Eternia is the land of eternity, the land where there is no end to anything. I learned it from an animated cartoon named He-man. At that young age, I did not really feel what it meant to be eternal, because I was not in search of it. For me, what mattered was the excitement I felt in catching the cartoon on time every week. Once the episode was over, the unknown and unexpected adventures of the next episode used to keep my excitement active until then. Today, as I age into maturity, the unknown outcomes of the events in my life and the uncertainties about the possible realizations of my dreams keep me in a state similar to that which I experienced in my childhood. But this time, I am the hero, and the world around me replaces Eternia. I am the one who is going through troubles to gain inexhaustible satisfaction and joy. If you follow me, I will tell you the “sesame” f o r m u l a that opens the doors of Eternia. “It was the fall of 1977. The corridors of the hospital reverberated with the cries of a newborn. His delayed birth was taking place at a later time of the day, due to his mother’s reluctance and fear to deliver him.” Given this very same start, a thousand people could come up with a thousand different stories. You can go further and specify an end to this story, such as “As the sun fell below the horizon, he permanently closed his eyes with tears and a deep smile on his lips.” Still, there will be an infinite number of possible ways of moving from the given start to the given end.

The existence of infinite possible ways of life results in our inability to accurately predict the future. Here are some actual examples to further our thoughts. Lincoln, who finally had great political success, lost so many times in his past enterprises. Without seeing the final point, it is impossible to tell if he was an idealist destined to success, or a loser with an obsession. Similarly, in the case of Einstein, it was impossible to tell at first whether he would be a famous and successful scientist despite his awful start in education, or a dropout student due to his non-conformity and academic inadequacy.

These examples show that we are not only unable to penetrate into the future but also ignorant of the true nature of events. The reason for our both shortcomings is the uncertainty inherent between two points in the time line. Exactly the same thing can be seen in geometry. There are infinite number of curves that pass through a given pair of points, which means there are infinite number of equations that can describe the distribution of a pair of points. The concept of infinite number of curves is enabled by the uncertainty about the path connecting the two points. Are there other instances linking uncertainty to infinity?

What is the size of the universe anyway? Many people have been dazzled by this question throughout history. Studies were done to see if the universe had limits, and if so, to determine its size. Still, we do not have an established answer to this question. Simply, we say the universe is infinite. The reason behind this unproven conclusion is the uncertainty about the limits of the universe. In effect, our ignorance of them translates into the conclusion of an infinite universe. Once more, we see the strong relationship between uncertainty and infinity.

Why is a prison a prison? Is it because you cannot get out of an area whose borders are visible? Or, is it because you are only allowed to certain number of actions there? Both can be part of the answer. Now, help the inmates and make the area of the prison larger so that they cannot see the borders anymore. Let us make their building larger as well. Does it not sound like our situation within the borders of a country? What is happening is that you are introducing a significant amount of uncertainty into the limits of the prison area, which induces a feeling of infinite land for the inmates.

Although we like uncertainty when it gives a flavor of infinity to pleasures, we usually do not like it when it is present in fears and losses. The fear of losing1 and not knowing the limits of the loss are two killers of all pleasures. Uncertainty induces a fear of infinite loss. Try to remember a rendezvous with a friend for which he/she was late. Until the time your friend showed up, the uncertainty of the time of arrival triggered a feeling of infinite waiting time, which made you impatient. When you are sick, not knowing the time you will recover also puts a lot of burden on your soul.2

Another example is found in male-female relations, especially in the western world. By not marrying each other and continuing with dating, individuals introduce uncertainty into their relationship, which gives them a sense of infinite freedom of action in their couple life. The comfort of infinite freedom of action due to uncertainty transforms into selfish moves in the long run. Then, insincere attitudes fostered by infinite freedom trigger an ever-growing mistrust within the couple due to the uncertainty about the individuals’ fidelity to each other, and the pair disintegrates.

Similarly, the uncertainty of the moment of death triggers a feeling of infinite life.3 Our lack of vision of God and the angels induces an infinite level of freedom of action. Human beings, especially youth, are challenged by this hypothetical infinity of life and their supposed freedom of action. However, the actual coming of death permanently removes the uncertainty about the angels and God. Thus, uncertainty serves as a means of eliminating the permanent residents of paradise from the permanent residents of hell.4

To conclude, this world is a land of uncertainties except for two things: birth and death. Although their qualities and actions are uncertain, whoever comes to this land definitely leaves it one day. By exercising our free will here, we weave our deeds, as everyone else does, between the same start and end, i.e. birth and death. However, the uncertain nature of this world tempts us with a hypothetical infinity embedded in its pleasures and burdens. Maybe this supposed infinity is a manifestation of two eternal lands, i.e. paradise and hell, whose existence is uncertain for us. Then, we, as humans, need a Helper to survive under the uncertainties of this world, a merciful Omnipotent Being who can convert these uncertainties into the infinite bliss of the actual Eternia-paradise in the company of our Creator.

Notes

1. Hadith: “Remember death very frequently, the spoiler of pleasures.”
2. Nursi, S., The Flashes, 25th Flash, 11th Remedy.
3. Nursi, S., The Flashes, 21st Flash, 1st Means of Attaining Sincerity.
4. He Who has created death and life, so that He may try you (and demonstrate to yourselves) which of you is better in deeds… (Mulk 67:2)

One of the most important reasons for the last two world wars was the sharing of energy sources. 60 years on from the last world war, the world is now very close to confronting the same problem. There has been an enormous rise in energy demand since the middle of the last century. This increase has resulted from both rapid industrial development and population growth. As shown in Figure 1 and 2, the world population is 4.8 times greater, and the total energy requirement has increased more than 30 fold from between 1850 and 2000. Many studies have demonstrated that while global demand increases by at least 2-3% per year, the current oil fields are depleting at an average of 3-5% per year. If this demand continues at this rate, we will reach a point of crisis in oil sometime after 2010, and the same will be true for natural gas somewhat later, between 2020 and 2030 [1, 3]. The basic energy source of the world, hydrogen, is a new hope for solving the energy problem. It is likely that this century will be the century of the fuel cell. This technology uses hydrogen as fuel, and offers the prospect of supplying the world with clean, sustainable electrical power.

Hydrogen, which is the simplest element in space, was discovered in the 16th century and its inflammable property was understood in the 18th century. Ninety percent of the known universe consists of this simple element. Hydrogen is colorless, odorless, nonpoisonous, and 14.4 times lighter than air. In its liquid phase it has a temperature of -252.77 °C. It is the fuel of the sun and other stars, hence the main energy source of the universe. Hydrogen is not found as a free element in nature, but rather it is found as a compound, particularly as water. Hydrogen has the largest energy amount per unit mass among known fuels. The energy of 1 kg of hydrogen equals 2.1 kg of natural gas and 2.8 kg gasoline. However, its volume per unit energy is higher. It is 1.33 times more efficient compared with fossil fuels as an energy source. When hydrogen is used to produce heat or propulsion, only liquid water or water vapor emerge, making it an extremely clean energy source.

Hydrogen can be used with fuel cells to produce electricity. At the present time, the cost of this method is 3 times more expensive when compared to other fuels. Fuel cells use hydrogen, or hydrogen containing compounds to produce electrical energy and heat. A fuel cell has no moving parts and makes no noise when operating. A single fuel cell contains three layers, as shown in Figure 3. These are the anode-electrode layer, the membrane layer, and the cathode-electrode layer.

There are three types of fuel cells; Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM), Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC), and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), each named after the material used as fuel. The PEM fuel cell is fueled by pure hydrogen. In the anode, hydrogen is split into its basic elements, a proton and an electron. While the proton migrates through the membrane of the fuel cell, the electron travels around the membrane and goes to the cathode, creating an electrical current. In the cathode-hydrogen proton the electron reacts with oxygen to form water, which is rejected as waste. The basic system is the same for the DMFC and the SOFC fuel cells. The DMFC is fueled by a mixture of methanol and water. Before reaching the anode electrode, the methanol is split into CO²and hydrogen. The SOFC fuel cell can use different kinds of fuels that contain methane and hydrogen. All the reactions are shown in Table 1. One fuel cell can produce 0.6 of a volt. To get enough power, several fuel cells are piled in a stack. The space between fuel cells is filled with gas that helps to distribute the hydrogen and oxygen gas to the membranes.

Although hydrogen energy is a new source, the production of hydrogen is not a new concept. Every year, 500 billion m³ of hydrogen is produced, stored, transported, and utilized in the world. Initially, hydrogen was used for the production of ammonia, but today hydrogen utilization has expanded tremendously to incorporate applications in chemical and petroleum refining, metallurgy, the hydrogenation of edible fats and oils, space and weather programs, fuel cells, and the manufacture of high quality electronic components. The most important consumer is in the petroleum- chemistry industry.

Hydrogen can be obtained by using different methods. Hydrogen can be produced from electricity, using electrolysis to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. Reforming is another method that produces hydrogen. In this method, hydrogen is extracted from a gas with a high concentration of methane, such as natural gas. This process uses hot steam to obtain hydrogen from the methane. When methane gas is mixed with hot water vapor, the gas is split into carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

Although hydrogen can be stored as a gas or liquid, storing and handling hydrogen is difficult as compared to gasoline. While gasoline is a liquid, hydrogen is a gas. At atmospheric pressure at sea level (pressure at sea level is 1.0 atm = 1.01325 bars), hydrogen has a volume 3,100 times greater than gasoline. To decrease the volume of the hydrogen, pressure is used. Hydrogen can be stored under pressure up to 700 bars. At this pressure, hydrogen has a volume 6.4 times greater than that of gasoline.

Another method for storing hydrogen is in the liquid phase. In this phase, hydrogen has a volume 3.6 times greater than gasoline. Liquid hydrogen can be stored under high pressure in steel tubes. Hydrogen should be cooled to -252.77 °C to become liquid. The cooling process requires energy. 25% of hydrogen energy is used for the cooling process. The largest liquid hydrogen tank is at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. It contains up to 3,400 m³ liquid hydrogen.

Hydrogen can also be stored in metal hydrides. When cooling is applied, the hydrogen atoms diffuse inside the metal hydrides. To release the hydrogen, the reverse process, heating, is needed. Due to the large storage necessary, aluminum and boron hydrides have been used extensively over the last 10 years. In particular, boron hydrides are important as they can be used in liquid conditions. Metal hydride storage is very safe because of the low pressure and the fact that there is little free hydrogen inside the storage tank. Another advantage of this way of storing is that metal hydrides hold hydrogen at very low volumes.

It seems that hydrogen may be the major energy source in the future. Eventually, it will be used to supply the energy needed in the economy, being used for transportation, central and distributed electric power, and combined heat and power for buildings, and industrial processes. However, hydrogen technology is currently in the pre-production stage of development. Hydrogen energy is not cheap when compared to other energy sources at this time. There are some challenges that need to be overcome, such as producing, storing, and using hydrogen efficiently before we use hydrogen instead of fossil fuels. However, hydrogen is the key to solving the energy problems of the world. Hydrogen is available in every country, everywhere. Using hydrogen as an energy source will prevent many conflicts between countries. This energy source will help address concerns about energy security, global climate change, and air quality. It seems that the views of Jules Verne, quoted at the beginning of this article, will be realized one day in the future. And people will thank God not only for water, but also for the hydrogen in it.

References

1. “Energy Wars” by David Chapman – a director of Bullion Management Services the manager of the Millennium BullionFund (www.bmsinc.ca).

2. Cook B., ‘An Introduction to Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Technology’, Heliocentris, 2001.

3. www.un.org

4. www.census.gov

5. www.worldenergy.org

6. www.fuelstore.com

7. www.minihydrogen.dk

There is much to learn if we dive in, for the ocean is deeper than the earth is high, comprising all but a fraction of the planet’s habitat space, and it is three times bigger than all of its surface. At its utter depths, creatures carry on their lives 20 miles below where we carry on ours, swimming past caverns and mountains greater than any on earth. It is a world strangely devoid of insects and a forbidding place, the centre of volcanic activity, deadly waves and whirlpools, and the fuel for hurricanes and tornadoes. Yet it is also an inviting place, the main source of protein and water on our planet and the biggest supply of hydrocarbon fuel, buried deep into sediments. It is the most ideal solvent in all of creation, allowing fine organic materials to dissolve evenly, for heat to be sustained and distributed, and for precious minerals to flow in suspension-billions of ounces of gold floating, imperceptible to our eyes. It is also the most ideal conductor, carrying electric currents, sound and magnetic waves to refined organs around the sea, conveying information we ourselves cannot detect. And while the ocean renews itself through ice ages every 40,000 to 100,000 years, it somehow harbors creatures which have remained virtually unchanged for 500 million years. It is created as a garden of diverse forms of life, the source of half of all of the oxygen we breathe, and one quarter of global heat. It is, layer upon layer, a dynamic medium in which the most curious creatures dwell, from the upper zone of light, to twilight, to the eerie realm of glowing fishes, to devastating cold and pressure, to the very bottom, where eyeless creatures thrive in endless darkness, in cities atop stores of buried diamonds.

It is beyond our imaginations to fathom the scope of life forms inhabiting the ocean. In an average week, three new species are discovered-though less than one-tenth of one percent of the sea has been studied. The Census of Marine Life, involving 70 nations for a decade, counted 130,000 molluscs from 3000 species in a single three-cubic-meter zone off New Caledonia. In one tiny region near Angola, there were 1000 new species. At the very bottom of the ocean, near thermal vents, more than 300 new species were found in an area measured in inches. And in the light zone, over 50,000 different species of algae exist-the first plants on earth-as well as tiny plankton, protozoa and krill. Krill alone create, by sheer numbers, a dramatic manifestation of life, moving in masses of up to 10 metric tones-equivalent to 150 million people traveling in unison through the ocean. Alive, they nourish creatures as majestic as the blue whale, which consumes millions in a single day-as some of the smallest in the sea feed the largest animal which has ever existed on this planet. Dead, they add their microscopic carcasses to the snowfalls which descend through the ocean layers. For on the earth, water falls-but in water, it is earth that falls: organic matter, sand and pollen is gathered into blizzards, forming blankets inches deep, thousands of times richer in bacteria than anywhere else, becoming the spark by which all ocean-floor communities come to life.

As tiny as each individual is, plankton communities blossom with the season of the ocean currents which carry them, producing more carbon per square meter than a sugar cane field, and enticing waves of animal migrants to follow them in a constant cycle of life around the earth. In abject innocence, we witness the tides by which the moon’s and sun’s gravity grasp and release our liquid earth each day, and the massive tsunamis which devastate the habitats of more than half the world’s population who live close to a coastline. But most waves are actually far below the surface, away from our gaze, stirring the ocean this way and that-deflecting water in spirals to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere-adding to the effect of gravity to generate and distribute food and heat. Through these hidden motions, more water is redistributed than by any surface action of water-the Gulf Stream alone moves 100 times more water than all the rivers on earth-as the engine of life on this planet is propelled far beyond man’s restricted vision.

And outside man’s scope, too, fish move from place to place, sometimes only a few kilometers, sometimes thousands, in the second biggest migration after that of birds. The leatherback turtle crosses the Pacific Ocean along invisible highways, and the spiny lobster marches across the ocean floor, his community lined in single file, navigating by means of an internal compass sense. Countless species of fish move between salt water to fresh, or between river and ocean, in precise orchestration. They gather in vast numbers thanks to a marvel of creation-the lateral line system-which allows them to sense the position of their neighbors, feel tiny differences in water pressure, and hear even the lowest frequency sounds. Spending their lives in groups-schools-they secure safety in numbers and reduce water friction on each other, easing their motion. So important is this co-operation that young fish train for it, in pairs, then in larger groups, until perfect harmony of motion is achieved. And in a refinement of the system, sharks, rays, skates, and dogfish can detect small electrical fields between body fluids and seawater, favoring them as hunters for 450 million years.

The environments sea creatures move between are as varied as the ocean is deep. There are wondrous forests of kelp-jungles beneath the waves-anchored by hold-fasts to rocks below, gas bladders holding each leaf upright, reaching dozens of meters high through the light layers. They provide the perfect home for sea cucumbers, sea stars, sea urchins, sponges, and fish-forming a complete ecosystem-and coming in countless varieties. Yet these astounding giants are surprisingly fragile, for only ten in a million reaches adulthood, and their life span is short, only half a year, death coming at the rate of half a meter per day-a bold symbol of the strength and weakness of all life.

There are also the magnificent coral reefs, the largest of which, the Great Barrier Reef-2000 km long- is the only living structure visible from outer space. Building life from death, reefs use the remains of hard corals to make homes for thousands of species of fish and hundreds of species of coral, sometimes rising more than 100 feet off the ocean floor. Reefs are sensitive to touch and delicate enough to be killed by slight temperature changes, yet they have survived as structures for millions of years, through countless ice ages. Some coral even emit a soft blue light, transforming the seascape into a surrealistic panel of brightly colored fishes swimming through a fluorescent porcelain-like forest, providing for man an inimitable example of incomprehensible beauty.

And yet, they are not the only pair of animals perfectly engineered to secure each other’s lives, for the sea harbors the most numerous and unusual partnerships. Angler fish host bioluminescent bacteria in a lure which they dangle in front of them, attracting prey. The boxer crab lives in the claws of the deadly anemone, discarding bits of food for it and enjoying the protection of the tentacles. Goby fish use their excellent vision to guard the burrow of the blind and highly toxic sea urchin, sharing the space without risk. Imperial shrimp ride on sea cucumbers like passengers on a bus, getting on and off, while the pearl fish lives in the intestines of the sea cucumber during the day, obtaining food removing parasites, coming out the anus every evening. The isopod, Cymothoa Exigua, eats the tongue of the rose snapper and becomes a replacement tongue in order to share meals. The ephemeral Portuguese- man-of-war-almost perfectly translucent to the light-forms a floating habitat for a myriad of creatures who somehow orchestrate their life as a unit. And throughout the sea, a universal color of blue (“cleaner blue”) is manifested by a huge variety of species to show that a fish is ready to clean the parasites of another- the ultimate cross-cultural communication-as temporary partnerships ensure mutual survival in the forbidding dark.

But perhaps the ability which most holds our fascination that of making light-the only light in the deep ocean. Tiny krill alone have over 10 complex lightemitting organs. Species differ greatly in the nature of the flash as complex chemicals interact in a process strangely reminiscent of photosynthesis, such that the sunnier the previous day, the brighter the glow. The color is almost always blue-the wavelength which travels farthest in water and that to which most organisms are sensitive. It is a profound reminder of the blue light that reverberates across the ocean and provides the distinctive hue by which we paint our globe. Viewed from space, the image is enough to awaken any heart. The American astronaut, Edgar Mitchell, revealed: “My view of our planet was a glimpse of divinity.” And James Irwin, another American astronaut, echoed the sentiment: “Seeing this has to change a man, has to make a man appreciate the creation of God, and the love of God.”

And in this place where light is such an elusive and precious gift are the most perfect eyes in all of creation-the squid’s, refined for millions of years, and the mantis shrimp, with more than a dozen photoreceptors, light filters, and trinocular vision. Beckoning us even further to contemplation, the life forms here are surprisingly sentient, graced with uncanny abilities to learn and communicate. The octopus develops strategies for dealing with new problems and changes body color to reveal its mood, while the reef squid produces dozens of patterns, bands, stripes and spots, for communication. Killer whales have a variety of calls-some shared, some unique to the group, and even pod-specific accents, and the beluga’s hearing is a dozen times more sensitive than the human ear, with individuals having their own unique voices. In turn, the blue whale’s call carries up to 1000 kilometers through the ocean to its mates, exceeding the decibel level of a jet. Dolphins protect their snouts with sponge bits when diving among sea urchins, and they play at blowing bubbles, the “ring culture” passed from adult to novice. And in a superb demonstration of community-building, dolphins rise to the surface in pods, vocalizing to reach a consensus before any group action. Perhaps most revealing of all, orcas grieve over parents who have passed on, revisiting their favorite places in the days after the death-their lives resonating with compassion and awareness.

Let us return to the hull of Noah’s ship, for as the ocean is wide, Prophet Noah unites the People of the Book across the boundaries between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. And as the ocean is deep, Noah’s story extends through our entire lives-as the ark and its animals entice us from childhood, and the Prophet’s personal reflections on God and creation are with us as we find ourselves aging, as he did, contemplating the vast expanse of the ocean and of our existence: “Worship God! You have no other god but Him.” (Araf 7:59, Muminun 23:23) The ocean is, ultimately, both the cradle of life on this planet and an apt reminder of its end. Symbolically, the palace and temple of Cleopatra-probably the most quoted example of a person who seemingly had everything in this life-was recently discovered under water. Her entire city, Antirhodos, was buried by floods and tidal waves around 334 AD, and soon after, Cleopatra, an avowed polytheist, committed suicide. For the gifts and power we ascribe to ourselves are but a drop in the ocean of God’s greatness, and our lives are sure to come to nothing if we fail to honor our Creator and our purpose. Curiously among the ruins was a bust of a Pharaoh-perhaps her father, Ptolemy XII, or perhaps an older Pharaoh she much admired-who is now both saved in the body (Yunus 10:92) and drowned (Qasas 28:40, Zukhruf 43:55). In fact, the ocean bottom is littered with abandoned hoards and the relics of lost peoples- fitting testaments to man’s inability to control the world in which he has been placed. But far more meaningful than any sunken jewels are the pearls of knowledge which the ocean delivers. For in the deepest waters are manifested two of the highest revelations: life is a mystery beckoning our understanding, and creation is an unbounded mercy. Thus, the ocean is offered as an exquisite and accessible proof that our world is divinely orchestrated. And just as the ocean encompasses the globe to connect us all, we each have the chance to touch its bounties and surrender to faith. So, then, which of the favors of our Lord can we deny?

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2007/issue-57-january-march-2007/cellular-defenses-against-cancer/ Mon, 01 Jan 2007 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2007/issue-57-january-march-2007/cellular-defenses-against-cancer/

The second leading cause of death in the United States, after heart diseases, is cancer, claiming around half a million lives every year.(1) People today are concerned more than ever about cancer and its terrible consequences. However, in the light of recent scientific findings, a very different picture can be seen: In an environment with increasing carcinogens, it is actually surprising to find most populations are cancer-free. This is because our bodies are equipped with systems to prevent cancer formation.

Cancer research over the last two decades has shown that cancer is a disease of the genome.(2) Changes in the DNA, called mutations, disrupt the regular cellular networks that control a state of delicate balance. People are continuously exposed to varying amounts of chemicals that have been shown to cause mutations in the genome which may lead to cancer formation. Exposure to harmful chemicals can occur due to being in an environment where these agents are present in the food, air or water, and also due to our own metabolism which may produce these chemicals. It has been estimated that exposure to environmental chemical carcinogens may contribute significantly to the formation of the majority of human cancers.(3)

Even though some of the mutations caused by these agents hit cancer-critical genes, cancer does not immediately develop. Furthermore, cancer is mostly seen in old age, when many mutations have accumulated in the genome. The reason why we are protected from developing cancer, even though our DNA is under numerous types of attacks everyday, is that our cells are equipped with several lines of defense against cancer formation. These built-in defenses include DNA damage repair systems, external and internal controls of cell division rate, and the programmed death of cells. All of these defenses have been given to our cells in order to protect us from getting cancer. If we were not to have these defenses, cancer would be a daily occurrence for every one.

It is possible to say that a cell’s first defense against cancer is similar to the regular maintenance of a car. One has to replace the brake pads, change the oil, etc., so that the aging of the parts will not cause failure that may lead to an accident. Similarly, chemical carcinogens from environmental pollution, ultraviolet rays from the sun, radiation from various sources, etc. all cause multiple types of damage in the DNA molecule. Therefore, our cells and genome need maintenance as well. This function is carried out by groups of proteins called DNA repair complexes. DNA repair mechanisms have been designed to correct the DNA damage before it can lead to inheritable mutations.(4)

If the DNA damage repair systems are intact, most of the damages to the genome are dealt with before they can cause problems. We observe the extent of attacks that can damage the DNA on our genome in many types of cancer where the DNA repair mechanisms are known to have been inactivated. In these cancer cells, mutations accumulate at a very fast rate, leading to more aberrant behavior. Also, individuals with defective DNA repair systems are more susceptible to developing various types of cancer.(4,5) Therefore, the first line of defense given to our cells against cancer is the ability to check and correct the integrity of our genome.

Every cell type in our body has been designed to proliferate at a certain rate that is suitable for the function of those cells. For example, neurons or muscle cells almost never divide after reaching adulthood, whereas the epithelial cells lining the interior of the intestines or under the skin divide at a fast rate continuously throughout our lives. The rate of division of a cell is mainly controlled by extra-cellular cues, i.e. a normal cell doesn’t grow or divide unless it receives growth and proliferation signals from neighboring cells.

There is a safe rate at which a cell must divide – just as a car needs to be driven at a safe speed. The requirement of cells for external stimuli in order to grow and divide is like the car’s need for someone to step on the gas pedal in order to accelerate. Normal cells cannot grow without control as neighboring cells produce growth signals when they are necessary and stop producing them in a regulated manner. A good example of the control of cell proliferation rate is seen in the wound healing process. When there is a cut in the skin, the cells adjacent to the wound are stimulated to divide rapidly by signals given from the injured cells; they divide and close the wound as soon as possible. However, when there are no wounds, there is no signal to divide and the skin cells only divide at a very slow rate, just enough to replace dying cells; this is a much slower process than wound healing. Cancer cells, on the other hand, are known to produce their own growth signals and proliferate abnormally fast and in an uncontrolled manner.(6) Therefore, the environmental control of cell division is an important barrier against cancer formation.

Cancer cells cannot divide uncontrollably unless they are independent of the external stimuli to divide. However, cancer cells can produce their own growth and proliferation signals, so they are free from external constraints. But even then, all is not yet lost. This situation of uncontrolled and rapid cellular proliferation is like a car in which the accelerator has become jammed– the car accelerates continuously and an accident is impending. In this situation the way to prevent too much speed is to step on the brake of the car. Similarly, in a cell, there are a set of genes called tumor-suppressor genes, which are responsible for stopping cell division upon excessive growth stimuli.(7) These genes act like brakes in cell division and prevent further progression into a malignant state. In many cancers,(8) it has been shown that these genes have been inactivated. If the brakes of the car are functional, you can safely bring your car to a stop and fix the problem that caused the accelerator to jam. Similarly, if a cell starts to divide too rapidly, it can stop dividing and repair the damage that caused the uncontrolled growth. Therefore, tumor suppressor genes represent a third line of defense.

If all the previous safety valves fail, there is one more defense to cancer. A situation in which a cell with harmful mutations promotes its own proliferation and cannot abort the division process is similar to one where the accelerator of the car is jammed and the brakes don’t work. In this case, in order to prevent greater damage, one can choose to hit a wall or a tree to stop the car– this will total the car, but will prevent further damage to others. Similarly, if a cell begins to grow uncontrollably and can’t slow down its rate of division, a process called apoptosis, or programmed cell death is initiated. In apoptosis, the cellular DNA and cellular compartments, like lysozomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, and Golgi are degraded, and the cell shrinks in size. In the end, the cell dies and is absorbed by neighboring normal tissue. Therefore, the programmed death of an aberrantly behaving cell is another way that the body is protected from cancer. As expected, in cancer cells defects in this last line of defense are observed as well.(9)

These four mechanisms, i.e. DNA repair, external/ internal cell division suppression, and programmed cell death, are only the ones that we are aware of at this time. In addition to these, there are multiple levels of other redundant safety checks. All these safety features work without our knowledge or will. Findings from cancer research show that the design of cells was carried out so intelligently that even the carcinogenic environment which we produce today was accounted for within the genes of the very first human being.

Notes

1. Cancer Statistics 2006. 2006, American Cancer Society.

2. Vogelstein, B. and K.W. Kinzler, “The multistep nature of cancer.” Trends Genet, 1993. 9(4): p. 138-41.

3. Wogan, G.N., et al., “Environmental and chemical carcinogenesis.” Semin Cancer Biol, 2004. 14(6): p. 473-86.

4. Dixon, K. and E. Kopras, “Genetic alterations and DNA repair in human carcinogenesis.” Semin Cancer Biol, 2004. 14(6): p. 441-8.

5. Jiricny, J., “The multifaceted mismatch-repair system.” Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, 2006. 7(5): p. 335-46.

6. Brattain, M.G., et al., “Growth factor balance and tumor progression.” Curr Opin Oncol, 1994. 6(1): p. 77-81.

7. Hanahan, D. and R.A. Weinberg, “The hallmarks of cancer.” Cell, 2000. 100(1): p. 57-70.

8. Coleman, W.B. and G.J. Tsongalis, “Molecular mechanisms of human carcinogenesis.” Exs, 2006(96): p. 321-49.

9. Dlamini, Z., Z. Mbita, and T. Ledwaba, “Can targeting apoptosis resolve the cancer saga?” Future Oncol, 2005. 1(3): p. 339-49.

“WE HAVE TO FACE THE FACT THAT EITHER ALL OF US ARE GOING TO DIE TOGETHER OR WE ARE GOING TO LEARN TO LIVE TOGETHER AND IF WE ARE TO LIVE TOGETHER THEN WE MUST TALK.”

The word “dialogue” derives from two roots: “dia,” which means “through,” and “logos,” which means “the word,” or more specifically, “the meaning of the word.” Thus the image one gets is of a river of meaning flowing around and through those who are participating in the dialogue.

Dialogue is one of the most effective means in the struggle against negative conditioning, prejudice, and fanaticism. But in order for any dialogue to be effective, certain qualities are needed: Sincerity, humility, and interest. Sincerity is needed because this is what moves the heart. Humility is needed because this is what makes one person value another. Interest is needed because it is the source of all questions.

In his book, Dialogue, the Art of Thinking, William Isaacs writes the following:

“Dialogue is altogether a very different way of talking. Generally, we think of dialogue as “better conversation,” but there is much more to it. Dialogue, as defined, is a conversation with a center, not sides. It is a way of taking the energy of our differences and channeling that energy toward something that has never been created before. It lifts us out of polarization and into a greater sense of the commonalty, and is thereby a means for accessing the intelligence and coordinated power of groups of people.”

Why dialogue?

Firstly, by engaging in dialogue with others we can reduce tensions, conflicts, and even wars.

It is known that through the ages, religious, cultural, and ethnic differences have led to misunderstanding, hostility, and conflict. The root of conflict is ignorance and ignorance is the source of prejudice. To get to know each other through dialogue is essential for the establishment of world peace.

Dialogue between a few people can produce great results. For example, Dr. Jim Miller started a form of dialogue with doctors in the Soviet Union in the 1970s. The doctors, in turn, influenced the leaders, who in turn, helped create change and worked toward ending the Cold War. Because of his work, Miller was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Another such “unsung heroine” is peace activist Margaret Gibney, a 14 year-old from civil war-torn Northern Ireland, who helped create the Wall of Peace project in Belfast. Another is Kenyan ethnographer Sultan Sornjee, founder of the African Peace Museum in Nairobi, who encourages indigenous communities to share their traditions of peace. Miller, Gibney, Sornjee, and many other unsung heroes have faced adversity but have looked beyond cultural, social, economic, and racial issues to find a solution.

Secondly, in today’s world there are over 6,000 communities and as many distinct languages. The United States has a society that is made up of more than 260 ethnic backgrounds. Such differences naturally lead to a diversity of vision, values, beliefs, practices, and expression; all of these, naturally, deserve equal respect and dignity. Through dialogue, we can promote better understanding of and creative cooperation among cultures and religions, while acknowledging and accepting their differences.

Thirdly, technology has expedited globalization and made distant countries seem like neighboring towns. Progress in communication and transport technology during the 20th century has enabled us to overcome geographical boundaries and revolutionize our way of living. The world is now linked to such an extent that a local event cannot take place without having an impact on the international community and vice versa. The world has become like a village. But this village is very diverse and includes many cultures, faiths, and traditions. The tragedy of the tsunami reminded all people just how connected we are when we were all hurt by that disaster and rushed together to help, however we could.

I conclude with the words of several people who have changed history through dialogue.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow cited the following Chinese proverb:

“A single conversation across the table with a wise man is better than ten years’ study of books.”

Ralph Waldo Emerson said:

“Conversation is the laboratory and workshop of the student.”

Eleanor Roosevelt once said:

“We have to face the fact that either all of us are going to die together or we are going to learn to live together and if we are to live together then we must talk.”

When 2001 was designated the year of dialogue by the U.N, Secretary General Kofi Annan said the following:

“I see … dialogue as a chance for people of different cultures and traditions to get to know each other better, whether they live on opposite sides of the world or on the same street.”

Fethullah Gulen, an important Muslim scholar from Turkey and an advocate for dialogue, a man whose words and deeds have inspired millions, including myself, into conducting dialogue, states:

“Civilized people solve their problems through dialogue.”

The starting date of a month in the Islamic lunar calendar is very important in the Islamic world as it determines the essential religious days, like the first and last days of fasting, and Muslim holidays.

The Moon

It takes about 27 days and 8 hours for the Moon to complete one revolution around the Earth. At the same time, while revolving around the Earth, the Moon rotates around itself. Because of this, we always see the same side of the Moon. In the picture below, we see the phases of the Moon. For simplicity, the sunlight is fixed, but this is not a problem as the Earth and the Moon are revolving around the sun together. The position of the Moon with the Earth according to sunlight determines how we see the Moon.

The Moon’s position does not change greatly in one day relative to that of the Earth, but the Earth’s rotation around itself changes our position a great deal. One might ask then why do we see the Moon as the same shape throughout the night. As the figures below suggest, the distance from the Moon to the Earth is much greater than the diameter of the Earth. While the closest distance of the Moon to the Earth is around 350 thousand kilometers, the diameter of the Earth is around 13 thousand kilometers. Because of this huge difference, we see almost the same shape of the Moon anywhere in the world- this “almost” will cause many problems, when we determine the dates in lunar calendar. On the other hand, the place where we see the Moon in the sky depends on our parallel on the Earth. In other words, the northern observer sees the Moon at a lower place in the sky, while the southern one sees the Moon at a higher place in the sky. This is because the Earth is round and our horizon changes if we go to the north or the south.

Now, let’s examine another point. We have just said that the Moon completes one revolution around the Earth in 27 days and 8 hours. However, the time between two New Moons is around 29 and a half days. How does this happen? The reason is not very hard to understand. While the Moon is revolving around the Earth, the Earth revolves around the Sun. Hence, when the Moon completes one full revolution around the Earth and comes to the same point from where it had started, the position of the sunlight changes and the Moon’s shape, as we perceive it, has changed.

The Moon completes one full revolution around the Earth and comes to the same point from where it had started, the position of the sunlight changes and the Moon’s shape, as we perceive it, has changed.

Now, let’s make some computations. How much does the angle of the sun change in 27 days and 8 hours? The Earth completes one revolution around the Sun in 365 days, so there are 365 days in one year. So the angle change should be about 27 days /365 days x 360 ~ 27 degrees. So, how long does it take to complete 27 degrees in the revolution of the Moon around the Earth? One complete revolution takes 27 days and 8 hours. Hence, 27 days x 27/360 ~ 2 days. So, we add 2 days to 27 days and 8 hours, we get about 29 days and a half. Therefore, in this time period, the Moon comes to the same position as the Earth according to sunlight, and we see the same shape of the Moon in the sky. When we do an exact calculation, we get 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds for the time period between two new Moons.

The Islamic lunar calendar

The earliest calendars in human history were based on the phases of the Moon. Historically, this was used by southern Europeans, as well as Jewish, Chinese, Muslim, and African civilizations. Some of these civilizations are still using semi-lunar calendars, but the Muslim calendar is the only purely lunar calendar in widespread use today. In the Qur’an, there are many references to the moon as a means of measuring time (see Rahman 55:5, Yunus 10:5; Baqara 2:189).

In a lunar calendar, a month is the period between the two consecutive new Moons. Since the exact period between two new Moons is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds, a month in a lunar calendar is either 29 days, or 30 days, depending on the appearance of the Moon at night.

Now, let’s examine another point. We have just said that the Moon completes one revolution around the Earth in 27 days and 8 hours. However, the time between two New Moons is around 29 and a half days. How does this happen? The reason is not very hard to understand. While the Moon is revolving around the Earth, the Earth revolves around the Sun. Hence, when

The Islamic calendar was introduced in 632 by the Prophet, peace be upon him; however the beginning of the Islamic era for the count of Islamic years was considered and discussed in 639, during the time of the fourth year of the Caliphate of Umar. For the Islamic lunar calendar, the time that a month started was decided according to the following hadith. The Prophet said: “Fast when you see the Moon and break your fast when you see the next Moon. But if you cannot see it, then complete the 30th day [of fasting].” Hence, in the Islamic lunar calendar, the first day of a month is the day after the first night on which you can see the new crescent Moon. Since the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is 29 days and a half, Islamic months are either 29 or 30 days long. If there is doubt or if the new crescent Moon is not sighted due to clouds or other atmospheric conditions, then it has been agreed upon by Muslim scholars that the previous month is completed after 30 days.

The controversy

Now, let’s turn to the controversy in determining the first day of a new month in the Islamic lunar calendar. There are essentially two main issues, which are “Local vs. Non-local Sighting,” and “Naked Eye Observation vs. Astronomical Data.”

i. Local vs. non-local sighting

Since the cycles of the Moon and the sun are not completely synchronized, the new crescent Moon might not be observed everywhere in the world on the same night. As we mentioned above, the shape of the Moon is seen almost the same anywhere in the world, but not exactly same. On the same night, Spain might observe the new crescent Moon while Japan might see nothing in the sky. The only thing we can say about these observations is that if one city observes the new crescent Moon, than any city to the west of the original one should be able to observe the same on a clear night, as the Earth rotates about itself from west to east. This means the new crescent Moon can be observed on different nights in different places in the world. There are essentially two different opinions on which Moon sighting should be taken as the basis. The first opinion asserts that all Muslims in the world should begin the new month if the new crescent Moon is sighted in any Muslim country, and the second one says that the new month starts only with a local Moon sighting.

The scholars defending the non-local Moon sighting give evidence from other Islamic practices. They claim that all Muslims should start the fasting and the Eid on the same day, as many practices of Islam suggest that the unity of Muslims is important in Islam; hence Muslims should celebrate these days in unity. So, according to this view, if the Moon is sighted, for example, in Saudi Arabia, all Muslims should start fasting. This is the common opinion among the followers of the Sunni Hanbali school. On the other hand, some other Islamic scholars assert that the starting day of a month in the Islamic lunar calendar might be different depending on local observations. Those scholars derive this result from the principle of simplicity in Islam. All people should be able to perform the practices of Islam by themselves without the need of any outside input. In other words, a Muslim should be able to decide by themselves when Ramadan starts by observing the Moon. A Muslim in Brazil might not get the information of the sighting in Mecca, and this contradicts the simplicity of practices in Islam. A Muslim can determine the prayer times by observing the sun’s position in the sky, and similarly, therefore, they should be able to decide about the starting time and ending time of the fast.

So, the first controversial point in Moon sighting is about whether it is local or non-local. The second issue is about how we make the observations.

ii. Naked Eye Observation vs. Astronomical Data

We are living in the 21st century, and astronomy is a very well-developed science. Man can go to space, observe the distant galaxies, and even observe the expansion of the universe. Hence, at such a time, calculating the times of the visibility of the Moon for a given location should be very straightforward for astronomers. So, why is still there an ambiguity about the starting date of a month in the Islamic lunar calendar?

In the Islamic lunar calendar, the month starts with the visibility of the Moon, not the scientific phase of the Moon. In other words, “Theoretical Visibility” is not the same as “Real Visibility.” If the Moon was a perfectly round sphere with a perfectly flat surface, if the atmospheric conditions were always very clear and did not affect our vision, or if there were no other physical conditions affecting the Moon sighting, then “Theoretical Visibility” would be the same as “Real Visibility,” and we would be able to compute the exact times when we could sight the new crescent Moon by using astronomical data. However, there is an important difference between theory and real life; hence, the problem lies in this difference. Even though the astronomical data tell you the positions of the Moon, the Earth and the Sun, the visibility of the Moon from the Earth depends on many different factors.

This difference between “Theoretical Visibility” and “Real Visibility” is the origin of the second controversy about the starting day of a month. Some Muslim scholars interpret the theoretical visibility as being sufficient to start the month, and as they determine the dates of the lunar calendar by using astronomical data, they do not bother with sighting the Moon. That is, they know the dates for Ramadan for the following 100 years, and they practice according to this calendar depending only on the astronomical data. However, some other scholars assert that people must be able to sight the new crescent Moon with the naked eye for the month to start. Since astronomical data and naked eye observation are not always in sync, some Muslims might start fasting in Ramadan on a different day from other Muslims.

Now, let’s return to the question as to why astronomical data and naked eye observation are not in sync. Scientifically, there are two main factors affecting the visibility of the Moon other than atmospheric conditions or clouds. The first one is the Moon’s altitude measured from the horizon. The second one is the age of the Moon, that is, the time after the new Moon (when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are in line). To see the Moon in the sky, it should be “high” enough above the horizon, and it should be “old” enough (the crescent should be sufficiently pronounced).

The first important factor is the Moon’s altitude above the horizon. If the thickness of the crescent is sufficient, but if it is not sufficiently above the horizon, then it cannot be seen. This happens in the month of September and October in the UK and the USA, when the Moon is in the southern hemisphere, therefore, it cannot be seen from northern hemisphere. If the Moon is above the horizon, but close to it, falling within the glare of the Sun, then it may not be visible. A crescent within an altitude of 10 degrees is usually not visible.

The second important factor is the age of the Moon. When the New Moon has moved away at least about 7 degrees and it is about 20 hours old, then it becomes visible. Until this angle becomes 7 degrees, no light of the sun reflected by the Moon can come to the Earth, because the mountains on the surface of the Moon block the sun’s light. This angle must be about 10-12 degrees for sufficient sunlight to reflect off the Moon and come to the Earth, making a thin crescent which can be seen. Sometimes, this crescent is very thin and very low on the horizon, so it will not be seen, as it fades due to the glare of the sun, even though it may remain above the horizon for 20-30 minutes after sunset. There are many other factors involved in visibility. Without going into technical details, due to other factors, even a 36 hour old Moon may not be visible. Therefore, human knowledge so far has not reached the stage at which it can inform us of the Moon’s visibility in different countries with an accuracy of minutes and seconds, but calculations can be made within a few hours difference.

So, these facts show that astronomical data provide a good means for estimating the starting day of the new month, but it cannot tell us exactly when it begins. There are some Muslim experts who are working on this problem. By using data from the past, they are trying to calculate more accurately the times of the visible Moon for all locations in the world.

On the other hand, this uncertainty of the starting day makes Muslims more aware, and keeps their attention on Ramadan and other festivities. In many countries, Muslims go to hilltops to observe the new crescent in the night, watching the Moon-sighting news on the internet, or calling their friends about it to welcome Ramadan. Hence, the uncertainty of the day causes the Muslim community to be more aware about Ramadan. There are some Muslim experts who have been working on this problem. By using data from the past, they are trying to calculate more accurately the times of the visible Moon for all locations in the world. Finally in 2006, they released an algorithm which can detect the visibility of the Moon by using astronomical data; ISNA (the Islamic Society of North America) has adopted this method to determine the starting day of the Islamic Lunar month. This algorithm makes use of several thousand controlled observations, collected over a period of 150 years in different locations of the world. Moreover, these visibility calculations have been confirmed by observations of the Moon made every month since 1993. Again, this algorithm does not depend upon purely astronomical data, but rather the observational data of the last 150 years. The researchers, Khalid Shaukat et al., used these observations, and comparing them with the astronomical data of the same time were able to attain information about the degree of the Moon and at which geographical position of the Earth the Moon became visible. For more information, please visit www.Moonsighting.com.

To sum up, we have provided an overview of the controversies about the starting day of the month in the Islamic lunar calendar. There are essentially two points of controversy which are “Local vs. Non-local Sighting,” and “Naked Eye Observation vs. Astronomical Data.” We have attempted to show that these controversies are not as simple as many people might think. So, if there are different starting days for Ramadan, or different celebration dates for Islamic holidays for different Muslim communities, we should not see this situation as a huge controversy caused over a small issue. As the Prophet Muhammad said: “The difference of opinion among my followers is a mercy.”

References

1. Dr Jamie Love, The Phases of the Moon, http://www.synapses. co.uk/astro/Moon2.html

2. Syed Khalid Shaukat, What is Islamic Calendar, http://www. Moonsighting.com/islamcal.html

3. Syed Khalid Shaukat, The Science of Moon Sighting, http:// www.ummah.net/Moonsighting/science/Moonscie.htm

4. Zahoor Niazi, The Question of Moon Sighting, http://www. Moonsighting.com/question-rooyat-hilal.mht

5. The Moon, http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/ Moon/index.shtml

6. Moon Calendars, http://www.riverocean.org.uk/lunarcalendar/ calendar.htm

“Philosophy considers force to be the point of support in social life, and life as the realization of self-interest (as its goal) and conflict (as its principle).”1 When Said Nursi wrote this sentence in The Words, he was looking at the Cyclops-like aspect of the European philosophy of his time, which totally excluded spirituality from the interpretation of the relationship between humans and the universe. There was only one eye on that face which concentrated solely on the materialist side of the creation. Said Nursi called this face “philosophy”; he was opposed to nineteenth century materialist philosophy, but rather favored one that was open to metaphysics and the spiritual as well as to the rational, an approach that he would later call “the marriage of the mind and the heart.”

This materialist philosophy, which considers “power” to be the point of support in social life, actually shaped the social and political movements of the twentieth century. Those individuals who were empowered with personal and financial resources built production facilities and had the less powerful individuals in society work for them in exchange for little remuneration. Capital thus quickly accumulated in the hands of an increasingly prosperous minority, whereas the majority of the members of the “developing” society were barely able to make a living. Mercy seldom descended from the narrow top of the pyramid to the base-and envy and resentment rose in dark clouds from the wide base to the top. Power became the main determining effect in social life, as individuals or groups tried to realize their self-interests to the degree that their “power” allowed them to.

When there was a conflict between interests, might was used as the arbitrator. Revolutions simply shifted the building blocks of the pyramid, but the shape of the pyramid always remained the same. “Natural selection,” a misconception thought to be observed in nature, became the very basis of civilizations. The political arena always had its actors whose pockets were full and waves of ordinary people were merely directed, explicitly or implicitly, in what they should do with their lives. Nations with less economic power became oppressed, their lands and resources were looted, and their futures were thrown into a deep, dark well of uncertainty. The world saw the bloodiest wars of all times as humanity descended to the lowest of the lowest, “asfal al-safilin.”

There has not been any single event in the course of social history which has not been motivated by a system of thought. The intellectuals of the last century tended to strip human beings of their inner dimensions and consider them as a piece of walking/talking machinery. This machine was supposed to produce goods constantly in order to satisfy the increasing needs of mankind. Simultaneously, the circle of the needs extended itself to the farthest point of the imagination, until there was no way that circle could be encompassed. Most of these needs took the shape of carnal desires, and the machine became dedicated to gratifying these desires. Relations between individuals and their families, in neighborhoods and within countries, started to deteriorate. Divorce, domestic violence, deceit, murder, and other crimes-enough to make anyone with a heart grow mute-began to seem and sound normal to the general public. Thus, the machine began to annihilate itself and its surroundings. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi brought the matter to public attention at that time with the following words: “Force calls up aggression, seeking self-interest causes battles over material resources, and conflict brings strife.”2

Since life was considered to be the realization of self-interest, the self became the center of all interests. Individualism was raised as the banner of victory, while the bonds that connected selves together began to disappear. “Country, religion, family, ideas of civilization, all the sentimental and historical forces that stood between cosmic infinity and the individual, providing some notion of place within the whole, have been rationalized and have lost their compelling force.”3

Contrary to accepting power as the fabric of social life, such as it has been in the past two centuries, the Holy Qur’an accepts “rights” to be the constant point of support in social life. The first Caliph of Islam after the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, the honorable Abu Bakr, stated this Qur’anic approach in his first speech to the public: “The weakest among you is the strongest in my eyes until his rights have been delivered to him, and God willing I will accomplish that; and the strongest among you is the weakest in my sight until he delivers the rights to their real owner, and God willing I will pursue that.”4

One of the five pillars in Islam is the prescribed alms, zakat. According to the Qur’an, every Muslim with adequate financial resources is obligated to give one-fortieth of his wealth to people in need. This portion of the wealth of the rich is considered a right that is given to the poor from God. This is a very interesting point, because the Qur’an draws a circle around the rights of the powerless within the circle of the powerful. In so doing, the Qur’an effectively silences brute force and allows “rights” to speak instead. Thus, the Qur’an teaches and commands believers to practice “giving precedence to the common interests of the community over one’s own interests.” The fact is that all unrest in human social life proceeds from two sources or attitudes: “Once my stomach is full, what do I care if others die of hunger?” and “You work, I will eat.”5 These statements symbolize a world where labor and capital confront each other and zakat, as a moral imperative, is abandoned; yet mankind has been advised to use charity as a form of purifying alms that is essential to the establishment of social welfare and order.

Human rights, huquq al-ibad, are a very important issue in the Qur’an. A devout believer who has pursued a virtuous life in this life may be pardoned for all their sins. However, the violation of the rights of others is excluded from this pardon, for such a violation must be resolved between the person who violated the rights and the one whose rights has been violated. The “others” here can be Muslims or non-Muslims and they can be of any race, ethnicity, belief, or worldview, in fact, anybody whom God has created. An anecdote from the time of the third Caliph, Umar is noteworthy here. It occurred in the city of Hims (Syria) in 635. The Muslim army was in retreat and leaving the city at the approach of a huge Roman army. The commander of the Muslim army ordered his men to reimburse the people of the city for the taxes that had been collected. The tax collectors told the Christian population of the city that the Muslim army would not be able to protect the city against the Roman army, and that since the taxes had been collected in payment for the protection of the city, the army no longer had any right to keep the taxes.6

The Qur’an does not leave the individual by themselves in the universe. “Does man think that he will be left uncontrolled (without purpose)?” (Qiyama 75:36). Human beings have the willpower and determination to choose between evil and good. Humans are responsible for their choices as well as their actions, and they will be held accountable for every deed they commit. This very fact should urge everyone who hears this message to adjust their standing within the community. The Qur’an commands each soul to uphold righteousness and forbid evil. This command is not limited only to the person’s interactions with the rest of the society. Rather, each person is also responsible for their own physical and psychological being. Nobody can commit suicide, harm their own body, or fall into despair or cut themselves off from society.

From a Muslim’s point of view the holy books that preceded the Qur’an also hold “rights” to be paramount within the community for the establishment of justice and harmony; the Qur’an states, “And we have sent down to you (O Muhammad) the Book (the Qur’an) in truth confirming the Scripture that came before it” (Maida 5:52). If we want to live in a safer and a happier world, where every human being’s rights are secured, the followers of the Holy Scriptures should refer to the enlightening realm of the revelation, advocating “right” rather than “might” as the criteria for any decision that affects the destiny of humanity. Rights have to be promoted at every level of society, and this cannot be done without taking the metaphysical dimensions of the individual into consideration. Looking at how people all around the globe are returning to the warm home of religion and how members of different faiths are striving to understand each other, one can hear the joyful celebration of the marriage between the mind and the heart and can see rights sitting on their throne supported on the shoulders of might.

Notes

1. Nursi, Said, The Words, The Light, Inc., NJ: 2005 p. 146-7.

2. ibid. p. 146-7.

3. Bloom, Allan, The Closing of the American Mind, Simon & Schuster Inc., 1988, p.85

4. Hz. Muhammed (s.a.s.) ve Hayati (Prophet Muhammad and His Life), Diyanet Yayinlari, Ankara: 1996, p. 435, Turkish Religious Council Publications, p. 435

5. Nursi, Said, The Letters, 22nd Letter, Truestar, London: 1995, p. 74.

6. Belazuri, Futuhu’l-Buldan, Beirut, 1987, p. 187.

Since the creation of humankind, day followed night, and light was accompanied by dark. Just like the alternation of light and dark over the Earth, bright days were followed by days of pitch dark, and relief-laden eras were replaced by periods of crisis. From time to time, almost every corner was obscured by the darkness of atheism and conflict. Roads were left without illumination. Humanity was defeated by darkness. Some unfettered people with vain ideas crowded the scene, sending their inauspicious muttering throughout the world. At times, the collective conscience held its breath in the face of the noise they made, entering into a contemplation of silence. Then, the word fell into disrepute. Slaves acquired the seal of authority. Masses became toys of demagogy. They were manipulated to silence or action at will. Unsuitable persons were declared stars while many talented persons were barricaded from stardom. False pretensions and dialectical philosophy blocked logic and reasoning. Evil thoughts replaced decent ideas. The institutions from which society expected mercy and compassion were occupied by crude souls obsessed with hatred and animosity. Using these institutions, they sowed seeds of mischief among people, making them enemies of each other. Considerable damage was done to religious thought. The longstanding criteria were undermined and everything turned into chaos. Cups of sweet drink were replaced with goblets of poison, dishes of honey and cream with pots of filth, and light with darkness.

In these dreadful and ominous eras, minds became so confused that people could not help but feel agitated even when they extended a hand to the most decent and noblest of things. Without trust, we referred to each other as “wild,” “animal,” “savage,” and “barbarian.” A small group of faithful and conscientious people, if they existed, were humiliated and rendered speechless. The slaves of darkness became ferocious while the souls who longed for light waited for a helping hand to appear on the horizon of miraculous blessings; they yearned for sunrises; they daydreamed of times that would emerge from mercy. When lips would twitch with the tiniest of smiles out of these considerations they were swept away by subsequent storms of worry; temporary moments of happiness were effectively replaced with years of sorrow.

In line with the notion of “history repeats itself,” the foregoing account applies to our time as well. All of a sudden, clear and sunny horizons are covered with mist and smoke, our view is blocked and our hearts shudder with gloom. Days of joy are dim. Darkness shades our thoughts; our wills are cracked, and our hopes are demolished. At times, one feels as if the sun will never rise again and that daylight will never appear. Unguided souls are shivering with internal desperation and resultant curses.

As for us, as always, we are sure the he latest chaos boiling with filth will soon be terminated, and felicitous days will come in which the divine destiny will clear roads for our nation. As a matter of fact, stories of people of heart are already being related everywhere. Everywhere, pure souls are breathless with the desire to find the Paradise they have lost. Hundreds or thousands of people are meditating upon such considerations, contemplating the purpose of creation and the causes of nature. Yet, we are passing through a rather foggy period of time with respect to our spiritual lives. Moreover, a chilling wind blows for a while, filling the air with the vibration of sorrow. Even the places that overflow with ultimate joy are, from time to time, suffused with worry and despair. Nevertheless, we all know well that worry and despair can no longer stand firm. And when the horizons are bright to help us distinguish good from evil, all the hardships endured on the road will be immediately mitigated. Distances will readily submit to endeavors and efforts. Hills will turn into valleys, and valleys will become smoother; and then, ideals will be intertwined with the journey, and no trace of hardship will be felt in the face of the glamor of the horizons of the goal.

Nowadays, hands are reaching out, though feebly, to the rope of the heart, and the breaths of the soul are heard everywhere. Reason and heart go hand in hand. Thought is embracing inspiration with its dazzling depths. Logic is subordinated to divine revelation. Science guides us to faith; knowledge is led by intuitive knowledge; laboratories raise apprentices to the prayer hall; wills are lively and resolute with the help of the water of life that is offered by faith; eyes wander on the same horizons with insight; contradicting physics, metaphysical springs emerge everywhere. It seems obvious that snow or ice, however cold they are, cannot survive long in the face of the heat kindled in the sources. Blizzards, however strong they are, will fail to extinguish the torches protected by the lanterns of the natural tendencies of human nature – as long as it is permitted by God. Although, at times, most of us turn crimson red, shivering with various worries or making a fuss over strong winds, it is obvious that we send our warmest smiles to our surroundings like roses bursting from their buds, effervescing like nightingales flitting from one branch to another. We cannot deny the fact that our hearts leap with hope and expectation for the sounds of “waterfalls of life” to reach us, for “the white hand”1 to hover over our heads. The already awakened souls ponder these considerations with confidence; it is as if they have reached the borders of their hearts, and are full of joy with the enthusiasm of having sensed the odors of the Paradise, however slight its trickle may be.

Yes, those capable of filtering current events through their hearts and souls can feel the coming of spring, which brings a shining sun and all the shades of green under foot. Waterfalls of assistance and effort gurgle in the bed of divine blessings, heading toward the sea free from all obstacles; they pass over or bypass any obstruction they face and they try to represent the mission endowed by divine destiny in detail with the beautiful geometric lines they leave behind. As they walk, the roads hail them; seemingly insurmountable obstacles are flattened and nullified, as if they are prostrating themselves before these holy ones.

As a matter of fact, this state is always the case for the matured souls: at all times, they send fragrance to their surroundings like censers. Burning like sticks of incense, they convey the joy of burning to everybody through their moans. When necessary, they roar like lions, displaying their characters. When necessary, they sing like nightingales, filling souls with joy and relief. Their foreheads have been impressed with the seal of being both dear and humble; they are neither oppressed nor are they tyrants. It is a spectacular sight when they show their modesty before their Lord, acting humbly to the highest extent. In short, they are the heroes who have managed to merge lion-like manners with dove-like customs in the same vessel, and those who are gifted in getting to know their inner profundities always want to be with them.

How I wish my body would always shiver like swaying tress before my Lord in a state of openness to this delicacy, knocking on His door with a yearning for acceptance! How I wish I could occupy myself with my own faults instead of concentrating on the errors I observe here and there, to ignore their mistakes! How I wish I could detect my own defects and failures at each beat of my pulsing heart! It is my sincere wish that the values to be weighed on the scale of life be the products of conscientious reckoning that have been filtered through my internal contemplations. It is my sincere wish that my scale of acquisitions is always full to the greatest extent, and that all credit is attributed to Him for my acquisitions – I continuously long to completely forget comfort and languor, to seek the peace of the heart in toil, and to become calm with hardship. I yearn to moan like Job and to cry like David for my faults and for my erroneous manners, no matter how small – I long to devote my self to the peace and security of humanity as long as I live. I have a desire to have so vast a love that it will embrace everybody with warmth and non-discrimination and I wish to be forgetful of rage, hate, and animosity.

Now, let us devote ourselves to the illumination of humankind with profundity; let us melt like candles in our endeavors so to enlighten our remote or close environment in preference to our selfish desires. Wherever we go, let us be the voice and translator of the truth with a spirit of real devotion, telling Him and communicating His message. Let us be so respectful in our relations with God and so sincere in submission to Him that we make celestial angels envy our manners and make spiritual beings feel obliged to retreat a few steps in the face of the meanings that overflow from our selves. Let us wrap our selves with the color of the dawns that follow the nights on which the most sincere prayers are offered to God and assume the role assigned to us at the time of creation; let us behave ourselves. Let us put an end to our comfort without fearing hardships and run in such haste that birds watch us in awe; let us cry out the truth with such sincerity that savages seek refuge in their lairs with fear. When we feel like a lion, let us not instill fear in people; let us instead attempt to cast off the shackles on our will. When we feel like fire, let us not ignite new fires, but illuminate the people around us by setting the candles alight. When we turn into a flood, let us flow toward gardens and orchards to give them life. When we blow like winds, let us carry seeds for propagation; let us bring drops of moisture together to teach the clouds how to become rain as a divine mercy.

Indeed, we must show earnest respect to those esteemed by God. God treats and views people differently. He may place a person in the lead to serve as an altar in glorifying Him. He may whisper the enigma of existence into their soul, crowning them with a special caliphate. By taking this person to new horizons through faith and intuitive knowledge, He enables them to feel the truth of His presence. He prepares eternal happiness for such people in the Hereafter. He opens doorways to the Paradise in their heart; He makes this dungeon-like world a waiting room for the coming Paradise. He honors those who manage all their actions based on insight in this world by allowing them to watch His beauty in the Hereafter. He brings thousands of aspects to single-dimension living. In their magical worlds, He transforms seas into the rose-covered slopes of Paradise, and ever-boiling hells into babbling springs of life. He creates new worlds with incredible wonders for them every day.

Certainly, those who live in this world like the blind, the deaf, and the dead will not even get a glimpse of the above. Those who act unwarily, even taking lightly these grave conditions today will be likely to continually wail from penitence in the future. Then, let us be vigilant today so that we will not be troubled for rest and sleep tomorrow. Let us weep abundantly today so that we will not cry from regret tomorrow. Let us concentrate at all times on the horizon where we are heading, so as not to be distracted by the attractive things on the side of the road. If we fail to regard this world as a marketplace where trade is carried out for acquisitions to be taken onto the Hereafter and manage our life accordingly, if we lead our life in line with the whims of carnal desires, then we should not be surprised when one day somebody puts a packsaddle on us and mounts us. This is indeed the kind of treatment that the narrow-minded, feckless, and conceited people will receive. The value of mankind is directly proportional to the degree of their connection with God and the continuation of their sincere relations with Him. A human-shaped body contaminated with carnal desires and alienated from Him will have less value than mud, even if decorated with gold, silver, and satin.

Then, come and liberate yourself from bodily worries and carnal troubles! Turn toward Him with your whole existence and fix your gaze on Him for in this way these initial gifts will increase greatly in value! Never forget that His favor turns a drop of water into a sea, a particle into a sun, and transforms your impotence and poverty into your greatest strength. On the other hand, if you rely on your own power, you will blunder – like trying to heat great cauldrons with a single spark, you will lay yourself open to ridicule. Know the limits of your power and resources, and make your plans accordingly. If you ignore this important point and set on building facts on fancies, whatever you do will come tumbling down, crushing your faith and hopes. Assess yourself frequently through internal self-criticism and contemplation, specify your position well according to your capabilities and resources, and be aware of the relation between your potential and the effort you have exerted. Avoid becoming “a carrier of divine gifts with no fidelity,” that is, try not to be regarded as a spoiled person who has become arrogant with benefactions from other people.

Rely on divine grace at the highest degree, but never fail to fulfill whatever free will requires of you. Do not expect secondary winds to carry you to your target; consider the fact that those who have been taken to higher levels by today’s winds may one day be thrown into the deepest pits by tomorrow’s storms; try to live in line with the realities.

Know that religion is a road leading to divine proximity, and sincerely hold fast to a life led by religion. Seek shelter in the secure harbor of faith, and submit to the Creator! Never falter in reliance on Him and keep your manners always decent before Him; endeavor to be a modest believer without any vanity or ostentation! Abounding hearts are silent like boxes loaded with ore. Empty souls make a great deal of noise just like children’s money-boxes that contain several fake pearls. Always remember that your heart is monitored by God many times at every instant, and therefore, keep your heart clean and immaculate at all times and you will head toward that eternal altar! Until now, whoever has headed toward that altar has never lost while whoever sought faithfulness from other places has never won. Rather, those who sought shelter at that gate have remained lively and have been honored with eternity, saved from the disgrace of being slaves of other entities. When one finds Him and faces Him, when one reveals one’s deepest feeling in His presence, one glorifies and exalts Him. To remain silent is to contemplate in meditation and self-criticism. Those who manage to be in His presence and proximity always feel the water of life, even if they are in a desert; those who rely on Him in all their acts always reap roses, even if they have sown thorn-bushes. Even under hell-like conditions, they are always at peace and calm. And the following is their motto:

Servants of God cannot be slaves to another slave,
Never will true servants be stranded.
Their souls are filled with joy in reunion,
Never will they be deceived, even if everybody else is
Perhaps, we will find an opportunity to deal with this issue one day.

Note

1. The miraculous hand of Moses

When speaking of a huge emptiness in between the elementary particles, the French philosopher Jean Guitton (1901–1999) gives the following example:

Think of the proton of the oxygen nucleus as the size of a pinhead; then the rotating electron would draw a circle that traverses the Netherlands, Germany and Spain (assuming that the center of this orbit was France, as Guitton lived there). Therefore, if all the atoms that make up my body were close enough to touch one another, you wouldn’t be able to see me at all. [I] would be a particle of dust, just one thousandth of a millimeter.

If we could enlarge an apple to the size of the world, each atom, proportionally, would be the size of a football. We would then be able to learn everything about the atoms by taking one of those atoms and examining it in our hands, wouldn’t we?

No, we wouldn’t!

It isn’t this easy. Even if an apple were to be the size of the world, it would still be too small to attain enough information about its atoms. If we want to see the nucleus of the atom, we must enlarge it to the size of a town, not a football. Then the nucleus, which is the size of a football, is in the middle, and one of the electrons, orbiting 1 kilometer away, would be no larger than a walnut.

Now let’s apply this example to the hydrogen atom, which is the smallest atom. If the nucleus of a hydrogen atom were enlarged to the size of a football then the atom itself would be a sphere with a diameter of 2 kilometers.

Quantum field

The discovery of the atom is in fact the discovery of empty space. It might sound strange to hear the words “huge” and “emptiness” in the same sentence when talking about the atom.

One night, a pessimist, an optimist, and a physicist were looking at the cloudless sky. The pessimist said, “What a great emptiness,” while the optimist said, “There are countless stars.” The physicist, on the other hand, couldn’t say anything, because he wasn’t sure whether what they had seen was a vast amount of objects or a vast field of emptiness.

The developments in modern physics in recent years have changed concepts such as, “substance,” “particle,” and “vacuum.” Vacuum is usually defined as “the living environment, life breath, or energy” of the universe.

The vast vacuum that physicist sees in the sky is what we call the quantum field

The quantum field is formless and shapeless. It is the field of all forms and the basic essence of the universe. The durable and solid substance that we call a particle is the condensation of this field into small units. The quantum field is the environment of activity, transportation, and communication, all at the same time. It is noteworthy that this approach is very close to the ancient approach that claims that space is full of ether.

Albert Einstein defined matter as the space region in which this field was extremely condensed. According to the understanding of the new physics, both the matter and the field of the matter are the same thing.

According to quantum physics, all matters in space are like islets in an ocean, and are connected to each other through subjacent earths. In the concept of a quantum field, space is a stable integrated whole and unity of waves and these interactions happen in “waves.”

Vacuum is not emptiness

The vacuum was once believed to be a place with nothing inside it. However, the universe has a beginning, and everywhere in this universe was once a single place that later came into existence. Therefore, it is impossible for a place in which “there is nothing” to exist in the universe. In brief, subsequently, there must have been something everywhere that has been created. Just as there is no dry place in the sea, there cannot be any emptiness in this sea of existence that was created out of nothing. Underlining this truth, quantum physics defines the universe as a whole and says there is no emptiness in the absolute sense. In other words, the universe in which there is no “empty” space is a world that has been “called into being.”

If everything around us, even human beings, consists of atoms, most of which are made up of emptiness, and if in fact the actual physical structures that compose our bodies are so few, then why can’t we go through walls or closed doors, like cartoon characters? What makes matter so solid and durable?

In fact it is not easy to answer this question. Electrons are created in small places, like atoms, and have been given phenomenal speed. An electron moves at 1,000 kilometers per second (that means it rotates one million times around the nucleus). As a result of this phenomenal speed, the atom becomes a tough and solid mass. We can compare this to airplane propellers that appear to be a solid and flat surface when spinning.

The amazing electron

The features of electrons, such as being able to pass through two holes in an obstacle at the same time (no other particle can do this) have astonished scientists and brought out a metaphysical dimension that are beyond the wave nature of light. The granular structures of subatomic particles contradict the understanding of matter. According to the findings of quantum mechanics, the particle is in fact nothing but a dynamic effect and movement. The particles can be composed of energy or they can be entirely converted to energy. The classical concept of elementary particle is becoming obsolete in today’s world.

Nevertheless, the changes in our perception of matter do not necessarily mean matter is unreal. The truth is that particles of matter do not have a constant reality or an independent essence, in contrast to what has been assumed. Whatever seems to be or is reflected as matter, energy, or value, or whatever we call it, is nothing but the manifestation of the Divine Names of the Creator Who created “nothingness.”

Think of a shadow play. The image that the audiences see on the curtain, which is far from the source of light, is not “real.” The real thing is another object that is in front of the source of light or behind the curtain. What we see is the reflection of the object itself or its movements. If we don’t know how this play has been staged, we may think that the image on the curtain is real. Even though there is an image on the curtain, it does not have its own existence and is not real. In the same way matter exists but its existence and its being in this condition is not something under its control.

Before the realm of the quantum was discovered, Newtonian physics had accepted matter as being solid, durable, and constant. Everything we touch, such as walls, trees, and all the objects we see have the solid and durable condition of matter. But if one looks at an object through an electron microscope, they will see that 99% is vacuum and 1% is light. We can form circle of light if we swing a light source in a dark room. If we add a second, third, and fourth source, and move them so that they can form illuminated spheres, someone who is observing from a distance will perceive a three-dimensional sphere instead of a two-dimensional illuminated circle. Thus, we can understand that by increasing the number of spheres we form a three-dimensional model of matter. According to quantum physics, matter found in the universe is pretty much like this example. In short, matter does not consist of a combination of solid particles. There is almost no difference between the “building stone” of human beings and the image of human on television. And we can say that just as the television broadcast disappears when there is a power cut, it is also possible for this universe, which seems so permanent, to disappear with one command.

A television broadcast is constantly being renewed through the transmission of pictures and sound by means of electronic signals. As in the example above, if our existence is like the image on television, then can we say that the universe is also being renewed every second like a TV broadcast?

None of the objects we see (trees, birds, humans, etc.) take their existence from the concrete reality of the matter that we perceive. Thus, they must receive their existence from the power and the names of the Creator Who creates everything out of nothing and keeps it in perpetual motion. In brief, although created out of nothing, existence is being created all the time.

It is not the intention of this article to speculate on the true motivation behind the printing of the blasphemous cartoons that derided and insulted the blessed memory of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. Rather this article is intended to provide the reader with succinct answers to some frequently asked questions that were raised in the aftermath of the event.

The ancient practice of mockery

It would be appropriate to point out first that mocking sacred religious figures is not a practice initiated by the Danish newspaper in question. Prophets of earlier generations were constantly targets of mockery and derision. The following verse from the Qur’an, for example, attests to this fact:

Ah! Alas for those servants! Every time there has come to them a Messenger, they have but mocked him. (Yasin 36:30)

There are explicit Qur’anic references to the ridicule that certain individual prophets were exposed to, but this general verse should be enough to prove the assertion.

The derision suffered by Prophet Muhammad

Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, was no exception. He became a subject of mockery in his time after he started to communicate the message revealed to him, as indicated in the following verse, as well as in many others:

Whenever they see you, they take you for nothing but an object of jest, (saying): “Is this the one whom God has sent as a Messenger?” (Furqan 25:41)

For the pagans of Mecca, they thought that if the long-awaited prophet were to appear among them, then the notables of their tribes were more worthy to be chosen than the orphan of Abdulmuttalib, peace be upon him. The Prophet constantly had to endure similar ridicule and other hardships in his time.

He also suffered derision from the people of the scripture, as the Qur’an points out in a few verses. For example:

(O Messenger!) Say: “O People of the Book! Is it not that you dislike us only because we believe in God and what has been sent down to us and what was sent down before, and because most of you are transgressors?” (Maidah 5:59)

By asking this question without providing the answer, the Qur’an leaves the answer to the conscience of the audience. Muslims believe in one god, Allah. The Aramaic and Hebrew names Eloah, Elah, Eloi, Elohim are also from the same root as the Arabic word Allah. Muslims believe in the messengership of all the holy figures cited in both the New and Old Testaments. Is the problem with the final message that Muslims believe in that it came after the others? But note – if one and a half billion Muslims hold Moses, Jesus, and Mary, peace be upon them, dearer than their own lives, it is because of this last message.

Idolatry and icon-worshipping

Another common question that was brought up in the wake of the cartoon crisis was about the depiction of the Prophet. It should be mentioned that there are few authentic traditions that place some reservations on representative arts in general, and discourage making the images of living creatures.

In order to understand the wisdom behind these reservations, the following aspects of the methodology of Islamic jurisprudence should be remembered. A general principle stipulates that all acts are judged according to their consequences; if the consequences are evil and detrimental than the act is considered unlawful, otherwise it is lawful. Another principle states that anything that helps or leads to what is unlawful is also unlawful.

Islamic faith is based on pure monotheism, and Islam is very strict against the manifestations of polytheism and idolatry in any form. No one possesses perfect, infinite, or absolute divine attributes other than the Almighty Creator himself. However great they may be, the created do not have a share in the divine attributes of the Creator.

Prophets are no exception to this rule. Islam, therefore, takes necessary precautions to ensure that all ways that could lead to idolatry in the form of hero worshipping are not practiced in the religion.

The following quote from the works of a renowned twentieth century Islamic scholar, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, summarizes this and the wisdom that lies behind the restrictions imposed on images.

Just as the Qur’an forbids in a severe fashion the worship of idols, so too does it forbids the worship of forms, which is a sort of imitation of idol-worship. Yet civilization counts forms as one of its virtues, and desires to dispute the Qur’an on this matter. But forms, whether images or concrete, either embody tyranny, or embody hypocrisy, or embody lust; they excite lust and encourage man to oppression, hypocrisy, and licentiousness. [25th Word]

In summary, making images for educational and other lawful causes is permitted. If the image is made for the purposes of or may lead to idolatry, or if it encourages oppression, hypocrisy, or excites lust, then it is not permitted.

It should be stressed that such restrictions on representative arts are not specific to Islam. Several Biblical verses in Exodus and Deuteronomy, for example, forbid making images. In fact, the second of the Ten Commandments stipulates this.

Moreover, the explanations given above should be enough to make it clear that these restrictions were placed for a specific purpose and they do not, in any way, imply that Islam is an adversary to the arts. As a matter of fact, Islamic civilization has produced the finest works of art in architecture, calligraphy, decorative arts, music, etc. In this matter the reader is referred to the numerous references available on Islamic art.

Calligraphic portraits of the Messenger

Muslim artists used calligraphy to depict a non-visual, thus acceptable, image of the Prophet. They have been commemorating his blessed legacy by depicting verbal images or “calligraphic portraits” of him. Such beautiful artwork that inscribes a description of the prophet in words is known as the hilya al-saadat and is very common, especially in Turkish calligraphy.

Freedom of speech

The protests in the Islamic world, notwithstanding the normative teachings of the Qur’an, may have given an impression that Islam gives little or no value to the freedom of expression. On the contrary, Islam holds that the attribute of speech is a valuable gift bestowed upon mankind as expressed in the following verse:

The All-Merciful. He has taught the Qur’an (to humanity and, through them, to the jinn); He has created the human; He has taught him speech. (Rahman 55:1-4)

Man is the vicegerent of God on earth. Compared to the rest of creation, the divine attributes of God are manifested in the most perfect way in human beings. The sounds that an animal make can never be described as speech. In that sense, the attribute of speech and the freedom to exercise that power is what makes us truly human.

Numerous passages in the Qur’an, the eternal message of God, quote the words spoken by unbelievers. The objections and suspicions they raised are then refuted by Qur’anic evidence and truth. If nothing else, this alone should be enough to establish the significance of freedom of conviction and freedom of speech in Islam.

Every type of freedom is associated with a certain set of responsibilities and ethics that prevent its abuse. Freedom of speech, in particular, should be exercised with respect for all members of the society. Needless to say, ridicule, insults, and harassment do not fall into the category of freedom of expression.

Among several verses in the Qur’an that teach the ethics of speech, the following is related to the main topic of this article:

O you who believe! Let not some men among you deride others, it may be that the latter are better than the former; nor let some women deride other women, it may be that the latter are better than the former. Nor defame one another and therefore your own selves, nor call one another by nicknames (which your brothers and sisters do not like). How evil is calling one by names that connote transgressions after one has embraced faith, and how evil it is thereby to be marked with transgression after being marked with faith. Whoever does not turn to God in repentance and give up doing so, such are indeed wrongdoers. (Hujurat 49:11)

Good repels evil

The Qur’an also teaches the errors that can be made in speech and the etiquette of responding to such errors. It is important to stress that the violence witnessed in the protests in Muslim countries that followed the publication of the cartoons in no way reflects the normative teachings of the Qur’an. Read, for example, the following verse:

The true servants of the All-Merciful are those who move and act on the Earth gently and humbly, and when the ignorant, foolish ones address and treat them (in a way that originates from their ignorance and foolishness), they simply continue, wishing peace on them. (Furqan 25:63)

As a general principle, the Qur’an teaches to repel evil with good and encourages forgiving others:

(But whatever they may say or do,) repel the evil (done to you and committed against your mission) with the best of what you can do. We are best aware of all which they falsely attribute to Us. (Muminun 23:96)

However, it should be noted that, The recompense of an evil deed can only be an evil equal to it; but whoever pardons and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from God. Surely He does not love the wrongdoers. (Shura 42:40)

Responses

Islamic scholars commented on the cartoon crises, denouncing the defamation perpetrated by the editors of the Danish paper as well as the protests that followed. The following excerpt is taken from a transcribed speech of a renowned Turkish scholar, Fethullah Gulen, who also serves as the honorary president of the Writers and Journalists Association based in Turkey:

Freedom of expression does not authorize anyone to defame others. There is certainly a freedom of disseminating one’s thoughts, but if you do not take others’ thoughts into consideration you will leave them with no freedom. There should be boundaries between freedoms.

Bigotry is present in every country and we have seen many examples. In the face of all this foolishness, we still should act upon reason. Our religion does not cause us to disregard other religions; (on the contrary) it causes us to feel respect toward them. Our religion encourages us to get together with everyone, it desires that we open our doors to everyone, and we do open our hearts to everyone. You must be respectful to everyone.(1)

The media is invariably seeking the sensational, and is reluctant to tune in to the moderate voices. As a result, an incurious and indifferent member of the audience is exposed to only one side of the story. Contrary to the expected outcome of telecommunication technology, on occasion the media serves as an agency of disinformation. It is therefore crucial for a world citizen to apply to multiple media outlets in order to attain a balanced view of events on a global scale.

Another important scholar of Egyptian origin and the head of the International Association of Muslim Scholars, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, said:

The sabotage done by some Muslims in some capitals in response to the offensive cartoons is unacceptable and should be denounced.

The final quote is taken from a joint statement issued by the Secretary General of the Organization of Islamic Conference, Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, and his colleagues:

We fully uphold the right of free speech. But we understand the deep hurt and widespread indignation felt in the Muslim world. We believe freedom of the press entails responsibility and discretion, and should respect the beliefs and tenets of all religions. But we also believe the recent violent acts surpass the limits of peaceful protest.

The Universal Mercy

What could be more erroneous than depicting Prophet Muhammad-God forbid the thought-as a supporter of violence or of terror? Such a claim is nothing but an expression of strong prejudice and hatred. In reality, he was the embodiment of mercy and compassion.

It is impossible to do justice to the compassionate disposition of the Prophet in a short article. Various biographies have devoted chapters in praising his merciful character and there are many books written specifically on this topic. The few traditions quoted below are included for the sake of completeness and are intended to give the uninformed reader a first impression. Anas bin Malik, who was honored in serving the Messenger for ten continuous years, said: “I’ve never seen a man who was more compassionate to his family members than Muhammad.”(2) An insane woman pulled him by the hand and said: “Come with me and do my housework.” He complied with her request.(3)

Such traditions clearly show that he was compassionate by nature and embraced his immediate family as well as other members of his community with abundant mercy.

The Battle of Uhud was a significant turning point in the history of Islam. God’s Messenger was wounded on his blessed face and one of his teeth was broken. As many as seventy companions of the Prophet were killed in the battle. Among the martyrs was his noble uncle, Hamza, whose body was mutilated in revenge by Meccan unbelievers. All these severe circumstances did not prevent him from praying: “O God, forgive my people, for they do not know.”(4)

Does this sound like a description of a man who would support violence and destruction? His mission was to save mankind, not to destroy it. His profound compassion was not restricted to his friends and companions, but was extended to his staunchest enemies. The next few examples show this to an even greater extent. He was full of mercy for all of creation. It is reported that he once said: “Pity those on earth so that those in the heavens will pity you.”

We again hear from him that a prostitute was guided to the truth by God because she gave water to a dog dying of thirst. He noted that another woman was sent to Hell because she confined a cat without food and it subsequently died of hunger.

Did not the Qur’an describe him as an embodiment of mercy? Read:

We sent you not, but as a Mercy for all worlds. (Anbiya 21:107)

The Prophet’s military dimension

It is, in general, not thought proper to describe Islam using restrictive terms. Statements like “Islam is a religion of peace,” “Islam is a religion of reason,” etc. reflect only certain aspects of the religion. However, it may be a comprehensive description to call Islam a religion of balance. Islam establishes a fine balance between the faith and good deed, between this world and the Hereafter, between the material and the spiritual, between the peace and use of force, etc.

Although this is not an article on the Islamic concept of peace and just war, it would be proper to contrast the use of force with universal mercy.

The Messenger Muhammad was a prophet who had to fight for his message and may be compared to previous prophets like Moses. Abraham, according to the Bible, also waged war against his enemies. It is permitted in Islam to take up arms under certain circumstances: in self defense, in defense of the oppressed and in defense of the freedom of conviction. The first verse revealed on this issue in the Qur’an stipulates:

The believers against whom war is waged are given permission to fight in response, for they have been wronged. Surely, God has full power to help them to victory. (Hajj 22:39)

Conflict is a reality of social life, and it may not always be resolved in peaceful ways. Taking up arms to end injustice, for example, is an act of mercy shown for the oppressed. War is seen as an exception in Islam, a religion that gives the utmost value to human life, as explained in the following verse:

He who kills a soul unless it be (in punishment) for murder or for causing unrest and spreading corruption on the Earth shall be (considered) as having killed all humankind; and he who saves a life shall be as if he had saved the lives of all humankind. And, indeed, there came to them Our Messengers again and again with clear Revelations (to convey to them such directives so that they might be revived both individually and socially) and signs-miracles-(proving their Messengership). Yet, notwithstanding all this, many of them go on committing all kinds of excesses on the Earth. (Maidah 5:32)

Finally, it may be instructive to give a count of casualties in the battles of Prophet Muhammad. The chart below shows that the total number of casualties did not exceed 400 in the entire 23 years of his lifetime as a prophet.

This supports the general principle of Islam that the use of force is allowed when it is absolutely necessary and to the extent that it is absolutely necessary. In contrast, it may also be instructive to remember the terrible atrocities perpetrated in the twentieth century all over the world, which have claimed the lives of millions and millions of innocent people.

Beautiful minds

It is true that anti-Islamic prejudice is more widespread in the West than it has ever been before. On the other hand, it is also true that many intellectuals, philosophers, members of the clergy, Eastern and Western alike, both

in the past and in the present have voiced their opinions against such bigotry. Many have praised the prophetic and personal qualities of Prophet Muhammad emphatically. Here are few examples from the past:

Lamartine deemed it proper to ask, in his Historie de la Turquie, whether there was any man greater than Prophet Muhammad in regards to all the standards by which human greatness may be measured. Sir Bernard Shaw stated, in The Genuine Islam, that, in his opinion, Prophet Muhammad must be called the savior of humanity. Michael H. Hart, in The 100, stated that Prophet Muhammad’s unparalleled combination of secular and religious influence entitled him to be considered the most influential single figure in human history.

Thomas Carlyle, in his Heroes and Hero Worship and The Heroic in History, grieved the lies heaped round Prophet Muhammad, and labeled them as a disgrace. Gandhi, in Young India, expressed his strong conviction that it was not the sword that conquered lands for Islam, but it was the Prophet’s noble character that won hearts.

Indeed, millions of Muslims travel to Mecca every year to show their love and devotion to God and their gratitude and respect to the rose of their hearts, Prophet Muhammad. It was he who illuminated the lives of billions with the knowledge of God. It was he who taught his followers how to prosper both in this world and in the next. It was he who brought the message of universal mercy and it was he who lived up to it. It is incumbent on every person, whether Muslim or not, to learn more about the pride of mankind. May God shower His boundless mercy, peace, and blessings on him at all times.

It would be fit to conclude this article with the words of M. Fethullah Gulen:

If only mankind had known Muhammad, peace be upon him, they would have fallen in love with him, as Majnun fell in love with Layla. Whenever his name is mentioned, they would tremble with joy and their eyes would be filled with tears.

Notes

1. http://en.fgulen.com/content/view/2179/14/

2. Muslim, Fada’il, 63.

3. Qadi Iyad, al-Shifa, 1:131, 133.

4. Muslim, Jihad, 101; Bukhari, Anbiya, 54.