10 gold coins from the ruler’s inexhaustible treasury for each letter of his book.

The meaning is as follows: The embellished Qur’an is this artistically fashioned universe; the ruler is the Eternal Sovereign. The first man represents the line of philosophy and philosophers; the second man represents the way of the Qur’an and its students. Indeed, the wise Qur’an is the most exalted expounder and a most eloquent translator of this universe (a macro-Qur’an). It is the Criterion that instructs jinn and humanity in the signs of creation”Divine laws regarding creation and the universe’s operation”inscribed by the Pen of Power on the sheets of the universe and pages of time. It looks upon creatures, each a meaningful letter, as bearing the meaning of another (on account of their Maker) and says: How beautifully they have been made, how meaningfully they point to the Maker’s beauty and grace. Thus it shows the universe’s real beauty.

Philosophy, focused on the design and decorations of creation’s letters, has lost its way. While it ought to look upon this macro-book’s letters as bearing the meaning of another (on account of God), it looks upon them as signifying themselves (on account of themselves) and says: How beautiful they are, not How beautifully they have been made. Thus philosophers insult creation and cause it to complain. In truth, materialistic philosophy is a falsehood having no truth, an insult to creation.

Second fundamental

Moral training in one’s personal life: Sincere students of philosophy are Pharaoh-like tyrants. They abuse themselves by bowing in worship before the meanest thing, if they perceive it to be in their interest to do so. These materialist students are stubborn, misleading, and unyielding, but so wretched that they accept endless degradation for one pleasure; unbending but so mean as to kiss the feet of devilish people for a base advantage. They are conceited and domineering, but, unable to find any point of support in their hearts, are utterly impotent and vainglorious tyrants. Such people are no more than self-centered egoists striving to gratify their material and carnal desires, pursuers of personal interests and certain national interests.

Sincere students of the Qur’an are worshipping servants of God. They do not degrade themselves by bowing in worship before even the greatest of the created. They are dignified servants who do not worship in order to obtain a benefit, even Paradise. They are modest students, mild and gentle, who only lower themselves voluntarily to their Creator, never exceeding what He has permitted. They are aware of their weakness and need, but are independent because the Munificent Owner provides them with spiritual wealth. Relying on their Master’s infinite Power, they are powerful. They act and strive purely for God’s sake and pleasure, and to be equipped with virtue. The training given by philosophy and the Qur’an may be understood through the above comparison.

Third fundamental

Moral training in human social life: Philosophy considers force to be the point of support in social life, and life as the realization of self-interest (its goal) and conflict (its principle). A community’s unifying bonds are race and aggressive nationalism, and its fruits are the gratification of carnal desires and increased need. Force calls for aggression, seeking self-interest causes battles over material resources, and conflict brings strife. Racism feeds by swallowing others, thereby paving the way for aggression. This is why humanity is not happy.

The Qur’an accepts right as the point of support in social life. The aim is virtue and God’s approval, and its principle is mutual assistance. The only community bonds it accepts are those of religion, profession, and country. Its aim is to control and thus weaken carnal desires by urging the soul to sublime matters, satisfying our exalted feelings so that we will strive for human perfection and true humanity. Right calls for unity, virtues bring solidarity, and mutual assistance means helping each other. Religion secures brotherhood, sisterhood, and cohesion. Restraining our desires and urging the soul to perfection brings happiness in both worlds.