Immunity can be divided into innate immunity and acquired immunity. The mechanisms of innate immunity are given to us by our Creator as a tool with which to protect ourselves. These are used to fight against every kind of microorganism. These ever-ready forces do not need to have met the enemy microorganisms to fight them off. Acquired immunity comes about after the infectious microbe has been encountered; this is usually as a result of infection or vaccination. Such immunities only protect the body against a specific harmful organism. T and B lymphocytes and antibodies belong in the acquired immune system, whereas other mechanisms are part of the innate immune system. We can classify the very intricate immunity mechanisms as follows:

A – Layers that cover the inner and outer surfaces of the body: These are the physical structures that carry out the task of protection by covering the tissues like a shield or fortress.

1. Skin: Our skin is an organ in its own right. It is created with such perfect characteristics that no microorganism can penetrate our body if there are no flaws, like gashes, scratches, or wounds.

2. Oral mucous membrane: If the epithelial layer covering the interior walls of our mouth is healthy, microorganisms cannot infiltrate the blood.

3. Areas around the sexual organs: The sexual organ in males is, even at birth, more protected than that of females. For female children, the epithelium covering the interior face of the organ turns into a multi-layered structure due to the impact of estrogen (sexuality hormone) that starts being secreted after adolescence. That multilayered structure blocks infections that can result from sexual intercourse. Female children before adolescence do not have estrogen, thus their genital organs have a thinner layer of epithelium and are more likely to be infected. This is why cleansing after urination should be done from the front to the back and the genital organs should not come into contact with feces. Our God of infinite mercy also gives girls a hymen in order to protect girls from germs.

B – Flora bacteria (beneficial bacteria): These do not serve as mechanical obstacles, but are assigned tasks. There are some bacteria that do not cause illnesses in the urine and in the proliferation canals, the skin, throat, intestines, and the eyes. Those beneficial bacteria located in our body work for us and hinder other infectious bacteria from settling in these zones. Those places are sterile in the body of a fetus; no beneficial bacteria exist there. Protector bacteria are positioned in those places right after the birth; this is a revelation of God’s infinite compassion. For instance, a baby’s first feces are sterile because there are no bacteria in his intestines. As time passes, a baby adopts protector bacteria through his mouth by nursing, from bottles, and pacifiers. Parents should be careful about the purity of pacifiers, feeding bottles, water, and additional nourishments, particularly in the first couple of months, until the bacteria flora have been established in an infant’s body. Otherwise, babies can easily suffer from diarrhea. God equipped beneficial bacteria with some special peculiarities to be able to deter other microorganisms from settling in the body. Here are some of these peculiarities:

1. They compete with infectious bacteria on the consumption of nutrients, so they restrain the reproduction of other bacteria.

2. They emit bactericides that kill only pathogenic (harmful and infectious) bacteria.

3. Some flora bacteria are assigned a mission to impede the reproduction of pathogenic bacteria so as to reduce pH (increase acidity) in the environment. For example, the lactobacillus in the female genital passage produces lactose by breaking down the glucose in the uterine canal in order to acidify the secreted matters in that canal. Reproduction of fungi is also obstructed in the same way. Due to that fact, some fungal diseases might emerge in genital areas or in the ears, among other places, after antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics kill not only pathogenic bacteria, but also flora bacteria. Thus, desultory usage of antibiotics should be avoided.

Today, beneficial intestinal bacteria are taken orally in capsules, and infectious bacteria in the intestines are killed by supplementing the flora bacteria in that organ without the use of antibiotics.

C – Mechanical cleansing:

1. Secretions:

a.Saliva: Secreted continuously from the glands behind the ears, beneath the chin and beneath the tongue, saliva expels the intruder pathogenic bacteria by cleansing our mouths. It also prevents tooth decay and gum inflammation by cleaning leftover food on which bacteria could feed.

b. Tears: Tears are charged with the duty of cleaning the conjunctiva (the mucous membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and that continues over the forepart of the eyeball) and the cornea (the transparent part of the coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and pupil and admits light to the interior).

2.Cilia: These are feather-like cell extensions of microscopic size.

a.Nasal Cilia: Covering the nasal mucous membrane, mucus (a slimy substance) grasps dust particles and microbes in the air due to its adhesive nature. Lumpy folds inside the nose do not let the air flow straight. Therefore, a turbulent air current occurs in the nose. This turbulent current causes the particles in the air to come into contact with this slimy substance and to get stuck there. Epithelial cells also have cilia expanding toward the nasal cavity. Every cell has nearly 200 cilia. These cilia push mucus and the dust particles attached to it toward the pharynx with an up and down whipping action (10–20 strokes per second) so as to keep them away from the lungs.

b.Cilia in the lower respiratory passages: The upper surface of epithelium that is spread on the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is also covered with mucus. Epithelial cells in this area have cilia, too. These cilia do the same whipping action to push particles and microorganisms in the mucus toward the pharynx. They are pushed into the pharynx and expelled by coughing. One of the damaging impacts of nicotine on the respiratory system is that it paralyzes these cilia and disrupts the discharging process of harmful particles. As a consequence, smoking leads to many lung diseases.

D – Enzymes, acids and antibodies in body secretions:

1.Lysozyme: This is a substance found in body secretions (saliva, perspiration, tear, genital organ secretion etc.) that kills bacteria.

2.Stomach acid (Hydrochloric acid, HCl): Being emitted through stomach glands, HCl is a strong acid that can destroy bacteria that are able to reach as far as the stomach with the food we eat. Although we usually have our meals without cleaning our hands sufficiently or without washing them thoroughly, we rarely (except for situations where we are exposed to a high density of microbes like food poisoning or dirty drinking water) get infected via this route. The actors in this perfect protection are lysozyme and stomach acid.

3.Antibodies: Being present in the blood and body secretions, antibodies play a role in the defense against microorganisms. Antibodies in breast milk are passed from the mother’s blood to her milk via a very special mechanism, and are significant in the protection of an infant from infections.

E – Defender Cells: Resembling special operation forces, each of these cells is trained in different parts of the body and sent into the blood circulation. Those troop-like cells, which protect us against diseases by struggling fiercely with germs that can reach the blood after overcoming many obstacles, cannot have come about merely by chance, without the participation of the All-Knowing Designer.

1.Macrophages: Monocytes, a kind of leukocyte in the blood, pass from the capillaries to the tissue and turn into giant cells called macrophages that can phagocytose (swallow microbes) at a great rate. Macrophages swallow and tear down every kind of bacteria and virus that invades the body. These cells constitute the first defense line of the body and serve like advance guards. For instance, the first force to start fighting against the germs that can penetrate the skin through a scratch is the macrophages found just beneath the skin are called histiocytes. Germs that can infiltrate the blood through the intestines and reach the liver via the portal vein are eradicated by another type of macrophage. Therefore, almost no bacterium can pass from the intestines into the general blood circulation system. Germs that enter the body orally are destroyed by macrophages stationed in the lymph nodes on the tonsils. The ones that manage to reach the lungs through the respiratory paths are killed by the macrophages in the alveoli. Those cells also cause T-lymphocytes (very specially equipped cells) to proliferate by stimulating them. 2.Neutrophils: These are the most common type (60-70%) of leukocytes. These cells participate only in fights against bacteria. When bacteria enter a tissue, some poisonous matters emitted by them cause a chemical reaction called chemotaxis; this reaction attracts the neutrophils toward the infected tissue. In this case, the neutrophils leave their capillaries for the infected tissue and find and destroy the bacteria. How can germ-eating cells, like macrophages and neutrophils, distinguish normal body cells from microbes? Undoubtedly, the Creator of such an excellent defense system does not make us worry about such a problem; it was for this purpose that God created opsonins. Opsonins are similar to adapters in that they are able to attach two different parts together and connect themselves to a specific place on the germ. Thus, macrophages and neutrophils carry out their germ-eating job perfectly, connecting themselves to those opsonins. Since our own body cells do not have receptors that can handle opsonins, they cannot be eaten. 3.Lymphocytes: These are the troops of the immunity system with the most complicated organizations and strategies. These troops are categorized as T and B lymphocytes. They are the most important and powerful of the immunity mechanisms and constitute about 20-30% of the leukocytes in blood. They are regarded as the last defense line against those germs with which the other mechanisms cannot cope. a.T lymphocytes: When T lymphocytes are stimulated by macrophages, T cells that are a form of T lymphocyte secrete a matter called lymphokine. Lymphokine stimulates cytotoxic (microbe killer) T cells and B lymphocytes into action. Unless auxiliary T cells exist, the acquired immunity system collapses. Likewise, the HIV virus destroys auxiliary T cells and renders a person susceptible to disease. Even very simple infections can turn into a catastrophe for those patients. Cytotoxic T cells assault bacteria and particularly virus-infected body cells. They deliver porphyrins (proteins to make holes) into cell membranes by attaching themselves to the cells. In that way, a huge amount of water enters the cells and they get torn, due to over-swelling. Thus, viruses in the infected cells are dispersed and are neutralized by specific antibodies produced for that purpose with their infecting ability being impeded. (Viruses have to enter body cells to be able to proliferate. Only in this way can they protect themselves against antibodies and proliferate. Viruses that proliferate in cells use matters in those cells and cause them to eventually break apart, then move onto other cells.) b.B lymphocytes: These cells are stimulated directly by microbes. However, they need lymphokines to be completely stimulated and activated. Lymphokines are created capable of causing B lymphocytes to proliferate and transform themselves to Plasmocytes. Plasmocytes also emit antibodies to the blood. c.Killer cells: These play a role in the innate immune system, so they do not need stimulation like T and B lymphocytes. In particular, they assault body cells that are virus-infected or show a tendency to cancer. In this way, they establish a first defense line against viruses and block cancer development. Even though the working principles of lymphocytes are not known, they are related in some way to spiritual values such as love, enthusiasm, and peace of mind. Likewise, it is known that the immune systems of people whose spirituality has been weakened by depression and stress are more susceptible to break down. Unless those people recover by activating their spiritual dynamics, like faith in destiny, they are under a greater threat of cancer. Yet, this world is a place of examination. We cannot claim that every cancer is due to a damaged spirituality; we should not forget that cancer might occur due to different reasons. 4. Eosinophils: These are a kind of leukocytes that can kill some sort of parasites. They cling to parasites and release the granules in their cytoplasm into the parasites. These granules contain enzymes which destroy parasites. 5. Mast cells and basophils: Mast cells and basophils play a central role in inflammatory and immediate allergic reactions. They are able to release potent inflammatory mediators. Mast cells function out of the veins and protect the tissues in the body, whereas basophils are similar cells found in the bloodstream. F – Factors in plasma: 1.Antibodies: These are secreted into the blood by plasma cells. They fight against the germs that have stimulated them. They show their impact directly (neutralizing bacterial poisons, gathering and precipitating bacteria, neutralizing viruses, pulling microorganisms into pieces) or by activating a very special system called a complement. 2.Complement proteins: When inactive complement proteins in plasma are stimulated by antigens and an opposing antibody complex, active complement compounds are brought to life. These compounds have various effects like chemotaxis, opsonization, development of inflammation as a result of stimulation of mast cells and basophils, and the destruction of microorganisms. The complement system can be stimulated by microorganisms without a need for antibody development (without a need for lymphocytes); this can be seen as a manifestation of our Creator”s name Mudabbir (managing, administering, controlling every being in balance and order). This ensures the stimulation of a complement system under conditions that lack antibody production. Hence, the body is never left completely undefended. Is it really possible that such an amazing defense system, that requires unlimited knowledge and power, and that consists of every kind of alternative action, can come into existence by itself? 3.Interferons: Viruses invade body cells and synthesize proteins that contribute to their proliferation. Interferons, secreted by lymphocytes or other leukocytes, are created so that they can attach themselves to virus-infected body cells and obstruct the production of those proteins. Hence, these viruses cannot proliferate. 4.Lysozyme: Mentioned in the earlier part concerning body secretions, lysozyme is also available in the blood and kills bacteria there. 5.Properdin: This is a kind of protein available in the plasma which can neutralize viruses and destroy some bacteria types. 6.Acute phase proteins: These are a large number of serum proteins (C-reactive protein, etc.) that are swiftly synthesized by the liver and that are employed in defense during infections. 7.Beta-lysin: A substance that destroys some types of bacteria. G – Events caused by infections: 1. Inflammation: Inflammation is a response that is designed to protect tissues against tissue destruction, caused by factors like infection, excessive heat, and trauma. When a tissue is invaded by microorganisms, it starts to be destroyed; certain matters come out of those tissue cells (as mast cells) and lead to certain reactions in that zone. a.Vasodilation: As the little veins transporting blood to a tissue widen, more blood rushes in and more neutrophils are carried to that zone. Meanwhile, a color enhancement (blushing) occurs in that place. b.Increase in permeability of the capillaries: Neutrophils can penetrate into the tissues more easily. Plenty of water also passes through tissues, so some edemas (swelling in tissues) develop. Finally, coagulation proteins in the plasma, which can rarely infiltrate from capillaries to the tissues because of their large molecular structures, pass to the tissues and clot the liquid here. Hence, lymph veins, which are responsible for returning the liquid to the blood circulation, are plugged by clots. Consequently, inflammation detains microorganisms in that specific zone and prevents them from spreading throughout the body. Microorganisms are also destroyed by tissue macrophages in the inflammation zone and the migrant neutrophils working there. (The more a bacterium causes tissue damage, the harder it passes to blood.) Then, remnants of dead bacteria, damaged tissue cells, and neutrophils that are also destroyed after the phagocytosing of between 5 and 20 bacteria soften the inflammation by dissolving and creating some pus in that zone. The pus streams out by itself or is relieved by an incision being cut in the covering skin. 2. Fever:Toxins coming out of some bacteria and some secretions of microbe-phagocytosing cells lead to an increase in body temperature. Fever stops reproduction of microorganisms and kills them by ruining their structures. Within this framework, the occurrence of fever is beneficial; it indicates that the body is resisting and struggling to kill the microbes. Therefore, fever should not be reduced as long as it is not too high to cause brain damage (especially for children). 3. Cough: A cough helps the body discharge the microbes in the respiratory paths. Thus, cough medicines should not be used immediately, except in cases of whooping cough. 4. Diarrhea: This helps the body rid itself of feces quickly, so medicines to stop diarrhea should not be used, either. However, in cases of cough and diarrhea, a person should know their own strength and the strength of their immune system well and take medication accordingly. When we consider all these defense mechanisms, this question occurs in our minds: Do we protect ourselves against infections or is there someone who operates various immunity mechanisms in our bodies and controls them at every moment with His infinite knowledge and power?

These “interpretations” attempt to show that there is no such thing as a miracle and that everything in the world obeys the immutable laws of nature. According to such a view, all miracles narrated by the Holy books either must be reinterpreted, or if this is not possible-rejected.

The use of science as an argument against the possibility of the extraordinary acts of God is conceptually incorrect; today’s science starts from the assumption of the impossibility of miracles. In other words, scientists believe that miracles are impossible. Yet, a belief in the opposite is no less a legitimate position to adopt. Therefore, science’s statement that miracles are impossible is based on the assumption that they are impossible; this is not a logically acceptable argument.

There is a need to prepare the ground for such arguments by considering the definitions of science and its method. We have to realize the limits of the scientific method that is based on observations and experiments. The reliability of the human mind and its perception and the relativity of time are some of other issues that need to be considered.

Whatever happens around us is normally bound to a time scale. Billions of living creatures are born every day; some by cell division, others through the long process of pregnancy. Since these events abound in nature we consider them to be normal, nothing extraordinary. On the contrary, if we were to witness a child being conceived and born in one minute, as if someone had pressed the fast forward button, we would be amazed. In this case, a miracle would have occurred, not by the violation of the cause and effect principle, but rather from a change in time scale. Thus, our familiarity with phenomena is very important in distinguishing between a miracle and a non-miracle.

Science is based on what we can observe and what is understood from these observations by making generalizations. First of all, we cannot observe every moment and every place in the universe. Our experiments are limited in space and time. For example, if all experiments done by us confirmed Newton’s second law, F=ma, we still would not be able to rigorously prove that this law still holds true in some distant galaxy. We could not even prove that it were true for Earth throughout all of its history; it is not possible to say that that things happened in such and such way simply because they happen in that way today! However, at this point the scientific method with all its pros and cons comes into play to assert that this law is true for all of the Universe, for all of its past and future. This fact alone is enough to demonstrate that science has its limits.

Many miracles of Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, happened in the presence of many of his followers or enemies. The splitting of the Moon, walking trees, and talking stones were just a few. One could try to explain these by saying that the people who witnessed them had undergone hypnosis or were having dreams; however there are miracles that resulted in people being able to drink water from his fingers or plenty of food emerging from a small amount. It is impossible to deceive one’s friends with a small lie even for a short time (the cold fusion scandal of 1989 should be a good example!); how could somebody possibly deceive thousands of enemies for fourteen hundred years? Thus, it is impossible to deny the authenticity of the miracles of Prophet Muhammad.

Before the advent of positivism, miracles were used as a powerful means to convince people in the truth of religions. Prophet Jesus was born without a father, Prophet Moses parted the sea and crossed it without drowning, Prophet Abraham emerged unharmed from the fire and Prophet Muhammad split the Moon and ascended to the Heavens; these are among the most prominent examples of miracles.

However, nowadays because of scientific “terror” people are afraid even to mention miracles. People have been so affected by scientific dogma that everything unusual is categorized as being nothing more than a “fairy tale.” The reason for this historical error is the inability of science to draw a demarcating line between observations and interpretations to date.

Positivism has its roots in the 16th century and thus all religions were affected by its destructive dogma. Before that time, people made explanations for natural phenomena, saying “a seed starts to evolve to produce a tree, it rains because the tree needs water, and the tree produces fruit because people need to eat,” or other simplistic explanations.

The realization of the fact that the same phenomenon can be interpreted in several ways brought up the question of what the mechanism was that lay behind the process. This in turn lead people to discover the cause and effect relationship inherent in nature. As a result, ordinary events were interpreted as happening without any interference from God, leaving the concept of God to be found only in the realm of miracles. However, the next century was to come with even more destructive dogmas, presented under the guise of science.

The modern usage of the term “laws of nature” was first coined in the 17th century. Scientists of the time believed that physical and biological systems were self-regulating and God was only “the first cause” capable of changing the laws of nature. However, Locke and Hume argued on the basis of Newton’s physics that the natural laws were unchangeable and hence miracles were impossible. In the 17th century, with its notion of an impotent God, the foundation of religious beliefs was shattered, but not to the same extent as happened in the 19th century.

In the 19th century, developments in quantum physics brought about new points of view. The already existing notion of an impotent God made people suppose that Divine Power was limited to conducting probabilities. When it was discovered that particle motion and interactions were based on probability, they began to think that God’s power was limited at the micro level, as well as believing that He was unable to change physical laws or work miracles.

Nowadays, the biologic uncertainty that was produced by molecular biology and “the exploratory journeys” into the depths of the cell has caused a significant debate, particularly in the discipline of sociobiology. In biology, you can arrive at a decision based on statistics. However, it is impossible to reach a result that is as precise and universally accepted as a formula in physics; this is because living systems maintain their lives in a continuously changing, but stable dynamic equilibrium. For example, we cannot say that there are 763 pores on the leaf of an apple tree, or that there are 5,891,633 erythrocytes in a cubic millimeter of blood, but we can express some relations based on some approximations and averages.

Having said this, we cannot tie the situation of miracles to the principle of uncertainty; in an inorganic physical world there is a much stronger determinacy than there is in biology. For instance, an apple that is separated from the tree falls to the ground because of gravity. However, we encounter large uncertainty when we get to the level of subatomic particles. Heisenberg’s Principle of Uncertainty states this very clearly. Therefore, if we were to descend to the subatomic level for miracles like the splitting of the Red Sea or the division of the Moon that were witnessed in the inorganic world, we come across an indeterminacy of physical laws rather than a determinacy. In fact, it may not be correct to call this uncertainty, because although it may be uncertain for us, it is not uncertain for the Creator; therefore, it may be better to call this determinacy based on the knowledge, will, power, and free choice of the Creator.

In order to form a common ground or argument against miracles, it would be necessary to say that all rumors are incorrect and to refuse to believe all the people who claimed that they had witnessed these miracles. However, scientists have concluded that the rumors are false only because they think that miracles are impossible; namely, they remain in the same vicious circle. Yet, according to the main principle of logic, just one confirmation against thousands of denials is enough to be a proof. For example, if one person were to find a black swan, even if one million people claim that there is no such thing as a black swan and even if they say that they have searched the entire world, all these claims about the nonexistence of the black swan will be refuted. The miracles of the prophets took place for the most part in front of large crowds and have been transmitted to us as centuries as real events, not just rumors that can be disproved.

Hume’s point of view attacking miracles has been shown to be lacking valid support as well. According to Hume, every event has a unique cause and the event can be explained if this unique cause is known. Logically this is an erroneous view. One event may have multiple causes; in particular, causes that influence the events that occur in the dimension belonging to the different layers of living beings do not have to be confined to material events. Causes that are of a different nature that affect the same object may produce different outcomes; the same causes, on the other hand, may generate different outcomes because of a hidden characteristic of the object that is beyond the range of our knowledge. These elements are not controversial; on the contrary, they complement each other. By the same reasoning, it does not go against being “scientific” to explain miracles as being a product of Divine Power rather than a result of an incorrect observation or an unknown cause. Moreover, such an interpretation does not need a cause and effect relationship that will continue as a chain.

Medawar points out precisely that scientific understanding has limits “. . . The last questions of Karl Popper are even now being asked by children. How did everything begin? Why are we here? What is the purpose of life? Rigid and fanatical positivism did not consider these questions as real questions or neglected them. According to positivism these questions are only asked by the stupid, and only charlatans dare to answer them. However, the avoidance of these questions does not satisfy people because they are meaningful both for the people asking them and for the ones trying to answer them. It is a universally accepted fact that it is not in the realm of science to provide answers to such questions. As a matter of fact, the scientific approach has some definite limits.”

When we consider miracles, we can apply this approach as follows: it is impossible to verify or refute the miracles based on scientific measures. Moreover, the fact that we understand the mechanism behind a miracle does not prevent it from being a miracle.

In conclusion, it is easy to deny the possibility of miracles by finding scientific interpretations for them. However, to go down the opposite road is more profitable. Realizing that the refutation of miracles is no more scientific than the acceptance of them and that there is considerable evidence in their support will urge us to understand the limits of science and its methods.

The air that we breathe consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases, such as water, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. First of all, the level of oxygen in the air is of extreme importance; that is, if the air were to contain 40% oxygen instead of the normal 21%, then there would be no life on Earth. Most living organisms, if not all, would die due to oxygen poisoning. Their proteins and DNA would be oxidized and become non-functional. Metals would be corroded and trees would burn at slightly higher temperatures than normal.

Vertebrates have been equipped with two principal mechanisms to supply their cells with an adequate and continuous flow of oxygen. The first one is the circulatory system and the second one is oxygen-carrying molecules; hemoglobin in the red blood cells and myoglobin in the muscles. The air we breathe is filtered even before it reaches our lungs. Then, it dissolves in the mucus, a highly viscous material, which coats the inside of our lungs. Next, the dissolved oxygen diffuses into the blood through alveolar cells and the walls of the capillary vessels. Finally, the oxygen is picked up by the red blood cells; these are what make our blood red. The red color is due to a molecule called heme that is present in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Every heme molecule in hemoglobin can bind four oxygen molecules together. Every oxygen molecule bound to hemoglobin increases the affinity of hemoglobin to bind to another oxygen molecule. The hemoglobin becomes saturated if the dissolved oxygen is above a certain level; this can be seen in the lungs. If the level of dissolved oxygen drops below a certain level, as can be seen in tissues like the muscles, brain, and liver, then the oxygen molecules start to dissociate from the hemoglobin. Likewise, every dissociating oxygen molecule facilitates the dissociation of another oxygen molecule from the hemoglobin. This is one miraculous design that is known to us: a molecule devoid of any wisdom and intelligence grasps a very crucial cargo where it is abundant, carries it to a place where the cargo is most needed and less abundant, and releases it. The myoglobin in the muscle tissue then binds the oxygen and serves as an oxygen backup resource for times when there is inadequate oxygen supply during exertion.

Fetuses have their own specific hemoglobin, called hemoglobin-F, which is different from that of adult hemoglobin, hemoglobin-A. Before birth, the fetus gets its oxygen from the mother’s blood through the placenta. The higher affinity of hemoglobin-F than hemoglobin-A to oxygen makes the oxygen exchange between the maternal and fetal blood possible. It is interesting to note that right around the time of birth the fetus switches the production of hemoglobin-F to hemoglobin-A, as this is more efficient under normal breathing conditions. Our current knowledge is insufficient to completely understand how this switch-over occurs and how it is regulated. Future studies will shed light on this complex but magnificent mechanism of regulation and this superb design.

Why are we so dependent on oxygen? In fact, our energy metabolism is completely dependent on oxygen. The chemical breakdown of nutrients by a dozen enzymes releases energy, which as is cannot be stored or transferred to the places where it is required. We are equipped with a second mechanism, which involves another set of different proteins that converts the released chemical energy to a more useful and transferable molecular form, called ATP. ATP, which we can think of as small packages of energy, is the main form of energy within our cells that can be readily used by all reactions that require energy. The first set of enzymes abstracts electrons from the nutrients during their chemical breakdown. These so called high-energy electrons are transferred from one protein to the next by the second set of proteins that form the electron transport chain. The final acceptor of these electrons is molecular oxygen. If oxygen were not there to pick up the electrons at the end of this chain, the last protein (cytochrome oxidase) would lead to a dead end, as it would be rendered inactive with the electrons that it is carrying. This would make this superb design of complex mechanism useless and wasteful; the synthesis of every new and active cytochrome oxidase would require more energy than is produced in one cycle of an electron transfer in the absence of oxygen.

It has been known for some time that cells can sense the level of oxygen in their environment. They are equipped not only with a sensing mechanism, but also with a response mechanism, by which they can survive for a short period of time. In 1995, a protein called HIF (Hypoxia Inducible Factor) was identified and was shown to regulate cellular response to hypoxia, i.e., a reduced oxygen level. HIF is a transcription factor, which induces the expression of a set of genes that are required for survival under hypoxia. Several genes encoding glycolytic enzymes are regulated under hypoxia; this allows cells to produce ATP even without oxygen. Nevertheless, oxygen-independent energy generation is very inefficient and the yield is insufficient. Another set of genes induce angiogenesis (vascularization), or the making of new capillary vessels. VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) is one of the best known HIF target genes that induces the formation of new vessels where expressed.

One of the most remarkable aspects of HIF-based oxygen sensing is that under normal oxygen levels the HIF protein is simultaneously synthesized and degraded. Only under low levels of oxygen does HIF accumulate and induce its target genes. At first sight, this continuous production and degradation of HIF may look wasteful, whereas in reality it is a very well designed precautionary mechanism. The HIF protein is marked and sent for degradation by a class of enzymes called HPH/PHD. These enzymes also use the oxygen molecule to tag the HIF protein. If there were not enough oxygen around, HPH/PHD enzymes would not be able to tag HIF. As a result HIF accumulates and induces its target genes to ensure the adequate supply of oxygen. With this mechanism cells can quickly adapt and survive. Therefore, continuous production and degradation of HIF turns out to be a necessary precautionary measure which is taken against the risk of death arising from a low oxygen level.

This article is by no means a complete picture of the miraculous world of oxygen, perhaps it is no more than a brush stroke on the entire picture. Yet, even this incomplete glimpse is enough to help us realize how perfectly we have been created, and how well we are taken care of. We do not have even the slightest control over any of these aforementioned mechanisms. We breathe day and night, and every breath should be taken in gratitude to God, who created us as this masterpiece.

The human learning process begins with birth. The person who starts to understand their body, organs, environment, and the world in this first stage enhances their skills by practicing them within the limits of the capabilities that God has given. With the help of the senses, such as “hearing,” “seeing,” “touching,” and “smelling” the amount of knowledge proliferates rapidly. Every warning and message that reaches us is an important factor in helping learning, developing consciousness, and becoming aware of life. While the development of the intelligence and mental activity of children who lack sufficient warnings and messages becomes slower, the development of the ones who are overloaded is dispersed. It must be kept in mind that the fastest growing system in a child’s body during the first three years of life is the nervous system. Therefore, appropriate messages must be provided very early on, even from the very beginning of the pregnancy.

Messages that are received through the sense of hearing have a significant importance in child education. The mental development of children who have received ample and appropriate messages is more significant and positive. It is a well-known fact that even in the earliest stages of pregnancy the baby can distinguish the mother’s voice, and is relaxed via the sense of hearing; this sense starts to develop at the very beginning of pregnancy. Unfortunately, some parents turn the television or the radio on in the baby’s room, frequently letting them listen to it. However, what is best for the baby is to have suitable audio incentives that can be easily understood. On the other hand, to remain silent when with a baby for a long time will negatively affect the language learning process. A conversation between parents in a relaxed and gentle tone, talking about pleasant things, for example, a beautiful poem, the sound of someone reading the Qur’an, or the sound of the adhan coming from the minarets, are all useful messages for babies.

Messages received through the sense of sight are as important as those received through hearing. Humans recognize nature and themselves by seeing, touching, and trying. Although the visual capabilities of a baby develop in the womb, it takes some six months for sight to reach an appropriate level. Babies accept everything that they see during this time as training material. Everything that is seen has an important role in forming the baby’s personality. Parents must always be good models for their children, acting in commendable ways. It is a well-known fact that babies pay attention to their parents’ behavior. Since imitation is one of the earliest learning techniques; parents should remember to behave in a way that they want their children to behave. Helping each other, forgiveness, responsibility, hard-work, empathy, and correct behavior are qualities that parents should demonstrate. Seeing a parent working hard, reading, and praying will help the conscience of the child to develop. Fighting, noise, and angry words will negatively affect the development.

Messages sent through meta-communication are more effective. For example, in an advertisement of a certain product, the fact that people using that product are smiling is more important than the properties of the product. This is because such behavior attaches the message “you will be happier when you use it.” For children, living in a positive environment helps them to observe correct models. Since they use the very first form of learning-imitation-providing good examples of behavior is extremely important. In the learning process, sight is one of the most frequently used methods. Therefore, parents must display appropriate behavior to help their children to learn. Displaying correct behavior is more effective than explaining what correct behavior is.

The environment in which we live has a great importance in the education of children. The school that is chosen for children must be considered from different aspects. Most people never forget their first teacher; this is one of the milestones in our lives. The teacher starts to shape our personalities at an early age. Therefore, choosing the right teacher, someone who is not only capable, but is also virtuous and pleasant, is of great importance. The teacher’s style of dressing, way of talking, their reaction to stimulus and their behavior tells us more than the teacher can; these are also the most effective means of sending messages to our children.

The children’s group of friends is another environment that needs to be monitored carefully. Having the right friends positively affects the development of the personality of the child, while having inappropriate friends will have negative effects. Many parents cannot attain positive results, despite all their efforts in education, merely because they have forgotten the importance of the peer group on the child. Starting form the ages 6-7, the effect of friends increases gradually, peaking in the teenage years.

The effect of the media on children is indisputable, especially in today’s world. We can see violence, fear, and a lack of moral values in our children; these are all the effects of media. It is known that in cases where babies spend much time watching television these children fail to develop their linguistic skills and become withdrawn from society. The massive visual or audio input from television can cause significant problems in the psychological development of the child. Some parents allow their children to watch advertisements, as they are unaware of this fact. In child education, especially in the early stages, parents must be very careful to combat the inappropriate stimuli of the television and computer. During that period the baby needs the parents’ interest, love, conversation, and physical closeness more than they need the picture on the television or computer. Parents must remember that every stimulus during these stages has a long-lasting effect throughout the child’s life. Therefore, the stimuli given to the child must be appropriate.

As a drop of water can shape a rock by falling on it everyday, so to can appropriate or inappropriate messages shape the personality of a child over time. All the messages must be suitable to the age; they must contribute to the child’s development. They must be neither too difficult, nor incomplete and insufficient. They must be in close relation with environment. They must not contain opposing messages, and they must not impose fear or despair.

As a result, in the education of the child, parents, educators and teachers must provide appropriate, sufficient, and positive warnings and messages for children.

These tiny and mysterious creatures of the water are called Plankton; included in these are passively floating or weakly swimming animals and plants. The word plankton comes from the Greek word “planktos,” which means “to drift.” The plankton that drifts in the ocean currents are among the most abundant creatures of the planet. A bowl of water taken from an ocean consists of millions of these tiny organisms; they cannot be perceived by the naked eye. The only way to really become familiar with these creatures is to find them and observe them with the help of a video scope or a microscope. Many marine plants and animals go through a stage in their life cycle when they are plankton, but they ultimately outgrow this stage. These types of creatures are called meroplankton. Unlike meroplankton, holoplankton are tiny creatures which live their whole life as plankton.

Plankton are also classified as either plant plankton or animal plankton. Phytoplankton is the scientific name for plant plankton, whereas zooplankton is the term used for animal plankton. Phytoplankton are usually smaller than zooplankton and it is hard to observe them even under the microscope. Most of the food chains in the ocean begin with phytoplankton, which are eaten by tiny zooplankton. These tiny zooplankton in turn are eaten by larger animals living under the water, including sharks and blue whales.

Since plankton are at the bottom of most of the food chains in the ocean, anything that causes damage to their lives may effect many other organisms. Losing large numbers of plankton may affect the abundance of krill, which is the main diet of whales. Phytoplankton produce oxygen that people breathe; therefore a decrease in the number of phytoplankton may cause problems for human beings. Most plankton live near the surface of the oceans. Pollution, especially that caused by chemical pollutants, has a direct impact on the water at the surface. This is a great threat to plankton populations. Plankton are not only critical for their role in the food chain, but they are also important for their usage in the production of valuable minerals. Ancient deposits of plankton, which were buried under the seafloor and later mined, have become important sources of oil, shale, and many other valuable minerals.

Like land plants, phytoplankton fix carbon through photosynthesis, making it available for higher trophic levels.¹ The major environmental factors influencing phytoplankton growth are temperature, light, and availability of nutrients. Phytoplankton can undergo rapid population growth or “algal blooms” when water temperatures rise in the presence of excess nutrients. While increased phytoplankton populations provide more food to organisms at higher trophic levels, too much phytoplankton can harm the overall health of the oceans. During these blooms, most of the phytoplankton die and sink to the bottom, where they decompose. This process depletes the bottom waters of dissolved oxygen, which is necessary for the survival of other organisms, including fish and crabs.

Major groups of phytoplankton include: diatoms, golden-brown algae, green algae, blue-green algae, dinoflagellates and crypto monads. Phytoplankton are being used as indicators of environmental conditions within the oceans because their populations are especially sensitive to changes in nutrient levels and other water quality conditions.

Zooplankton are planktonic animals that range in size from microscopic rotifers to macroscopic jellyfish. Their distribution within the oceans is governed by salinity, temperature and food availability. The zooplankton community is composed of both primary consumers, which eat phytoplankton, and secondary consumers, which feed on other zooplankton. Zooplankton can be classified into three size classes: Microzooplankton-protozoans and rotifers, Mesozooplankton-including copepods and invertebrate larvae, and Macrozooplankton-including amphipods, shrimp, fish larvae, and jelly fish. Zooplankton, like phytoplankton, are excellent indicators of environmental conditions within the oceans, because they are sensitive to changes in water quality.

The most common animal in the plankton group is the copepod. There are more than 7,500 species of copepods. Copepods are small shrimp-like animals.

Copepods have appendages that are used like paddles for movement. They eat diatoms and other plankton and in turn are eaten by other, larger, drifters. A single copepod can eat an average of 200,000 diatoms a day.

Amphipods, which are the main diet of the gray whale, look like a cross between a shrimp and an isopod. The amphipod typically ranges in size from 2 to 50 mm, although a few may be larger. Amphipods are common in aquatic ecosystems throughout many parts of the world, inhabiting marine, brackish, and freshwater environments. A few species also live in terrestrial ecosystems.

One of the most interesting plankton species is the barnacle. It lives in the upper zone of the oceans where the water only comes at high tide. The appearance of a barnacle is rather deceptive. At first glance it looks like a mollusk, but when you observe the larva of the barnacle the truth becomes clear. Barnacles cause serious problems on the hulls of ships and buoys.

Jellyfish, which are basically nothing more than a large stomach with long tentacles, are also plankton. Their tentacles have stingers on them which they use to catch and paralyze food and then bring it to their stomachs. They move through the water by pumping their stomachs. For the most part they move up and down in the water, letting the currents carry them from side to side.

Copepods, amphipods, jellyfish, and barnacles are some of the most abundant and well-known examples of plankton. The oceans of the world contain a world of tiny organisms; most of them invisible to the human eye and yet these are the basis for nearly all the life in the sea. Our awareness of these tiny creatures will help enhance our appreciation of God’s uniqueness and greatness. The more we learn about the mysteries of the deep, the more we believe in the existence of God.

Footnote

1. Trophic levels: Producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer.

A: Sufism is a path followed by Sufis (adherents of Islamic mysticism) to reach the Truth-God. While the term Sufism usually expresses the theoretical or philosophical aspect of this search, its practical aspect is usually referred to as “being a dervish.”

Sufism has been defined in many ways. Some see it as God’s annihilating the individual’s ego, will, and self-centeredness, and then reviving him spiritually with the lights of His Essence so that he may live according to His will. Others view it as a continuous striving to cleanse one’s self of that which is bad or evil in order to acquire virtue.

There are some who describe Sufism as seeing behind the outer or surface appearance of things and events and interpreting whatever happens in the world in relation to God. This means that a person regards every act of God as a window through which to “see” Him, that they live their life as a continuous effort to view or see Him with a profound, spiritual “seeing” indescribable in physical terms and with a profound awareness of being continually overseen by Him.

All of these definitions can be summarized as follows: Sufism is the path followed by an individual who is seeking to free themselves from human vices and weaknesses in order to acquire angelic qualities and conduct that is pleasing to God. Such a goal can be realized by living in accordance with the requirements of God’s knowledge and love, and in the resulting spiritual delights that ensue.

Sufism is based on meticulously observing the rules of the Shari’a down to the smallest detail in order to penetrate their inner meaning. An initiate or traveler on the path never separates the outer observance of the Shari’a from its inner dimension, and therefore observes all of the requirements of both the outer and the inner dimensions of Islam. Through such observance, the traveler heads toward the goal in utmost humility and submission.

Sufism, being a demanding path leading to knowledge of God, has no room for negligence or frivolity. It requires that initiates should strive continuously, like a honeybee flying from the hive to flowers and from flowers to the hive, to acquire this knowledge. They should purify their heart from all other attachments, and resist all carnal inclinations, desires, and appetites. They should lead their lives in a spiritual manner, always being ready to receive divine blessing and inspiration, and in strict observance of the example left behind by Prophet Muhammad. Convinced that attachment to God is the greatest merit and honor, they should renounce their own desires for the demands of God, the Truth.

After these preliminary definitions, we should discuss the aim, benefits, and principles of Sufism.

Sufism requires the strict observance of all religious obligations, an austere lifestyle, and the renunciation of carnal desires. Through this method of spiritual self-discipline, the heart of an individual is purified and their senses and faculties are employed on the way of God, which means that they can now begin to live on a spiritual level. Sufism also enables humans, through the constant worship of God, to deepen their awareness of themselves as a devotee of God. It enables them to renounce this transient world and the desires and emotions that it engenders, and awakens them to the reality of the other world that is turned toward God’s Beautiful Names.

Sufism allows the individual to make this transition, for it develops the angelic dimension of one’s existence and enables the acquisition of a strong, heart-felt, and personally experienced conviction of the articles of faith that have formerly only been accepted superficially.

The principles of Sufism may be listed as follows:

1- Reaching true belief in God’s Divine Oneness

and living in accordance with its demands.

2- Heeding the Divine Speech (the Qur’an), discerning, and then obeying the commands of the Divine Power and Will as they relate to the universe (the laws of creation and life).

3- Overflowing with Divine Love and getting along with all other beings in the realization (originating from Divine Love) that the universe is a cradle of brotherhood.

4- Giving preference or precedence to the well-being and happiness of others.

5- Acting in accord with the demands of the Divine Will-not with the demands of our own will and living in a manner that reflects our self-annihilation in God and subsistence with Him.

6- Being open to love, spiritual yearning, delight, and ecstasy.

7- Being able to discern divine mysteries by studying things and events.

8- Visiting spiritual places and associating with people who encourage the avoidance of sin and striving in the way of God.

9- Being content with permitted pleasures, and not taking even a single step toward that which is not permitted.

10- Continuously struggling against worldly ambitions and illusions that lead us to believe in the eternal nature of this world.

11- Never forgetting that salvation is possible only through certainty or conviction in the truth of religious beliefs and conduct, sincerity or purity of intention, and the sole desire to please God.

Sufism has some basic concepts, which often form the core of books written on good morals, manners, and asceticism, and which are regarded as the sites of the “Muhammadi Truth” in one’s heart. They can also be considered lights by which to know and follow the spiritual path leading to God.

The foremost of these concepts is wakefulness, which is alluded to in several hadiths (Prophetic sayings): “My eyes sleep but my heart does not,” and “Men are asleep, they wake up when they die.”

The Origin of Sufism

As the history of Islamic religious sciences tells us, religious commandments were not written down during the early days of Islam; rather, the practice and oral circulation of commandments related to belief, worship, and daily life allowed people to memorize them. Thus, it was not difficult to compile them into books later on, for what had been memorized and practiced was simply written down. In addition, since religious commandments were the vital issues in a Muslim’s individual and collective life, scholars gave priority to them and compiled books on them. Legal scholars collected and codified books on Islamic law, and its rules and principles that pertained to all fields of life. The

Traditionists established the hadiths and sunna (the Prophet’s way of life), and preserved them in books. Theologians dealt with the issues concerning Muslim belief. Interpreters of the Qur’an dedicated themselves to studying its meaning, including issues that would later be called “Qur’anic sciences,” such as naskh (abrogation of a law), inzal (God’s sending down the entire Qur’an at one time), tanzil (God’s sending down the Qur’an in parts on different occasions). Thanks to these universally appreciated efforts, the truths and principles of Islam were established in such a way that their authenticity cannot be doubted.

While some scholars were engaged on these practical activities, Sufi masters were mostly concentrating on the pure spiritual dimension of the Muhammadi Truth. They sought to reveal the essence of humans, the real nature of existence, and the inner dynamics of man and the cosmos by calling attention to the reality of things lying beneath and beyond their outer dimension. Adding to Quranic commentaries, the narrations of the Traditionists, and the deductions of the ways through asceticism, spirituality, and self-purification, developed their practice and experience of religion. Thus the Islamic spiritual life based on asceticism, regular worship, abstention from all major and minor sins, sincerity and purity of intention, love and yearning, and the admission of one’s essential impotence and destitution became the subject-matter of Sufism, a new science possessing its own method, principles, rules, and terms. Even if various differences gradually emerged among the orders that were later established, it can be said that the basic core of this science has always been the essence of the Muhammadi Truth.

An individual practitioner of Sufism can use it to deepen their spirituality. Through the struggle with one’s self, solitude or retreat, invocation, self-control, and self-criticism, the veils covering the inner dimension of existence are torn apart, enabling the individual to acquire a strong conviction of the truth of all the major and minor principles of faith.

The need for dialogue among people of faith has been underscored by the events of the past few years. Interreligious dialogue is seen as an alternative to the much-discussed “clash of civilizations.” Those who do not subscribe to the theory that a civilizational clash is inevitable are proposing instead a dialogue of civilizations, an exchange of views aimed at mutual enrichment, a sharing of insights that can lead all to a deeper understanding of the nature of God and God’s will for humankind on this planet.

That is what this book is about. It presents the thoughts of one of the most influential Muslim scholars and spiritual leaders in the Islamic world today. The movement inspired and guided by Fethullah Gulen is offering Muslims a way to live out Islamic values amidst the complex demands of modern societies. From its origins in Turkey, the movement has spread rapidly, through its schools in many countries, through its cultural and media activities, and through the social projects and dialogue encounters of Turks in diaspora in Europe, North America, and Australia, to the point that the influence of the Gulen movement is being felt in virtually all regions where Muslims live as majorities or minorities.

This book has a double purpose. On the one hand, it is a call to Muslims to a greater awareness that Islam teaches the need for dialogue and that Muslims are called to be agents and witnesses to God’s universal mercy. Mr. Gulen calls upon his broad knowledge of the Islamic tradition by bringing together the Qur’anic Scripture, the hadith (the Prophet’s traditions) reports from Muhammad, and the insights of Muslims down through the ages, to build a convincing argument that tolerance, love, and compassion are genuinely Islamic values that Muslims have a duty to bring to the modern world.

On the other hand, the book is an invitation to non-Muslims to move beyond prejudice, suspicion, and half-truths in order to arrive at an understanding of what Islam is really about. Someone whose knowledge of Islam is limited to the headlines of the daily newspapers is likely to believe that the religion teaches terrorism, suicide attacks, oppression of women, and hatred for those outside its community. Who would ever want to be in dialogue with people who promote such actions? Who would ever want to live among people with such attitudes?

However, through the writings of Fethullah Gulen, the reader of this book will see that a proper interpretation of Islamic teaching leads rather to truly spiritual values like forgiveness, inner peace, social harmony, honesty, and trust in God. In expressing these Islamic values, which are shared by many religious believers of various faiths, the author is not only calling Muslims to engage in dialogue, but is engaging the non-Muslim in a discussion of commonly held ideals.

I can cite my own case as an example. I am a Catholic priest, an American living in Rome. I have known the members of the movement associated with Fethullah Gulen for more than a decade, and I can state that they are sincerely and impressively living the teachings of their spiritual guide. They respectfully call Mr. Gulen “Hoca Efendi,” which simply means “Teacher.” The lessons in this book, derived from the Qur’an and Islamic tradition, form and shape the attitudes by which these Muslims practice their Islamic commitment. In bringing together his writings which have appeared in a wide variety of journals and interviews, many of which have never previously appeared in English, Mr. Gulen has done a good service for those who wish to know the ideals that characterize this movement.

Last year I was delivering lectures in Urfa and Gaziantep in eastern Turkey. I was invited to address, on my way back to Rome, a group of young people in Istanbul at a gathering organized by the Gulen movement. On arriving, I discovered to my surprise an assembly of perhaps 4,000 youths. In speaking with them, I found that they represented a cross section of Istanbul youth, some university students in engineering, medicine, and computer science, others working men and women. Several of the women were employed as secretaries, travel agents, or schoolteachers. I met young men who worked as bank clerks, drivers of delivery trucks, and in construction.

They were happy, enthusiastic young people who had come together to celebrate the birthday of their prophet Muhammad. It is significant that I, a Catholic priest, was invited to address them on the theme of “The Prophets, a Blessing for Humankind.” My talk was followed by poetry readings in honor of Muhammad, and the evening concluded with a well-known Turkish folk singer singing hymns of praise to God accompanied by electric guitar. My feelings that evening, as on many other occasions, were that if Fethullah Gulen and his movement have been able to instill in so many young people the desire to praise and thank God and to live with love and respect for others, they must be engaged in a very valuable spiritual enterprise.

Non-Muslim believers will agree that these are people with whom we can live and cooperate for the benefit of all, but will undoubtedly ask about the views of Gulen and the movement toward others in the Muslim world who are prone to violence. In this book, the author also takes up these “hard” questions in the chapter on “Jihad-Terrorism-Human Rights,” explaining the meaning of jihad and stating clearly that the true Muslim can never engage in terrorism.

I conclude this Foreword by citing a passage that sums up Gulen’s approach as a spiritual teacher:

If I had the ability to read people’s minds, that is, if I had the ability to know everyone with his/her particular characteristics, I would direct each person to the hill of perfection that is the most appropriate for him/her. I would recommend continuous reflection, contemplation, reading; I would tell them to study the signs of God in the universe and in people themselves; I would advise people to busy themselves with the study of the Qur’an; I would advise others to recite a portion of the Qur’an and certain prayers on a regular basis; I would tell still others to continuously reflect on natural phenomena. That is, I would designate duties for people in the areas in which they have natural abilities.

Note: This review is taken from the Foreword of the book.

Rumi is one such personality. Despite the vast amount of time that separates his life from ours, Rumi continues to hear and to listen to us, to share our feelings, to present solutions to our problems in a voice that is without equal. Despite the fact that he lived some centuries ago, he remains absolutely alive among and with us today. He is a man of light-one who receives his light from the spirit of the Master of Humanity (Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him), distributing this light in a variety of manners to just about everywhere. He was chosen to be one of the world’s saints and to be pure of heart; a blessed one whose words are outstanding among those of the heroes of love and passion. He was and continues to function as Israfil; blowing life into dead spirits. He did and continues to provide the water of life to the barren hearts of many; a spiritual irrigation. He was and continues to provide light for the travelers on their paths. He was and continues to be the perfect heir of the Prophet.

Jalaladdin al-Rumi, a man of God, hastened toward God on his own spiritual journey; but in addition to this he evoked similar journeys in countless others-journeys marked by an eager striving toward God. He was a balanced man of ecstasy who sprang alive with love and excitement; he did this to such an extent that he inspired in others these significant feelings; he continues to do so. In addition to his passion for God, along with his knowledge and love of Him, Rumi is further renowned as a hero in terms of both his respect and fear of God. He was and continues to be one who beckons; whose powerful voice invites everyone to the truth and the ultimate blessed reality. Rumi was an inclusive master whose joy was a direct consequence of His joy, whose love and passion were the result of His special favors to Rumi. His life provides real evidence of the Truth. At the same time as he spoke to those of his own times in an effective manner, Rumi was even more influential in that he made his voice and breath, which reflected the voice and breath of Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, continue to be heard for centuries after. He spoke with such an enchanting voice that he was able to guide not only his blessed contemporaries, but also people of our time, centuries removed from his physical existence. God bestowed upon him this important duty. For this purpose, God blessed him with impeccable inner and outer qualities so that he would prove successful in this undertaking. His heart was full of the Divine light. As such, his essence is marked by his wisdom, which shines like a light reflected through a precious gem. His inner-most self was enveloped with Divine mysteries. His inner eyes were enlightened by this special light.

On this horizon, Jalaladdin al-Rumi represents the North Star, the heart of the circle of guidance for his time. He embodies the characteristics of the lamp of sainthood, taking its light from that of the truth of the Prophet. Many of God’s blessed creatures are instinctively attracted to light; Rumi’s light has attracted hundreds of thousands spiritual butterflies; they are drawn to the light. He represents a guide for humanity’s quest for the perfection of human qualities. Rumi was a careful exegete of the truths presented in the Qur’an. A fluent interpreter of love and zeal for Prophet Muhammad, Rumi was able to use a mysterious language to guide others to a love of God. Those who enter his sphere are able to reach an ultimate sense or feeling in the presence of God. Those who examine the Qur’an by his guideposts underwent changes (and continue to undergo changes) similar to those witnessed by the people who lived in the era of the Prophet himself, peace and blessings be upon him. When the verses of the Qur’an were interpreted by Rumi’s closest associates, all hearts benefited from the illumination provided by his wisdom; it was as if all of heaven’s mysteries were opened by his wholehearted recitation of that one word-God.

Rumi’s love for God was a fiery one, with a constant moaning and longing for the mysteries of God. He experienced a love and passion both in his solitary asceticism and his activities in the community. It was in his solitariness that he became most open to the truest union with God, and it was in such cases of separation from all things except God that he became like a ball of fire. And while such a sense of burning would prove difficult for many to bear, Rumi never showed any signs of discontent. Rather, such a burning was considered a requirement for passion, and refraining from complaint was seen to be in the tradition of loyalty. For Rumi, those who profess a love of God must necessarily accompany their statement of “I love” with a sense of furious burning-this is the price one must willingly pay for being close or in union with God. Additionally, one must engage in behavior that is to a large extent ascetic, such as moderated eating, drinking, sleeping, and a constant awareness and orientation toward God in one’s speech, and one must inevitably experience bewilderment when endowed with God’s bounties.

Rumi cannot understand how a lover can sleep in an immoderate way, as it takes away from the time that can be shared with the Beloved. For him, excessive sleep is offensive to the Beloved. As God instructed David, saying, “O David, those who indulge in sleep without contemplating Me and then claim to be in love are liars” so too did Rumi state; “When the darkness falls, lovers become intense.” Rumi continually recommended this not only in words, but also in his actions.

The following quotation from his Divan al-Kabir best represents several droplets from the ocean of his feelings and excitement, erupting like a volcano:

I am like Majnun(1) in my poor heart, which is without limbs, because I have no strength to contest the love of God. Every day and night I continue in my efforts to free myself from the bounds of the chain of love; a chain which keeps me imprisoned. When the dream of the Beloved begins I find myself in blood. Because I am not fully conscious, I am afraid in that I may paint Him with the blood of my heart. In fact, You, O Beloved, must ask the fairies; they know how I have burned through the night. Everyone has gone to sleep. But I, the one who has given his heart to You, do not know sleep like them. Throughout the night, my eyes look at the sky, counting the stars. His love so profoundly took my sleep that I do not really believe it will ever come back.

If the spirit of the anthology of Rumi’s poems, which are the essence of love, passion, divine presence, and excitement, were to be extracted, what would exude are the cries of love, longing, and hope. Throughout his life Rumi expressed love, and in turn, he believed he was beloved because of this. Accordingly, he spoke of his love and relationship with Him. When he did so, he was not alone-he took along with him many blessed individuals who were his audience. He thought that his offering, cup by cup, the drinks presented to him on the heavenly table to others who were in his circle of light to be a sign of loyalty.

Thus, the following quotation represents the ambiguous chanting that is reflected in his heavenly travels:

The Buraq(2) of love has taken my mind as well as my heart, do not ask me where. I have reached such a realm that there is no moon, nor day. I have reached a world where the world is no longer the world.

This spiritual journey of Rumi was an ascension in the shadow of the Ascension of the Prophet, which is described by Suleyman Celebi (the author of the Turkish Mevlid-recited in the commemoration of the birth of the Prophet) in these words: “There was no space, no Earth, and no heavens.” What his soul heard and watched was a special reflection of His courtesy, which cannot be seen by the eyes, cannot be heard by the ears, and cannot be comprehended by one’s mind or thought. Such reflections are not attainable by all. Rumi spiritually ascended and saw, tasted, and knew all that was possible for a mortal being. Those who do not see cannot know. Those who do not taste cannot feel. Those who are capable of feeling in this manner generally do not divulge the secrets that they have attained. And those who do reveal these secrets often find them to be above the level of the comprehension of most people. As the famous Turkish poet Seyh Galib said, “The Beloved’s candle has such a wonderful light, its light does not fit into the lamp glass of Heaven.”

The love, relationship, and warmth toward all creation as expressed by Rumi is a projection of a deeply-rooted divine love. Rumi, whose nature was intoxicated by the cup of love, embraced all of creation with a projection of that love. He was involved in a dialogue with every creature, and all of these were a result of nothing but his deep love of God and his relationship with the Beloved.

I believe that these disordered and somewhat confused explanations are far from adequate to describe Rumi. This disorder is an inevitable result of my search for a relationship with him. A droplet cannot describe the ocean, nor can an atom describe the Sun. Even so, since his light falls once again on this Earth, I would like to say, within a few sentences, some words about Jalaladdin al-Rumi.

Rumi was born in the city of Balkh in 1207, at a time when all of Asia was suffering from social, political, and military problems. His father, Muhammad Bahauddin al-Siddiqi, was part of the tenth generation of the descendants of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, the first caliph of Islam. According to Tahir al-Mawlawi, Rumi”s mother was also from the descendants of the Prophet. He was the blessed fruit of a hallowed family tree. Being known as the Sultan al-Ulama (the Leader of Scholars), his father was a man of truth and an heir of the Prophet. Like many friends of God, he was persecuted and eventually compelled to migrate. Accordingly, he left the land of Kharzam, where he was born, and underwent a lengthy journey that encompassed various destinations. First, he and his family visited the Holy Land, the cities of Makka and Madina. From here, he traveled and remained for some time in Damascus, where he met many pious persons, such as Ibn Arabi, and exchanged spiritual enlightenment with them. Accompanying his father, the young Rumi, six or seven years in age, witnessed these and other events; his inquisitive senses enabled him to experience all of these with remarkable clarity. The young Rumi was able to understand his environment even at such a tender age and he was able to penetrate into the secret world of Ibn Arabi. As an endowment of his presence with Ibn Arabi, the child received kindness and favors. Despite the unfortunate circumstances surrounding their migration and the many difficulties that accompanied them, the family”s journey provided them with a variety of favors and inspiration. Like Abraham, Moses, and the Prophet of Islam, may God”s blessings be upon all of them, Rumi was able to continuously find these blessings and favors. Welcoming what fate gave him, he became a receiver of numerous bounties provided by God. The journey took this blessed family to the city of Erzincan, and later to that of Karaman. It was during his time in the latter city that Rumi studied, for a short period, in the Halaveye School. In addition to this school, he studied Islamic Sciences in several religious schools in Damascus and Aleppo. After graduating, he returned to the city of Konya, which he considered his hometown and a place of special regard. It was there that he married Gevher Hatun, the daughter of Shamsaddin Samarqandi. After some time Rumi”s father, Sultan al-Ulama, died, returning to God. Under the supervision of Burhanneddin al-Tirmidhi, Rumi began his long spiritual journey. After several years, at the suggestion of Ruknuddin Zarqubi, Rumi met with Shams al-Tabrizi who was then on a visit to Konya. It was through his meeting with Shams that he furthered his spiritual journey and eventually developed into the person who is now known the world over for his spiritual depth. What has been mentioned so far, in fact, represents an attempt to open a few small windows on the life of an exceptional personality in this creation, whose capacity is open to the lofty world. This is also an attempt to present the life of an important representative of the Muhammadi spirit (i.e., the practice of the Sunna)—displaying several snapshots of a man determined to dedicate his existence to the world of the afterlife. It is not my intention to stir the waters that comprise the lives of such remarkable and pure personalities with debates and questions that ultimately will only agitate and obscure. However, one must wonder whether Rumi opened the horizon of Shams or whether Shams took Rumi to the world of the unseen. Who took whom to the realty of realities—the peak of love and joy? Who directed whom to the real Besought and the real Beloved? Answering these questions is beyond the capacity of most ordinary people. One can say, at least, the following: During this period of time, two skillful and acute spirits came together, like two oceans merging into one another. By sharing the Divine bounties and gifts received from their Lord, they both reached peaks that most people would not be able to reach easily on their own accord. Through their spiritual cooperation, they established camps on the peaks of knowledge, love, compassion, and joy for God. As much as they enlightened those of their own age, they also influenced all centuries to follow; an effect that is still present today. The spring of sweet water which they represent continues to nourish the thirsty. They have been continuously remembered over the centuries for their beautiful contributions to countless lives. Here it is important to note that Rumi was informed by numerous sources in the flow of ideas, including his father, the great master of scholars. During his journey, he seemed to leave many of his contemporaries behind—his love and compassion flowed like the waters of the world”s oceans; so much so that while continuing to live physically among humans, he managed to become ever closer to God. It seems he never elevated himself above others except through his writings, both during his life and after his entering the life of eternity; he provides a star of guidance that echoes the spiritual life of the Prophet of Islam. Accordingly, he is among the few people who have exerted a great influence through both space and time. Rumi, the Master, was not a pupil, a dervish, a representative, or master as is known amongst traditional Sufis. He developed a new method that was colored with revivalism and personal independent reasoning by taking the Qur’an, the Sunna, and Islamic piety as his points of reference. With a new voice and breath, he successfully brought both those of his generation and those of times to follow to a new divine table. As far as his relationship with God is concerned, he was a man of love and passion. As for those who turn to him for the sake of God, he represents a compassionate bearer of God”s divine cup of love. Yes, as the rains of mercy fall forth from the clouds of the sky, if the collections of his poems were to be wrung out, God”s love and the love of His Messenger would gush forth in showers. His Mathnawi, exuberant with his spirit, a book which is in part didactic and was put in the form of a book by his disciple Husameddin Celebi, represents his largest, most monumental treatise. While it stems from his involvement with the floods of a high level love and passion, it was presented in smaller waves so that their essence might be understood by a larger part of humanity who did not share the same capacity. His other work, Divan al-Kabir, is both informed by and presented in this higher level of love and passion and better represents his own abilities. In the Mathnawi, feelings and thoughts are put in such a way that they do not confuse our intelligence and in such a style that it does not surpass our understanding. As for the Divan al-Kabir, everything is like an erupting volcano. Its meaning is not easily understood by most. A careful investigation will show that this great book of Rumi”s thought will explain such concepts as baqa billah maallah (to live by God with God) and fana fillah (annihilation in God) in the context of a larger understanding of the world of the unseen. Those who are capable of realizing this excitement in Rumi”s Divan will find themselves in extreme bewilderment before a flood of love and ecstasy that is comparable to an erupting volcano. In these poems of the master, which are not easily accessible for most people, the limits of reason are surpassed, the meanings of the poems are elevated above the norms for humanity, and the eternal nature of the unseen world shadows the ephemeral colors and forms of what one encounters in their physical being. Jalaladdin al-Rumi was nourished by the fruit of numerous sources of ideas, including religious seminaries, Sufi lodges, and Sufi hermitages associated with strict Sufi asceticism. Rumi attained an understanding of the Ultimate Reality. He cultivated the heavenly through his own methods. Eventually, he became a central star, the North Star, in the sky which houses sainthood. He was like a bright moon that rotates on its own axis. He was a hero who reached the places where he should have reached and stopped where he should have stopped. He read carefully what he saw and evaluated well what he felt. He never displayed or participated in any improper behavior during his journey to God. Even though the numbers were vast, Rumi never lost any of the bountiful gifts he received from the world of the unseen, not even to the weight of an atom. Like many of his predecessors, he voiced these divine bounties through his poetry in an impressive manner. He often voiced his love and excitement in seemingly magic words which resembled the finest of precious gems. Within the vagueness of the poetry, he mastered the art of explaining his ambiguous statements in ways that opened their meaning to friends, but remained obscured to outsiders. These statements which were at times both clear and ambiguous are the voice and breath of his own horizon—he was not acquainted with other pens or the wells of ink which supplied them. Although one can find a few foreign words or works falsely attributed to him, Rumi”s anthology represents a warmth, the music of his own heart, a music which brings all who hear it under its influence with a captivating control. Rumi possessed a very delicate disposition, often appearing more compassionate than a mother to her child. In short, he was an exceptional personality, particularly in his projection of the spirit of God”s Messenger in his own time. This is illustrated in his collected works, including Mathnawi, Divan al-Kabir, some collected letters associated with familial relations, and his special behavior with friends. Those who witnessed this were greatly excited to see the perfect heir of the Prophet and would say with great humility and respect, —This is a grace from God. He gives it to whom He wants— (al-Maida, 5:54). Rumi was a man of genuine sincerity and loyalty. He lived by what he felt in his heart as long as it did not contradict the teachings and laws of religion. While making his faith the focus of his life, while showing the others the way of life, while blowing into the ney, while dancing like a butterfly, his heart was burning with love and longing; it had always ached and moaned like the monotone ney. Those who were not aching could not understand him. Those who were rude and tactless could not feel what he felt. He said, —I want a heart which is split, part by part, because of the pain of separation from God, so that I might explain my longing and complaint to it.— Saying this, he searched for friends who had similar longings and complaints.

Footnotes

1. Majnun is a legendary personality of love found in Islamic literature 2 Buraq is the name of the mount which carried Prophet Muhammad during his Ascension

The theory is simple: Cosmic particles coming from outer space continuously collide with stable carbon-12 atoms in CO2 molecules, which are widespread in the atmosphere. Each carbon-12 atom takes up two neutrons and is converted into a radioactive carbon-14 atom. Radioactive carbon-14 atoms rapidly mix and become uniform throughout the atmosphere. Deep oceans, the biosphere, and carbonate rocks are giant reservoirs of carbon and with the addition of the atmosphere they constitute the carbon cycle of the Earth. Within this cycle, radioactive carbon-14 is continuously created and disintegrated. Both processes are in equilibrium. Since the total amount of carbon on the Earth is constant, a constant ratio is established between the amount of stable and radioactive carbon. This same ratio is valid in all the reservoirs of carbon in this giant cycle. In the biosphere, both carbon-14 and carbon-12 atoms are added to the food chain via assimilation; first by plants through photosynthesis and then by animals through consumption of the plants. For an animal or a plant, a carbon-14 atom is no different from a carbon-12 atom in assimilation. Living beings continuously take up both atoms, so the ratio of both atoms in their bodies remains constant throughout their life. When an organism dies, the uptake of exogenous carbon is terminated. After this point, although the amount of carbon-12 remains constant, carbon-14 continues to disintegrate and the ratio starts to decrease after the body dies. Because the ratio after death is related to the time that has passed since death, it is possible to determine the date of death by measuring the amount of radiocarbon present.

The half-life of radiocarbon is 5,730 years. This means that after 5,730 years half of the total amount of radiocarbon in a dead body disintegrates. The remaining half decays in the following 5,730 years and only a quarter of the first amount remains. This goes on until a very minuscule, undetectable amount remains. In bodies less than 50,000 years in age the amount of radiocarbon can be detected. For an older body, the amount of radiocarbon is so small that the instruments would be unable to measure the amount of radiocarbon present. In addition, such a test obviously works only on the remains of things that were once alive, such as bones or wooden parts of an old structure.

But how accurate is an age determined by this method? How dependable is this technique for enlightening us about the past? Although the theory seems quite consistent from a general outlook, one can see it is not the case when analyzed more rigorously.

Archeologists have tried different ways to test the accuracy of the method. The results have revealed long-term and short-term variations from the actual ages. Long-term variations show systematic deviations of the radiocarbon age from the real age; that is as the date of the sample gets older the deviation increases. On the other hand, short-term variations show irregular fluctuations in the radiocarbon age from the real age. These deviations apparently reveal that the assumptions made concerning the radiocarbon technique were not accurate. The results of these important abnormal conclusions in radiocarbon dating were summarized in the Introduction to Prehistoric Archaeology as follows: “for years, it was thought that possible errors could have minor effects, however, recent research shows that the natural concentration of carbon-14 deviates at some certain periods, significantly affecting the calculated ages.”

The method is based on two assumptions that should be examined carefully: Firstly, the method assumes that the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 has remained constant in the atmosphere from the time the body died to the present. However, recent scientific research has proven that this ratio has not remained constant during geological time.

Secondly, the method also assumes that the carbon supply to the organism was made only by the global carbon cycle and no other source of carbon has affected the system.

Initial concerns about the possible sources of error were focused on the constant ratio assumption. So, why did the constant ratio assumption turn out to be incorrect? Actually, many reasons were found to refute the validity of this assumption. The most important ones are explained below:

Changes in the Earth’s magnetic field are believed to be responsible for long-term deviations in radiocarbon dating. By investigating the orientation of magnetic minerals in ancient rocks, geologists have proven that the magnetic field surrounding the Earth has not been constant throughout the time. Today, it is widely accepted that both the strength and direction of the Earth’s magnetic field has changed. Interestingly, these changes are appreciable even within a century. Changes in the geomagnetism affect the radiocarbon production in the upper atmosphere; cosmic rays are deflected according to the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. If the magnetic field is high, more cosmic rays are deflected away from the Earth and the production of radiocarbon falls. If it is low, production rises. When the production rate changes, a new equilibrium concentration in the carbon cycle as a whole can only be established after a considerable amount of time has passed. The likely time scale for achieving the complete new equilibrium level is about 10,000 years. This is about the same as the age of the sample that is to be dated! The bottom line is that anything that affects the density of cosmic rays reaching the atmosphere will affect the rate of radiocarbon production, thus affecting the ratio.

Short-term changes might be the results of different factors. One of these is the variation in sunspot activity. Sunspots appear as dark places on the surface of the Sun for a short period of time and generate strong geomagnetic storms. Sunspot activity increases the Earth’s magnetic field and leads to a decrease in the radiocarbon production rate. Therefore, again, anything that causes a change in the Earth’s magnetic field will affect this ratio.

Other effects for short-term variations are the changes in the Earth’s climate. It is widely accepted that the amount of carbon in the atmosphere during geological time is strongly related to temperature changes on the Earth. This fact is also key in understanding the global greenhouse effect, which occurs with the release of high amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by hydrocarbon combustion. The global sea level has also been affected by these climatic changes. During low temperature seasons (ice ages or glacial periods), large ice sheets covered most of the continents and as a result of this, the sea level dropped appreciably. During these periods, a high amount of carbon (as carbon-dioxide) was kept inside glaciers and they became C-14 depleted (dead carbon). By the end of the Ice Age, large amounts of dead carbon had been released into the system and they had decreased the global ratio of radiocarbon.

Actually, three more resources of dead carbon make a negative contribution to the ratio. One of them is the dead carbon that comes up from deep Earth through volcanic eruptions. Radiocarbon dating of an organism that lived in the vicinity of a volcano gives inaccurate results. Because of the expulsion of dead carbon, samples found close to volcanoes have less radiocarbon in their body than others. Consequently, the age determination of these samples gives significantly incorrect results.

As is obvious from the previous examples, the main problem arises in the lack of knowledge about the history of the sample being dated by this method. Another example is when the sample being tested is wood from the inner part of a tree; the radiocarbon method gives an incorrect result in this case. The reason for this is that the innermost part of a tree finishes the carbon cycle before the tree dies. If a sample was made from this part of the tree (it is impossible to know which part of a tree is being used) then the date produced would be greater than its real age.

Even human activity is an important resource for dead carbon. Although only effective since the last century, a high amount of dead carbon in the carbon dioxide has been released into the atmosphere by the burning of fuel. So the ratio of radiocarbon has decreased. Actually, compared to the factors above, this effect has a more profound influence on the application of radiocarbon dating: No recent organic material can be used as a modern standard. Because of this, the zero point of the timescale chosen is to be 1950 AD, as determined by the US National Bureau of Standards for quoting radiocarbon results.

Consequently, the ages determined by the radiocarbon method are not taken seriously by archeologists because of the problems in the basic assumptions upon which the method was established. Occasionally, the radiocarbon method is used to roughly determine whether an object is modern or of considerable antiquity; in essence, it is used as an authenticity test. Even then the answer may not be clear-cut; for example, an old piece of timber could have been carved to produce an authentic looking sculpture!

Radiocarbon dating is an example of how scientific tools should be used carefully to unfold the reality around us. Scientific theories are only poor models of what is happening in reality. The history of science is full of such examples, which sometimes may be misleading if not handled carefully.

Reference

Radiocarbon Dating, Sheridan Bowman, University of California Press, 1990

In this scenario, according to one school of thought, as there is no source of knowledge but intellect for human beings, then there is no alternative with which we can identify the solutions of human problems. We have to go along life’s journey under the guidance of the intellect, bearing the distress of each abortive effort.

A second school of thought opposes this view. It states that intellect alone is not enough to reveal the truths of life and/or to solve the problems. Rather, knowledge is also a source; one can differentiate between right and wrong. Moreover, humans should be able to reach the destination safely and save themselves from the fruitless and exhaustive efforts of the intellect. But unlike animals, knowledge is not an instinctive characteristic of all human beings. Humanity has been given such knowledge through selected persons; this knowledge is called revelation.

Revelation does not exclude human intellect; rather, it respects it and claims that just as the human eye needs light to see, so too does the intellect depend on the light of revelation to be able to view the world correctly.

After having looked at these two different points of views, it is time to compare them.

Today, if human intellect (even after thousands of failures) has discovered the true solution to all problems, then there is no need for human beings to take on revelation as a panacea. The intention of revelation was to solve the problems of life. If such problems have been solved without the assistance of revelation, then it is useless to discuss intellect or revelation.

But what if human intellect is yet to discover the true solution of the problems of life and is yet entangled in the whirlpool of its experiments? Then, it is worth investigating whether humans should continue pursuing these answers with the intellect or whether they should verify the claim of the revelation by adopting its approach for dealing with problematic situations.

Today’s world carries the burden of diverse problems-social unrest, political instability, wide-spread poverty and destitution, prostitution, homicide, drug addiction, alcoholism, the disintegration of the family, juvenile delinquency, terrorism, suicides and AIDS. The figures and forecasts of this virulent disease are intimidating, bearing in mind that prostitution and pornography are not only permitted in many countries worldwide, but are becoming money-spinning sources of living, particularly in the West. This is aggravated by the actuality that there is at present an ever-increasing rise in the international trafficking of children for these purposes. Moreover, infidelity is also on the rise, along with soaring crime rates in leading democratic and formerly communist countries. Undeniable facts illustrate that man-made systems that are devoid of Divine guidance have done more damage than good to humanity. It appears that the ambitions of knowledge and contentment have not been realized.

In philosophy and contemporary sciences-natural, behavioral, and social-the source of knowledge is limited to the human intellect and its five senses. Revelation is dismissed out of hand, and is not considered to be a source of knowledge; it is renounced as being nothing more than a parable or a superstition. This refusal to accept revelation as a source of knowledge is a phenomenon that has both historical and philosophical antecedents.

It is the natural attribute of human intelligence to identify and strive to destroy disorders that exist in and near it; this is part of the “quest for truth.” Astoundingly, regardless of humanity’s efforts to bring order by abolishing these disorders, they are in fact increasing the world over. It is the same intelligence that causes the disorders and the attempts to correct them; the only difference is the level of perception. Intelligence, if it is improved, or not disturbed, believes that it can alter the situation of the world by evangelizing good behavior. Any amount of teaching or intimidation will only bring about a provisional alteration in behavior; yet it is only a fundamental or basic change in humanity’s frame of mind that can change the world.

If we are not able to elucidate “why things are the way they are” by means of principles that are the results of the intellect, then the only alternative, other than abandoning our pursuit, is to search for the true principles as the source. So, one might be led to inquire, where do we turn for an appropriate understanding of reality and the purpose of life itself then? If we cannot rely on the knowledge or findings of any human source, then where can we discover a dependable source of knowledge?

Moreover, knowledge that is gained through the endeavor of the intellect does not exist in isolation, but rather is linked with the economics and politics of the culture from which it arises, as well as all the rest of that culture. The thoughts, attitudes, feelings, values, motives, purposes, goals, modes of action and organization, rituals, and institutions of a society are all interrelated and all affect one another. The attention to nature, the idea that there are causes for things, that there is an underlying harmony and something constant behind change and diversity, and that the Universe is regulated by laws are attitudes that result from religion. These are pre-requisites that must be fulfilled before science can begin.

In fact, the Qur’an attaches great worth to human intellect. It appeals to the intellect of its addressees in order to persuade them about its legitimacy as the word of God. It denounces those who fail to employ their intellects as being undeserving of God’s blessings, and being no better than animals. Furthermore, those who do not have the appropriate mental ability-for example, children before they reach the age of puberty and the mentally ill-are not expected to fulfill the requirements imbedded in the message of Islam according to the Prophet.

Nevertheless, these facts about the intellect do not signify that human intellect does not have its limitations. It can be swayed to believe, for instance, what opposes its own instincts. Unrestrained eagerness for a definite model, equally, can cause the intellect to be prejudiced to what is undeserving of endorsement. There are, likewise, some intriguing problems which are beyond its grasp. All these limitations restrain the efficiency of human intellect if used without restrictions. It appears to yearn-given these restrictions-for external guidance. Divine Revelation in the form of the messages of the prophets (peace and blessings be upon them) is this very guidance. The Qur’an and Sunna (way of life of the Prophet) represent the final version of this guidance. The Qur’an has given an account of the connection between Divine Revelation and human intellect as being light upon light (Qur’an 24:35); that is, the guidance of human intellect is principally a light, although with defects (and therefore not bright), while the Divine revelation in the form of the Qur’an is a brighter light to compensate for the imperfections of the intellect. Hence, a brighter light (the Divine revelation) exhibits the path to a less bright light (the human intellect).

Islam, being the final source of revealed knowledge in the modern world, also equips us with the techniques to differentiate between good and evil. It does not base our knowledge of wickedness and virtue on mere intellect, desire, intuition, or experience that are derived through the senses; these frequently experience changes and alterations and therefore fail to offer explicit and unchanging ethical norms. As an alternative, Islam provides us with an unbiased source, the Divine revelation, as is obvious in the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet. This source recommends a standard of moral conduct that is lasting and universal, holding true in every age and under all circumstances.

References

• Barbour, Ian G., “Religion in an Age of Science”, HarperCollins: New York, 1991.
• Hooykaas, R., “Religion and the Rise of Modern Science”, Scottish Academic Press, 1972.