We can also interpret muraqaba as trying to observe whatever God wills, and leading a life in unwavering sincerity and in the consciousness of His constant supervision. Such an attitude is possible when the servant knows that the Almighty is aware of all that he or she does, says, knows, and thinks, as stated in the Qur’an: In whatever state you may be, and whichever part of the Qur’an you recite, and whatever deed you do, We are witnesses over you when you are deeply engrossed therein (10:61).

If muraqaba means closing one’s heart to all that displeases Him and separates one from Him, and opening the spirit to receive the radiances, gifts, and favors coming from Him, then we must close what we must and open what we must. The first steps to muraqaba are to accept as great what God has decreed as great, to accept as worthless what He has decreed as worthless, and to prefer His Will and desires over our own. Thinking of the depth of God’s Mercy increases and strengthens one’s love of God and desire to worship Him, and fear and awe of Him causes one to lose any appetite for sin and to live a careful life. Muraqaba leads men and women to discard anything that harms their worship, and to maintain the purity of their thoughts, actions, and intentions even when they are alone, in the consciousness of His continual observation.

Muraqaba is one of the most important and direct ways of reaching God without a guide. It resembles the type of sainthood attained through succession to the Prophetic mission, which is conveying the Divine Message to people, without following a spiritual order. Such travelers can turn to God at any time or place in awareness of their helplessness and destitution, and be admitted to a “private meeting” with Him based on their need. They feel God’s constant supervision while they are watching nature, and so avoid whatever is other than Him; they are deaf to all sounds and voices that are not related to Him; and they praise His Beauty and Grace, and regard it as useless to mention something that is not concerned with Him.

As a matter of fact, if one’s eyes do not remind one of His Seeing, one’s ears of His Hearing, and one’s tongue of His Speech, how can these organs be used other than as pieces of flesh? Rumi says:

God Almighty described Himself as the All-Seeing in order to warn you against evil, He described Himself as the All-Hearing to admonish you not to say anything bad, and He described Himself as the All-Knowing to inform you that He knows you and therefore to exhort you to be alert to corrupt thoughts and considerations.

Rumi regards self-supervision as a protecting screen from evil emotions, thoughts, passions, and acts, and considers it the safest way to be attentive to Divine rights.

The first step in self-supervision is voluntary submission to the Divine Will and wishes in the conviction that He is present everywhere and is aware of all our thoughts, intentions, and deeds: God is Watcher over all things (33:52). The second step is to turn to God with a heart at rest and patiently anticipate the flow of Divine gifts and blessings into one’s heart.

This does not require any physical or spiritual attachment to or relationship with a guide, or the regular recitation of God’s Names. However, if one wishes to follow a guide and regularly recite His Names in accordance with the defined principles, it will certainly be much better. To the extent that an initiate, whether on the first or second step, can act according to the meaning of the Prophetic Tradition: “Perfect goodness is that you worship as if seeing God, for even if you do not see Him, He certainly sees you,”1 and that, always seeing himself or herself as helpless, destitute, and needy before God, believes Him to be the sole point of reliance and source of help, he or she may be traveling safely on the path of self-supervision and therefore be secure against deviation. Over time, those who follow such a path will acquire a peace of heart that will allow their conscience to remain open to Divine gifts and receive radiances from the One of Unity.

One of the most important mechanisms of self-supervision is muhasaba (self-criticism). As this method of self-control allows believers to become aware of personal faults and their causes, they can find the truth in their hearts and then display it in their conduct. In this spirit, the meaning and mystery of: Glory be to Him Who sees me, knows my place and hears my speech manifests itself. Such people know that the Divine Knowledge and Will always keep them under control and, regardless of location or action, seek only God’s pleasure by trying to act in accordance with His wishes.

Note

1. Al-Bukhari, Iman, 37; Muslim, Iman, 1.

Now (among the good deeds), We have enjoined on human is the best treatment towards his parents. His mother bore him in pain, and in pain did she give him birth. The bearing of him and suckling of him (until weaned) is thirty months, When he has finally reached his full manhood and reached forty years of age, he says: “My Lord! Arouse me that I may be thankful for all Your favors (life, health, sustenance, faith, and submission, and more) that You have bestowed on me and on my parents, and that I may do good, righteous deeds with which You will be pleased, and grant me righteous offspring (so that they treat me righteously, as I treat my parents). I have turned to You, and I am one of those who have submitted to You.”

Those are they from whom We will accept (their good deeds in a manner to reward them in accordance with) the best of what they ever did, and whose evil deeds We will overlook, (and include them) among the companions of Paradise. This is a true promise which they have been given (here in the world). (Ahqaf 46:15-16)

One point that should be emphasized here is that while both parents are given importance, the mother ranks before the father in Islam as far as their children are concerned. Prophet Muhammad said: “Paradise lies under the feet of the mother.” However, fathers are never ignored: “The contentment of the father is the door to paradise.”

The teachings of Jesus are no different. The Qur’an describes the miracle of baby Jesus speaking out to prove his blessed mother’s chastity; when Jesus mentions God’s blessings on him, he also emphasizes the importance of being good to one’s parents: …And (God has made me) dutiful towards my mother, and He has not made me unruly, wicked. (Maryam 19:32). Also, one of the Ten Commandments says: “Honor your father and your mother” (Exodus 20:12). The word “honor” cannot only be defined as feeding parents, clothing them, and helping them get from A to B, because these are acts of charity usually reserved for homeless or poor people. “Honor” means to prize highly, show respect, glorify, or exalt.

From the very moment of conception, and as the child grows and develops it is a duty and responsibility for the parents. It is not possible to estimate the depth of attachment or compassion parents feel for their children nor to calculate the troubles or hardships they undergo as parents. For this reason, respecting the parent is not only a debt of human gratitude, it is also a religious obligation.

Those who can value their parents in the correct way and who regard them as a means for obtaining the mercy of God are the most prosperous in both worlds. Those who, in contrast, regard their parents’ existence as a burden on themselves or who become wearied of them are unfortunate people who will inevitably suffer the severest hardships in life.

The more respectful you are to your parents, the greater the respect and awe you will feel before your Creator. Those who do not feel or show respect to their parents have no fear, awe, or respect of God. However, it is a curious thing that today that it is not only those who are disrespectful to God who fail to show respect to their parents, but also those who claim that they love God. As Martin Luther expressed, we must respect and love God so that we will neither look down upon our parents or superiors, nor irritate them, but rather we will honor them, serve them, obey them, love them, and value them.

The importance of respecting parents, however, extends beyond social welfare to the very welfare of society itself, as the family is the basic unit of society. Just as a body’s health is dependent on the health of the cells, so the vigor of a nation, the body politic, is directly related to the health of the families that make it up. Families form the foundation of a society. Where there is reciprocal respect of rights and obligations within a family, the society will be healthy and strong. It is vain to look for compassion and respect in society once these have been lost.

Fethullah Gulen refers to this neglected value in the following words:

How we treat our parents can be taken as an indication of how our children will learn to treat us. Obviously, we too hope to become old. If we do not honor our parents, then in keeping with the maxim: “let the punishment fit the crime,” our children will not be dutiful towards us. If we treasure life in the Hereafter, this is an important treasure for us: let us be dutiful towards our parents and win their pleasure. However, if it is this world that we love, still let us try to please them, so that through them our life will be easy and our sustenance plentiful. If we want the mercy of the Most Merciful One, we should be merciful towards those in our house who He has entrusted to us.

There are different types of parents, but regardless of how they treat their children, they are still parents. Parents make mistakes too, but that does not decrease their value. While we are still under parental guidance we have to follow what they want, even if it goes against our heart. When we are standing on our own two feet, then we have freedom, but we still have the responsibility to respect our parents. We have to examine the situation, rather than concentrating on our own satisfaction. We have to be kind to our parents, because most of the things they do are for us. Today it is likely that parents are more neglected than in any other period throughout history, even though modern life has provided us with more and more comforts.

Said Nursi drew attention to another aspect of the issue in his Gleams:

There have been many experiences that have given me the certain conviction that, in the same way that infants are sent their sustenance in a wonderful fashion by Divine Mercy because of their impotence, flowing forth from the springs of their mothers’ breasts, so too the sustenance of the believing elderly, who have acquired innocence, is sent in the form of miraculous abundance. The part of a hadith which says, “Were it not for the elderly with their bent backs, calamities would descend on you in floods,” makes clear that a family’s source of abundance is the elderly among it, and it is the elderly who preserve the family from the visitation of calamities.

Since the weakness and powerlessness of old age are the means of attracting Divine mercy to this extent; since the wise Qur’an through the verses – Should one of them, or both, attain old age in your lifetime, do not say ‘Ugh!’ to them (as an indication of complaint or impatience), nor push them away; and always address them in gracious words. Lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy, and say: “My Lord, have mercy on them even as they cared for me in childhood (Isra 17: 23–24),” calls children, in the most wonderfully eloquent fashion, in five ways to be kind and respectful towards their elderly parents; since the religion of Islam orders respect and compassion towards the elderly; since human nature also requires respect and compassion towards the elderly we elderly people certainly enjoy, in place of the temporary physical pleasures roused by appetites of youth, substantial, continual mercy and respect from Divine grace and human innate feelings of tenderness, and the contentment of spirit that arises from such respect and compassion. This being the case, we should not wish to exchange this old age of ours for a hundred youths. I can tell you certainly that if they were to give me ten years of the Old Said’s youth, I would not give in exchange one year of the New Said’s old age. I am content with my old age, and you too should be content with yours. (Twenty sixth Gleam, ninth hope)

Elderly believers are more deeply aware that the true abode is the eternal one, and turn to God with sincere devotion. Therefore, they present an example to the younger generations with their piety, wisdom, and tolerance. In short, even though we respect our parents for the sake of God, observing their rights and caring for them not only leads to eternal happiness in the Hereafter, but it also provides us with such an inner peace no worldly pursuit can bring. To put it in religious terminology, abiding by the divine commands results in saadat al-darayn-happiness in both abodes.

References

• Adil, Furkan, Kudsi İki Varlık: Anne-Baba, İstanbul: Rehber Yayınları, 2008
• Gönüllü, Ömer Said, “Ebeveyn Hukuku ve İnsan Olma,” Sızıntı, Issue: 298.
• Gulen, Fethullah, Fasıldan Fasıla 3, İstanbul: Nil Yayınları, 1997.
• Luther, Martin. Martin Luther’s Large and Small Catechism. Translated by F. Benteand W.H.T. Dan. Sioux Falls, SD: Nuvision Publications, 2007.
• Nursi Said, The Gleams, “Solace for the Elderly,” New Jersey: Tughra Books, 2008.
• Taiwo, Niyi. Respect: Gaining It and Sustaining It. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris Corporation, 2007.
• Unal, Ali, trans. The Qur’an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, New Jersey: The Light, 2006.

If we try to fill a glass of soda without letting it overflow, we usually notice the bubbles or froth of the drink. As we fill the glass, bubbles form on the surface and these tiny bubbles grow. Reaching a certain size, the bubbles escape from the liquid surface, and vanish into the air. If we put our finger, or a straw into the soda-as most of us did as children- we immediately notice that tiny bubbles of gas form on the object immersed in the glass. Just like in the freezing of water or in the escape of gas from soda, a precise energy exchange occurs at the initial stage of any phase transformation. Completion of any phase transformation – freezing or condensation (clouds transforming to rain)- is impossible without such precise energy exchange. The fact that all these phase transformation occur with precise energy calculations in the best possible temperature ranges to support life is a clear proof that nothing in the universe was created by mere coincidence, and that everything occurs by the command of the Almighty.

We know that everything in the universe obeys the minimum energy principle. If we want to freeze water, all we have to do is to cool it to a temperature below 0°C, and the transition from water to ice begins. Water molecules tend to gather together to form clusters. When five to ten of these molecules bond together, however, a difficulty is encountered. The formation of solid-liquid, solid-gas, or liquid-gas interfaces requires a specific amount of energy. In the beginning, the surfaces of these clusters are quite large as compared to their volumes such that the energy they receive to form an interface is much greater than the energy they release; therefore the state of minimum energy is not reached. To explain this to you in another way: let us assume that we manufacture beads for the production of costume jewelry and garments, and the surface of the beads requires treatment. If the beads we manufacture are smaller than the specific size, they will be more expensive to treat, and therefore will not cover the costs, so only producing beads exceeding the specific size will be profitable to the manufacturer. The main aspect here is actually the size of the beads, so if manufacturing beads which exceed the specific size is simpler and more profitable, rejecting the beads smaller than these specifications would be inevitable.

As in this example, because of their high energy value, the molecular clusters formed initially (embryos) return to a liquid form. Then once again the particles begin to bond, but again the result is the same. An embryo must grow to a certain size for its surface area to decrease in comparison to its volume and thus reduce its energy. This is only feasible when many atoms bond, for only when a sufficient number of atoms join together does the embryo transform into a nucleus, and then begin to crystallize and eventually become solid. The process called homogeneous nucleation is only possible under certain conditions: the liquid must be at a temperature of around –40 C^o for both the transition in the balance of energy, and for the water molecules and atoms to become solid and bond to form a nucleus. If we contain pure water totally motionless in the deepfreeze at approximately –8 C^o, we will have supercooled water that has not yet transformed into ice; the temperature between the nucleation and the freezing points, is called supercooling. Supercooling is a metastable condition where liquid or gas remains supercooled without actually becoming frozen, but the slightest intervention or movement can cause the substance to transform into a solid. The tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide in soda is also in a metastable condition, for as soon as the bubbles have the opportunity, they escape from the liquid and vanish into the air. If we immerse a straw or finger into a glass of soda, this forms an added surface, which also facilitates a solid-gas interface, and if we add a teaspoon of sugar to the soda, this induces the drink to froth and bubble at great speed. Water boiled in a saucepan actually nucleates on the wall of the container.

Supercooling is a metastable form of the substance. Every substance or solution has a specific temperature value for cooling. For instance, liquid copper transforms into a solid at 1083 C^o. Homogeneous nucleation requires the bonding of 310 atoms, and supercooling to approximately 236 C^o.

Under normal conditions, substances which have more than one type of molecule undergo phase transformation known as heterogeneous nucleation. In this case, the atoms form primarily on the walls of a container on particles of impurity, or minute solid particles in the liquid, and this significantly reduces the surface energy barrier for nucleation. So for a moment let us return to the bead example. We have discovered that instead of directly manufacturing smaller beads, it would reduce the costs of decorating the surface of the beads to coat and treat larger beads, so the beads are being produced in this way, thus reducing losses.

Supercooling can occur at temperatures even as high as 2–3 C^o, and this is very important. The condensation of water or supercooled water droplets in clouds must reach a specific size and weight in order to fall to the earth as raindrops. Here, the solid microscopic particles combine to form nuclei. Even if the clouds are much lower in temperature, rain cannot form without nuclei. Particles of salt which escape from the sea, sand that rises from the desert, the sulphate released from the ashes of volcanic activity or minute atoms of dimethyl sulphate emitted by certain planktons are driven into the atmosphere by the wind and form nuclei. As the Almighty, the Creator of the universe revealed in Al-Hijr, verse 22 of the Qur’an: “And We send the winds to fertilize, and so We send down water from the sky, and give it to you to drink (and use in other ways)” indicating that one of the duties of the wind is fertilization. Even the particles in smoke released irresponsibly by humans from industrial chimneys, or from car exhausts form nuclei that eventually transform into rain.

During the foundry process, solid substances are added to liquid metals for certain purposes, such as enabling metal to set more rapidly, or increasing the metal’s durability. When liquid metal is cooled, its atoms form nuclei on microscopic solid impurities. These nuclei increase in size and assemble into groups called grains. The irregular zone between these groups is known as the grain boundary. The grain boundary forces the compressed atoms to move and weld, thus increasing the durability of the metal. This method known as infusion or grain contraction ensures an increase in the formation of nuclei, and also in the durability of the metal. Cloud seeding, a topic which mainly comes to light when there is a lack of rain, is actually inducing the clouds to form artificial nuclei that will in turn produce rain.

Some creatures on earth protect themselves with mechanisms bestowed by their Creator, and one of these creatures is the wood frog. As the water in its cells begins to freeze, the antigel protein found in its blood surrounds the formation of nuclei, and prevents the nuclei from increasing in size. The frog remains frozen and motionless until the temperature increases. If we touched a wood frog in this condition, its cells too would freeze suddenly, and the frog would die. It is impossible for a frog to know how to cool to the point of freezing, and nucleate. It is also impossible for a frog to adapt to such a mechanism because this would require practice and experience, which would of course be deadly. Therefore, is the frog’s ability to freeze, and its process of nucleation not a clear indication of the providence and blessing of God the Almighty?

Starting with the following classification of the sciences laid out in Shams al-Din Muhammed al-Amuli’s Nafa’is al-Funun (Precious Elements of the Sciences), a treatise written during the fifteenth century, may be helpful to reveal this point1:

The theoretical aspects of what we call positive sciences today (physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, geology, astronomy, cosmology, etc.) were all called natural philosophy not only by Islamic scholars but also by the scientists, philosophers, and theologians of other traditions up to the Age of Enlightenment, and that type of science was considered a lower science in the hierarchy of existence. The intermediate science was mathematics, which included music, while metaphysics occupied the place of the highest science. Not only philosophy, ethics, economics, and politics but also intellectual and transmitted religious studies are covered by the Islamic conceptualization of sciences. The classification of sciences was always considered to be important in Islamic tradition and many Muslim scholars have provided different classifications.2 The essential point here is that all the Islamic classifications of sciences, as in this specific one, were based on the Islamic doctrine that there is a hierarchy of existence (and therefore knowledge) from Unity to multiplicity, from the Divine Names and Qualities to each creature on a particular level of existence, and from the Meta-cosmic Reality to the cosmos consisting of the seven heavens and the earth which is nothing but the manifestation of the Meta-cosmic Reality. Therefore, all sciences, in the Islamic conceptualization, were means of gaining this kind of knowledge.

In contrast, the modern conceptualization of the sciences is subservient to the idea that reality can only be examined by its highly specific and restricted experimental method. Thus, the modern conceptualization implies, due to this method, that theories, doctrines, and principles concerning non-observable realities cannot be scientific. A natural consequence of this way of thinking is to be skeptical about metaphysical realities in the belief that the absolute reality is the physical one. From this point of view, therefore, neither religion nor metaphysics are accepted as scientific disciplines. Although there are some departments such as politics, economics, and ethics under the umbrella of humanities and arts, the traditional occult sciences such as astrology, alchemy, magic, and the interpretation of dreams cannot find a place in modern universities, in spite of the fact that their derivatives are still alive in both traditional and modern societies. At this point it may be illustrative to remind the reader of the following verses of the Qur’an: “Thus, did We establish Joseph in the land (Egypt), that We would impart to him knowledge and understanding of the inner meaning of events, including dreams” (Yusuf 12:21), “Solomon never disbelieved. Rather, the satans disbelieved, teaching people sorcery and the (distorted form of the) knowledge that was sent down on Harut and Marut, the two angels in Babylon. And they (these two angels charged with teaching people some occult sciences such as breaking a spell and protection against sorcery) never taught them to anyone without first warning, ‘We are a trial, so do not disbelieve’” (Al-Baqarah 2:102), which can be interpreted as evidence of the existence of such sciences, although the Qur’an itself condemns those

And (yet) they learned from them (the two angels) that by which they might divide a man and his wife. But (though they wrongly attributed creative power to sorcery, in fact) they could not harm anyone thereby save by the leave of God. And they learned what would harm them, not what would profit them. Assuredly, they knew well that he who bought it (in exchange for God’s Book) will have no share in the Hereafter. How evil was that for which they sold their selves; and if only they had known. (2:102)

In the Islamic conceptualization of sciences, the natural sciences possessed a place in the hierarchy of knowledge so that there were no contradictions between them and religion. The whole worldview was religious and this perspective provided sufficient space for the cultivation of positive sciences yet in the guidance of metaphysical principles from a higher level of knowledge. The history of Islamic sciences is full of striking examples of success, from the modern scientific perspective, in cosmology, geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, mathematics, astronomy, physics, medicine, pharmacology, agriculture, and irrigation, any of which could be the topic of a future article. This is why, as people learn even more natural sciences, they believe more in those times. That is why most of the greatest Muslim scientists were distinguished philosophers and theologians at the same time. They are those who the Qur’an identifies in the phrase, “Of all His servants, only those possessed of true knowledge stand in awe of God” (Fatir 35:28).

It is because of the modern conceptualization of sciences that religion and science are separated from each other and have become strangers on the assumption that they have their own realms to speak about.3 The roots of this way of thinking goes back to Descartes (1596–1650): “Descartes, who appeared with the thesis that ‘metaphysics cannot be a science,’ said that knowledge can only be obtained by the investigation of measurable and divisible things and he limited the question of science to only matter; since that time the followers of Cartesian philosophy have always talked in a similar way.”4 Yet, both religion and science try to find answers to the questions of who we are, what the meaning of life is, where we come from, and where we are going to. We cannot imagine any technological advancement which satisfies these eternal concerns of humanity which reflect its relation to eternity.

By definition, the modern sciences have bound themselves to the existence of a finite and relative reality. Their methodology is very effective and there is nothing wrong with it unless it is utilized for abusing natural sources or any other form of corruption. Those sciences may even provide some clues about the higher level of existence as in the case of quantum mechanics which has destroyed the deterministic worldview of classical (Newtonian) physics. However, to our mind, there is a problem with the modern conceptualization of sciences which does not accept any notion of the hierarchy of existence nor any means of studying and investigating those levels of reality.

Dr. Ali Sebetci is an Assistant Professor of Computational Chemical Physics, Zirve University Gaziantep, Turkey.

Notes

1. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islamic Science, An Illustrated Study, World of Islam Festival Publishing Company Ltd, 1976.
2. Bakar, Osman. Classification of Knowledge in Islam, Islamic Texts Society, 1999.
3. Edis, Taner. An Illusion of Harmony: Science and Religion in Islam, Prometheus Books, 2007.
4. www.herkul.org, Kırık Testi, September 12, 2005.

Mary was given her name by her mother. Her name has been said to mean “the one who does not want, one who departs” or “the servant,” but the opinion that the name Mary means “one who worships” in the Aramaic language1 seems more suitable.

The guardianship of Zachariah

Mary’s honorable family upbringing, the fact that she was a chosen person, and her many outstanding virtues are emphasized frequently in both the Qur’an and hadith. However, the verses of the Qur’an alone are more than sufficient to explain her superiority as a woman. Firstly, she came from an honorable family, a father as noble as Imran and a mother so memorable and devoted that her prayers were accepted by God. Mary was the fruit of a devoted mother’s prayer and because of her oath she was entrusted to a holy sanctuary at a very young age.

When her father Imran died,2 Mary was still only a young girl and many asked for the honorable duty of her guardianship, but this duty was bestowed upon Prophet Zachariah3 in an event that was revealed in the Holy Qur’an: “(O Messenger:) that is of the tidings of the things of the unseen (the things that took place in the past and have remained hidden from people with all their truth), which We reveal to you, for you were not present with them when they drew lots with their pens about who should have charge of Mary; nor were you present with them when they were disputing (about the matter)” (Al Imran 3:44). The Qur’anic verse which describes how Mary’s sustenance comes to her is immediately followed by a supplication from Zachariah that clearly indicates that he was growing old and was slowly becoming incapable of looking after Mary adequately. This is the most likely reason for the weak reports claiming that the person who was blessed with her guardianship was a priest called Juraich4 or a member of her family called Joseph,5 but these reports have no authority, for God revealed in the Qur’an that Mary was living under the education and care of Zachariah.6

Mary was blessed with sustenance from God

Zachariah made Mary a sanctuary7 in the temple so she could be more occupied with daily worship.8 During the period that Mary lived at the temple under the guidance of Zachariah, she was exceptionally blessed with sustenance from God. The Qur’an informs us that every time Zachariah went to see Mary, there would be lovely fruits in her room: “Whenever Zachariah went in to her in the Sanctuary, he found her provided with food. ‘Mary,’ he asked, ‘how does this come to you?’ ‘From God,’ she answered. Truly God provides to whomever He wills without reckoning”(Al Imran 3:37).9 It is also known that after giving birth to baby Jesus, she was miraculously provided with the blessing of fresh dates and water. A similar event is reported for Fatima, the Prophet Muhammad’s daughter.10

There is no information about Mary’s life before the angel came giving Mary the glad tidings of Jesus’s birth. But the books of Apocrypha (accounts rejected by the Church) convey the blessing of sustenance bestowed upon Mary. However, the Apocrypha give some information about the earlier period of Mary’s life, including predictions as to where she was born and even estimations regarding the date of her birth. The Protoevangelium, one of the books of Apocrypha, contains some additional information which is not found in the canonical scriptures (those accepted by the Church).

The Sanctuary and sense of servitude

While she increased her worship with every day that passed, the period that Mary was under the care of Zachariah continued with God’s special protection and sustenance. This particular characteristic is mentioned in the Qur’an: “And (in due time came the moment) when the angels said: “Mary, God has chosen you and made you pure, and exalted you above all the women in the world. “Mary, be devoutly obedient to your Lord, prostrate and bow (in the Prayer and devotion to Him) with those who bow!”(Al Imran 3:42–43).11

The words of the Creator’s purification of Mary-“God’s purification”-have been interpreted in various ways as referring to spiritual, moral, or physical purification. Some said that this means “purification from disbelief and sin,” while others claim this means “purification from menses following birth, all kinds of physical defect and contact with males,” and most scholars say the words “chosen above women of all nations” refers to all the women of her era,12 and though the physical actions of worship are stressed in this verse, more important is the fact that Mary abided by both the command of worship, “be devoutly obedient to your Lord, prostrate and bow (in the Prayer and devotion to Him) with those who bow!” and the spirit of worship deep in her soul: “And also Mary, the daughter of ‘Imran, who kept herself chaste (body and soul), so We breathed into it out of Our Spirit, and who affirmed the truth of the words of her Lord, and His Books; and she was of those devoutly obedient to God” (At-Tahrim 66:12).

The Qur’an also bears witness to Mary being a woman of “truth”13 in many verses.

Mary’s superiority to all women

The verse in the Qur’an about Mary being superior to all other women (Al Imran 3:42–43) has been referred to in most commentaries as well as various reports of hadith found in the Tisa Qutubi. About the many virtues of Mary, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said:

1. “The best of the women in the world is Mary (in her lifetime),14 and the best of the women in the world is Khadijah (in her lifetime).” (Bukhari, Muslim)

2. “Many among men attained perfection, but among women none attained perfection except Mary the daughter of Imran, and Asiya the wife of Pharaoh; and the superiority of Aisha to other women is like the superiority of Tharid (an Arabic dish) to other meals.” (Bukhari, Muslim)

3. “There is no new-born except that (at the moment of birth) Satan disturbs him, so he begins to cry from Satan’s disturbance with the exception of the son of Mary and his mother.” (Bukhari, Muslim)

4. “Of all the women in the universe, four would suffice (as an example for others): Mary, Asiya, Khadija, and Fatima.” (Tirmidhi, Ahmad b. Hanbal)

5. “The best of the women of Paradise are Khadijah, Fatima, Asiya and Mary.” (Ahmad b. Hanbal)

6. “Fatima is the leader of the women of Paradise after Mary.” (Tirmidhi, Ahmad b. Hanbal)

7. “The best women among the camel riders, are the women of Quraish.” (Another narrator said) The Prophet said, “The righteous among the women of Quraish are those who are kind to their young ones and who look after their husband’s property,” (Bukhari, Muslim) and this hadith is followed up in many cases by a report from Abu Hurairah who said, “Mary the daughter of Imran never rode a camel,” stressing the virtues of Mary. According to Imam Nawawi and Ibn Hajar, Abu Hurairah’s aim was not actually to stress the fact that Mary never rode a camel but was just an expression of his praise of Mary’s virtues,15 or another explanation of these words could be, “It does not mean that a woman who rides a camel is righteous because Mary was a righteous woman even though she never rode a camel.”

As we see from these hadith the interpreters and scholars have varying opinions on the order of arrangement of the superiority of these women, but the most interesting aspect of these hadith is that although the other names may change, Mary is the only person who is mentioned in all the given examples of these hadith, and this should be sufficient to show her unmatched excellence.

Mary’s being among the Prophets

The narrations stated above have led some scholars to believe that there is a possibility of the existence of female prophets. There has been various opinions supporting the idea that female prophets may have been sent and asking whether Mary the mother of Jesus was a Prophet or not. The opinion of scholars who believe Mary may have been a Prophet is based on the fact that Mary’s name is mentioned in the Qur’an among the Prophets: “Those were some of the Prophets on whom God did bestow his grace of the posterity of Adam and of those whom we carried (in the Ark) with Noah and of the posterity of Abraham and Israel-of those we guided and chose”(Mary 19:58), and also on the angel bringing the revelation of tidings and the benevolence provided to Mary from the creator, and the fact that she was a chosen person above all women purified through the grace of God as a “woman of perfection,” and “leader in Paradise”16 all led these scholars to believe that Mary could possibly be a messenger. However, the general opinion accepted by most scholars is that women were not sent to the world as prophets.17

There are some Christian theologians who claim that Mary was a prophet. The Christian opinion in general is that she was superior to other women and saints but not superior to Jesus. Mary has been widely praised in Christian literature for her obedience, patience, modesty, piety, faith, hope, compassion, dignity and many other virtues.

Mary: the monument of chastity

The Qur’an clearly explains in this verse how Mary conceived Jesus:

And (remember) when the angels said: “Mary, God gives you the glad tidings of a Word from Him, to be called the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary” highly honored in the world and the Hereafter, and one of those near-stationed to God. He will speak to people in the cradle and in manhood, and he is of the righteous. “Lord,” said Mary, “how shall I have a son seeing no mortal has ever touched me?” “That is how it is,” he (the Spirit who appeared before her) said, (quoting God): “God creates whatever He wills; when He decrees a thing, He does but say to it ‘Be!’ and it is.”(Al Imran 3:45–47)

The chapter Mary (19:16–33) of the Qur’an gives an extensive version of the conception, the birth and the events that followed the birth of baby Jesus. Furthermore, God the Almighty reveals how He located Mary and her son Jesus, whom He sent as an example to humans, in a prosperous place on high land with flowing streams and bestowed upon Jesus the divine benevolence He had bestowed upon his mother: “O Jesus son of Mary! O Jesus, son of Mary! Remember My favor upon you and upon your mother” (Al-Maeda 5:110).

There are various reports and comments specifically referring to Mary’s conception of Jesus and the miraculous birth in the interpretations and explanations of hadith which exceed the limits of this article. The embryologic phase of Mary’s pregnancy was just like any other pregnant woman: she conceived, the baby grew in her womb, and when the contractions began she made her way to the vicinity of the date tree behind a flowing stream and then gave birth. But how did the pregnancy and this embryological process actually begin? This question resembles a parcel holding the mysteries of this miraculous event.

So in brief, Mary was a true monument of chastity and, even though she was a virgin, conceived in a miraculous way. The fact that Mary guarded both her dignity and chastity is emphasized in the following verses of the Qur’an:

“And (mention) that blessed woman who set the best example in guarding her chastity. We breathed into her out of Our Spirit, and We made her and her son a miraculous sign (of Our Power and matchless way of doing things) for all the worlds.” (Al-Anbiya 21–91), “And also Mary, the daughter of Imran, who kept herself chaste (body and soul), so We breathed into it out of Our Spirit, and who affirmed the truth of the words of her Lord, and His Books; and she was of those devoutly obedient to God.” (At-Tahrim 66:12).

As a matter of fact, the Qur’an tells us that great disaster and punishment await those who speak unfavorably about Mary, for whatever they say against her chastity and dignity is slander, and their hearts are sealed to faith.

Mary’s death and burial

There is no account in the Qur’an or hadith of Mary’s death or burial, so details and information related to the topic are generally based on Christian sources or historical literature. Not included in the synoptic gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke), Mary’s attending the miracle of Cana (John 2:11) and the event of the crucifix (John 19:25–27) were only reported in the book of John; she prayed with Jesus and his disciples in the Acts (1:14) following his resurrection, but there is no mention of the remaining period of her life, her death, age, or appearance in any of the gospels.

It is estimated that Mary must have been around fifty years old at the time of Jesus’ passing and there are varying reports regarding her own death; some say she was fifty-six, while there are other reports of her being seventy or even seventy-two. The questions of where and how she died have been topics of discussion and dispute for centuries, but the fact that she carried on throughout her life in sincere devotion and worship of God is much more suitable for her general profile.

Although there is no information on Mary’s place of burial in Christian sources, there are different views. Some say she was buried in Jerusalem, whereas others say it could have been in Ephesus or Antioch. Although there is no specific grave associated with Mary in Ephesus, there are graves said to be that of Mary which are in churches, one in the Jehosaphat valley between the Mount of Olives and Mount Temple and another in Gethsemani. There are some claims that her grave is on the mountain of Sion, and a Syrian history writer claims that her grave is situated in Al-Faradis in Damascus.18

Notes

1. Zamahshari, I, 142; Bagawi, I, 295; Baydawi, II, 31.

2. Hakim, Mustadrak II, 646; Tabari, III, 235; Zamahshari, I, 142.

3. See Al Imran 3:37, 44. Also Ibn Hisham, III, 121; Tabari, III, 242-244.

4. Ibn Hisham, III, 121.

5. Ibn Kathir, Bidayah II, 68; Alusi, III, 165, XVI, 80.

6. See Al Imran 3:37. Also see: Tabari, III, 242-244; Qurtubi, IV, 71-86.

7. Mihrab is the original Qur’anic word. A bit different than its meaning today, mihrab in this context refers to a place “where one lives and prays, a most honorable place, where one strives against the carnal self.”

8. Tabari, III, 245; Wahidi, I, 208; Baydawi, II, 34.

9. See also Tabari, III, 244-246; Baqawi, I, 297; Fahruddin ar-Razi, VI, 283.

10. Zamahshari, I, 143; Ibn Kathir, I, 361.

11. See also New Testament, Luke 1:26–28; 41–42.

12. Tabari, III, 262-264; Vahidi, I, 210.

13. Al- Maidah 5:75. The word “Truth” means trustworthy, of truthful speech pious in faith and religion. Ibn Manzur, “s-d-k” (X, 193)

14. Scholars like Qadi Iyaz and Qurtubi understood the meaning of these words as “superior to all women on the earth.”

15. Navawi, XVI, 80; Ibn Hajar, VI, 473-474, IX, 125.

16. Navawi, XV, 198; Ayni, XV, 308.

17. Navawi, XV, 198; Baydawi, II, 38; Ibn Kathir, II, 82; Ayni, XV, 308. Those who support this view usually refer to this verse: “We did not send before you as Messengers any but men to whom We revealed, from amongst the people of the townships (where We raised them)” (Yusuf 12:109).

18. Ibn Asakir, Tarih al-Dimashk II, 337, 411.

We shall not dwell in detail on each of the great human virtues which distinguish human beings from all other creatures. However, one can gain a great deal of insight from studying deviated or unbalanced behavior, specifically in the context of living entities. A field of biology that has recently been recognized as “Systems Biology” is the detailed study of how an entire system is accommodated and “corrected” when there are deviations from “the most beneficial state.” These deviations consist of either a loss or an excess of a functional element within that system.

Systems biology

The universe around us is a place for exhibiting and training our skills and abilities; it is here that we are taught the lessons we need to learn during our journey through life. Looking at the mechanisms by which biological systems work we can see that events occur at exactly the time they are required to and that there is a purposeful and meaningful logic in the exact sequence of events. In how events take place one can see perfect order and a great deal of knowledge and wisdom. In fact, the human mind is awestruck by the orchestra of events that simultaneously takes place with the utmost precision and accuracy. Hence, the perspective provided by “Systems Biology” is an alternative to the reductionist viewpoint that accepts causality as the basis of understanding and explaining living systems.

One can see that when an event takes place in space and time it is not isolated, nor is it a part of a simple cause-effect mechanism. The inter-relation and connection of each event with every other event that occurs within a cell is a perfect example of such a system. This aspect of living biological systems gives us insights into the far-reaching consequences of our daily actions. On the surface, our daily actions may seem to be unconnected, irrelevant, and perhaps even meaningless; however, in reality our actions have a global effect on this universe. Just as all the parts of a tree are directed towards producing the fruit, every part of the universe is directed towards and subjugated for human kind, the fruit of the universe. It is as if the human being lies at the nexus of all other systems in the universe, as if it is connected to and is being served by every other existing system. As a result, all other systems in the universe are somehow connected to us. This means that our actions will have much greater consequences than we ever imagined, thus placing on our shoulders duties and responsibilities far greater and above all other creatures. Therefore, we are accountable for all our actions.

Cancer as a distorted state of cellular behavior

In systems biology, the changing of one component of the system, for example, an excess or a deficiency from the optimal (most balanced, most appropriate and the most beneficial) quantity, will lead to dramatic changes in all other components within that system. A disease can be defined as a state of affairs that has one or more components of the system that is being modified or changed in some manner. In this case, we shall take the example of cancer. The development of cancer in the human body is multi-stepped and it may take several years before the cancer is detected by modern technology. In fact, cancer begins when there is an error at the molecular level that is not put right, deep inside the cell. This error can be a single mutation in the reference manuals or “codes” called genes, or it can be another factor that is either inadequate or excessive. This mutation can happen in many ways; but why does it happen? There certainly must be an important reason for it happening. If we choose to understand the message then we will see that one of the purposes of this change could be to enable us to learn from the consequences of our actions.

How is this so? One only truly appreciates a system when it no longer functions properly. Hence, we can see that cancer may be the consequence of a single mistake that has not been corrected in one gene. This means that a single mistake can be amplified in such a way that it affects the entire being, and this is only because each event is connected to every other event. Understanding this will enable us to become more aware of our actions and to think more about their consequences before we act.

The connection between faith, moral virtue and the biological entity

In a healthy individual, cancer cells are always being created, however, they are immediately destroyed by specialized immune cells. The formation of full-blown cancerous tissue happens when the initial cancer cell is not destroyed. This clearly indicates that the health of the individual depends on the ability to destroy the cancer cell in the first instance. The tolerance or acceptance of the cancer cell as a healthy cell only occurs when the immune cells required for the destruction of the cancer cell are not activated or sensitized. In a similar manner, the moral and spiritual integrity of an individual depends on how aware they are of their mistakes, or indeed, whether they recognize their mistakes as mistakes. This is exactly the same process that is referred to as repentance in the three monotheistic religions. The one who repents feels remorse for their sins/mistakes and turns toward The One who will forgive sins. In an ideal society, this process is manifested as actively and strategically forbidding evil (or injustice) and advocating good, as without this process, without the application of good social justice will spread.

When the ability to recognize or sense a mistake is lost in an individual, then the person concerned will fail to regret any mistakes they make and begin to think all their actions are correct. Such a negative process is a delusion which leads the individual to think that they never commit any mistakes. The consequence of this process is a downward spiral in moral values and accountability of the individual and can be directly likened to a biological system that has allowed the growth of cancer. The individual who has committed many mistakes and who is oblivious or neglectful in repairing or making up for these mistakes is like a cancer cell that disrupts the entire tissue in which they are found. Unaccounted for (or unrepaired or mis-repaired) mistakes that have not been regretted will have great repercussions not only on the individual but on the entire community in which they live. These mistakes become part of a vicious cycle of events that lead the individual to even more excessive or deficient behavior, such as ingratitude, disrespect or prejudice. The individual becomes unaware of other systems around them, and becomes oblivious of the rights and needs of others, eventually acquiring arrogance, avarice, insolence, and finally turning into a vicious but weak monster that not only hurts itself but also others.

In a similar vein, the cancer cell can be likened to an individual who feels no remorse and no sense of urgency when a mistake or a sin is committed. The genetic mutations or unrepaired error(s) in cancer cells lead to loss of sensitivity of the environment. Cancer cells have many defects in the specific DNA repair mechanisms, therefore there is a high degree of chromosome instability in these cells.1 Furthermore, they are not affected by the signals that affect healthy cells, because all the check points in these cells have become desensitized. They are extremely aggressive cells that invade the tissues in the surrounding areas around them and rob the tissues of their primary resources. The cancer cells also do not die in the same way that healthy cells are discharged from duty. Cancer cells explode and die, thereby disrupting the entire system even more, while death in healthy cells is very organized and does not disturb the system.2

The degree of sensitivity of an individual to the validity of their actions depends on their conscientious understanding of what is right or appropriate and what is not. This is directly dependent on their reference point. If the reference point is from an all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-hearing source (i.e. a source that has the ability to see all the systems at once), then they can be sure that their action will be appropriate. Any other reference point that does not have a connection to this source is bound to mislead or lead to inadequate action under given conditions.

Similarly, the behavior of healthy cells is such that it is appropriate (or, as biologists would say, optimal) for the rest of the systems it is connected with. Hence, the events that place in a given cell are complementary and productive for the specific condition or configuration in space and time. When there is an error in any of the events or processes, it can be repaired, but when there is no error, growth continues. This indicates that the cell must have unity and a complementary nature with every other system in space and time in order to sustain health.

On the other hand, in a spiritually and biologically healthy individual, mistakes are repaired and are not long-lived, just like in the healthy cells that work unceasingly for the benefit of the being in which they are found. They respond to all their own needs as well as to those around them, they are not oblivious of others and they respect the individual rights of the people in their lives, especially the ones who have given the most to them, for example, parents, family, and friends. The balanced individual learns from the mistakes they commit, and they take care not to commit them again. In this way, as each action is connected to all the other actions of other entities, this individual becomes a means of an amplifying, productive cycle that has far-reaching consequences for the entire community.

The human being is brought into this world pure and with a perfect constitution. However, each individual’s unrefined ego must be trained so it can acquire the ability to recognize the mistakes that will interrupt its connection with the rest of the universe. These mistakes can only be recognized through great virtues like faith and knowledge of the Creator, knowledge of the self, gratitude, honesty, trustworthiness, sincerity, and humility, as well as perseverance in the face of adversity. It as if one who has been given these values can take the correct precautions to prevent any possible spiritual contamination, just as in a healthy biological system. Hence, faith enables a believer to behave in conjunction and in harmony with the myriad of systems in the visible and invisible universe with which it is connected. On the other hand, having unconscious faith or a lack of belief means all these connections have now been destroyed or are not strong enough. This isolates the individual from the multi-dimensional system of which it is part, finally leading to the self-destruction of the individual.

Sebnem Unlu, PhD, is a Research Faculty at University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, USA.

Note

1. R.A. Weinberg. The Biology of Cancer, Garland Science, 2006, p. 458.,
2. In cancer cells, programmed cell death, which is the mode of cell death in all healthy cells, is prevented. This means the mode of cell death in these cells will be another type of cell death, such as “necrosis,” where the cell explodes to release its contents, thereby disturbing the cells all around it.

The Iberian Peninsula in Europe was such a home for many different nationalities and religions when centuries ago it was Al-Andalus. Quoting from Maria Rosa Menocal, Yukseldi notes that “Al-Andalus (711–1492) was a ‘utopian-like’ society in which Jews and Muslims lived side by side in peace and cooperation in what is now Spain.” There are others who object to this argument, and in this issue Yukseldi presents a panorama of Al-Andalus, discussing the differing views of the tolerant policies Muslims held during their sovereignty.

The atheistic world view nowadays is being propagated by authors like Dawkins and Hitchens. Bayram Yenikaya confronts several of Dawkins’s arguments that he has put forward in his book The God Delusion. Is religion evil? Can we prove God’s existence and non-existence by scientific methods? Yenikaya’s article “Dawkins’ Delusion” is certainly something that must be read if these are questions that you are interested in.

Efforts devoted to exploring Fethullah Gulen’s thought and vision are gaining pace. The latest example of this is the conference in Cairo: Future of Reform in the Muslim World: Comparative Experiences with Fethullah Gulen’s Movement in Turkey. The Fountain was there to observe the three-day conference, and a report on this event is available in the following pages. For those of our readers who are interested in what is known as the Gulen Movement, this report is worth perusing, with its information on this conference that was a first in the Middle East.

Can you draw parallels between human behavior and cancer? Sebnem Unlu believes there are universally governing principles which apply in the human body as well as in our behavior. Unlu informs us that cancer cells are constantly being created, even in a healthy body, but in a healthy body they are destroyed by specialized immune cells. In a similar way, we have to correct our mistakes and sins as quickly as possible, without allowing them to grow like cancer, to destroy our moral integrity.

Fortunately, the contributors to Schooling Islam (2007), eleven internationally renowned scholars brought together by Robert Hefner and Muhammad Qasim Zaman to examine the different modes of modern Muslim education and their implications for national and global politics, provide new insights into Muslim culture and politics in countries as different as Morocco, Egypt, Turkey, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, Mali, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Great Britain. The authors demonstrate that Islamic education is neither timelessly traditional nor “medieval,” but rather that it is complex, evolving, and diverse in its institutions and practices. Citing historical instances of pedagogical reform and attesting to a flexible list of texts and subjects used in religious instruction – (most notably, Arabic grammar and lexicography, rhetoric, logic, Islamic jurisprudence, the prophetic traditions (ahadith), Qur’anic interpretation (tafsir), theology (kalam), pre-Islamic and early Islamic poetry, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy and Islamic history, economics, politics and sociology, and modern adaptations of “customs and common usages” – ‘urf and ‘adat – including world religions, European history and languages) – they convincingly challenge the hyperbolic assertion that Islamic education deadens all sense of inquiry. Moreover, they reveal the extent to which the struggle to capture hearts and minds occurred in Muslim lands before the Western media discovered the madrasas, as well as the degree to which Islamic schools remain on the frontline of regional and national debates surrounding culture and politics. Finally, they unanimously conclude that the present struggle, which is concerned with both the political functionalization and the internal dynamics of Islamic education, will shape a generation of young Muslims and their relations with the West.

In his introduction to the volume, Robert Hefner remarks that the reform of Islamic education was given momentum by the decline of Muslim political power: “In colonial settings, Islamic schools were functionalized to sustain Muslim values and ‘ulama social standing, even in the absence of a Muslim-led state. After the Second World War, national independence seemed at first to offer Muslim educators an opportunity to relax their guard. But postcolonial nation-building only ushered in new struggles to control the commanding heights of public ethics and culture. This was no more forcefully the case than [in debates] on the question of where Islam should figure in new programs of mass education” (p.32). Recalling the resurgence of personal piety and public observance which swept through many Muslim societies in the 1970’s and 1980’s, and citing contemporary examples, like the increased involvement of the Egyptian ‘ulama in politics in response to the regime’s efforts to co-opt al-Azhar scholars, as well as the politicization of Pakistani madrasas, particularly during the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, Hefner states that the primary question today as regards Islamic education “is not whether it should be drawn up into broader political projects (functionalized), but whose projects they should be and how they should engage the plurality of peoples, powers, and ideas that marks our age” (p.33).

According to Hefner, a second line of reflection that emerges in the chapters of Schooling Islam concerns the internal dynamics of Islamic education rather than its functionalization. Indeed, a number of authors discuss how the rise of modern Islamic education has brought about a shift in the distribution and style of Islamic knowledge. The earlier pattern of informality and, in Louis Brenner’s phrase, “initiatic transmission” gave way to classrooms, fixed curricula, examinations, and professional teachers. In these relatively depersonalized settings, many believers came to view their faith as “a subject which must be ‘explained’ and ‘understood”’ (Eickelman 1992, 650) on the basis of formal doctrinal canons. The transmission of Islamic knowledge was abstracted from intimate teacher-student relationships, with their habits of dress, bearing, and deference, and repositioned in classrooms and quick-read textbooks (see Berkey, chpt.2). More recently, as debates over Islamic knowledge have moved from elite circles into restless, mobile and ever-more technologically savvy mass societies, the authority base of teachers in live classrooms and that of print textbooks have begun to be challenged by participants in virtual chat rooms and producers of YouTube video clips, who argue an increasingly diverse set of views. Many of the latest shifts in the internal dynamics of Islamic education – such as Muslims’ increasing reliance on electronic Qur’anic devices, online sermons, and instructional hajj videos, the integration of nasheed, “Islamic rap,” religious cartoons and children’s books in Islamic weekend school curricula, the emergence of international dawah conferences and online fatwa resources, and the recent (2004) establishment of the International Alliance of the ‘Ulama – have not yet been sufficiently examined by scholars of Islamic and social sciences.

The lack of evidence suggesting that the agonistic pluralism of Muslim politics and learning will diminish in the near future leads Hefner to make a third and final conclusion as regards the cultures and politics of contemporary Islamic education. Rather than viewing the ferment surrounding religious schooling as proof that the modern Muslim world dances to the beat of a different drummer than that of the West, East Asia, and Latin America, he reminds us that mass education of a moralistic temper has been the hallmark of nation-making and societal reform since the late nineteenth century’s “Age of Education” (Zeldin 1977); ie. that a moral agenda of one sort or another lay at the heart of state educational projects that unfolded in disparate parts of the late nineteenth-century globe (Fortna 2000, 35). Hence, Hefner argues, “[We] in the West would be truer to our own moral history were we to recognize that our schools and politics, too, bear the imprint of struggles over how children and citizens should ethicalize and behave. Current debates over Islamic education, then, do not represent Muslim civilization’s regression to some pre-modern past. They are a civilizationally specific response to the challenges of pluralism, knowledge, and ethics faced by all citizens in the late-modern world” (p.35).

Schooling Islam has been described as the most comprehensive work available in any language on madrasas and Islamic education. Because it gives a broad, comparative overview of educational developments in the Muslim world, and because each chapter’s bibliography directs the reader to more detailed sources of information, it can, indeed, be called “essential reading” for scholars and policymakers who are interested in the multifaceted cultures and politics of Islam and the future of the Muslim world.

Dr. Jeannette Okur is the translator of Tales from Rumi, a selection of Mathnawi stories adapted for young readers. She is currently conducting research on the portrayal of Muslim-American teens’ lives in a new literary genre called Islamic youth fiction.

No other place is blessed with the same charm of day turning into night, nor does it have a matching mystery. Seasons in other places are not as mild nor is nature as vivid and lenient as it is in this world. However, in the most fabulous corners of the earth there are times when daylight is blocked out, when the stars at night are drowned in darkness, and the days are obscured and monotonous. Yet, for those who can perceive and carry on their lives, following the path of the heart and spirit, nothing in our world loses its pleasure, nor do its attractions diminish. On the contrary, the springs in our world always cheer us with new life, the summers gently descend on the horizons of tenderness, autumn glimmer through the routine, reminding us of extinction followed by resurrection, winters elate our feelings of love and longing and inspire our spirits with new birth; thus, we are able to attain what our nature passionately seeks.

With the eye of the heart one can see that the arrivals and departures, the changes and transformations, the diversification and deformation in this land all have meanings that are different from those in other places. Life here exhibits eternal visions that are as expansive as a waterfall; flowing like a river that is fast and deep, racing along a sinuous course to reach its source. As the river bed narrows, it flows even faster and surmounts many seemingly impossible obstacles. It flows foaming downstream along its own path, as pure as the day it first gushed forth from the source, perhaps even purer. It spreads life along every mile for those who have the capacity, and runs to reunion like a lover separated from the loved one. And with reunion comes eternal serenity. This is the color, texture, and accent of life in our hearts, but it is not possible for those who do not empathize with us to comprehend this; they cannot appreciate the roots that make us who we are, nor can they perceive what we feel or think, or our ideals or objectives.

As a matter of fact, it is a privilege and joy to be born into and raised in this world, to be able to perceive its spirit and meaning which are rooted deep in the past. However, awareness of this privilege and bliss is only possible when our rich heritage, the spirit and meaning of this world, is duly appreciated and admired, as Majnun loved Layla. Love and yearning are commonly interpreted as ember or wood which easily flare up at the sight of good looks, a fine posture, and presence; this interpretation is correct, but not complete. The greatest love always blooms in direct relation to the refinement of the soul, as well as to the sensitivity and profundity of perception. Unrefined and insensitive souls may display some inclinations, but they can never truly love. Those with feelings that have been dulled can never be loyal, even if they incessantly speak of love. Loving something depends on knowing it well. Beauty may stir temporary interest, but if knowledge about the inner aspects is lacking, then there are no means for an everlasting connection. Such interest may generate passing fervor, but it cannot transform into a sparkle of love.

Those who do not know God have never been able to love Him; indeed, they cannot. Those who are not informed of the Prophet cannot show him due respect; indeed, they can not. And those who consider our lands to be mere geographical territory cannot be aware of the love for one’s homeland; this is not possible. Any territory is valuable according to the amount of riches found on the surface and underground. Likewise, a country rises upon its unique essence and values that have been inherited from the past; it is only in relation to these values that a country can be enthroned in the heart of the people. It becomes “my land” for those who love it as such, who shiver with the fever of longing.

Every one, no doubt, can feel a strong sense of belonging to the places they were born, from where they breathed and drank water, places with which they are more familiar, even if it were a desert. Yet, our love and desire for “our world” is not related to its being where we were born per se. We are bound to our homeland with a deeper connection and fascination-when we are home, it becomes as warm as our mothers’ embrace; when we are away, we think of it with a longing for the inner riches, the unique tastes and styles, and the magical expanses. Those with an unfamiliar perspective, who cannot discern its deeper qualities – in other words, those who have not been nourished from the same spring or nursed from the same breast – are unable to grasp the wonder; indeed, they never can.

Regardless of the feelings of others about our “world,” this land of wonders offers beauties of all kinds to us; these are unattainable elsewhere, even in the most beautiful corners of the earth. We feel inundated by the affluence we possess, enchanted by the charm of our accent and in this land we witness so many deeper dimensions that go beyond the material veils of our simple daily chores. When surrounded with traces, signs, and symptoms that connote these for us, we then become more connected to the present day; we get a deeper sense of our expectations for the future, of our life philosophy and of our past merits.

Facing an architectural pattern that is designed in the taste and perceptions of the past, or a decoration that reflects our conception of belief and thought, sentiments and esthetics, or when we set sail to the mysterious realm of the places of worship, schools, retreat centers, inns, baths, or caravanserais of this land, each of which is an ineradicable signpost of a noble history, we feel showered with the spirit and meaning of our past as our horizons spread out even farther. Then we are overjoyed beyond our expectations; our spiritual faculties and imagination are set free of time-bound considerations. We reach a point of consciousness in which heavenly words and voices can be heard in a harmonious blend with ordinary sounds. We find ourselves in the middle of a fantastic world which seems to have been constructed from a mixture of yesterday, today, and tomorrow-yet which does not fit into any of these time frames, while carrying traits from each. This is followed by a transformation of every object, every color, pattern, and accent in this world into something new: the sun, which was thought to have set, starts to rise in our skies, the moon and stars roam above our heads as if on a celestial tour, and everywhere glows with a cascade of smiles pouring over us. Then the spell of a darkness that has lasted for decades is broken and the shadows are defeated one after another by the guards of the light. The spring cries out, exhibiting all its beauties. Fountains that were thought to have dried up start running in abundance; clouds bow down to embrace the ground and converse with pastures and trees; rain strokes everywhere that has withered with mercy; the winds embrace us with a sweet breeze, as if celebrating a feast. In the present, but through the projection of the days of light from the past and those that are eagerly awaited in the future, mountains, rocks, singing birds all treat us with the best of sights and sounds, performing a fascinating music without lyric or composition, a tune of the spirit and meaning that does not belong to any one time, but indeed are the essence of all times.

Each time I think of this blessed land with thoughts filled with faith and hope, I say “here is a mystical country without borders, transcendent with a distinctive spiritual essence and an intrinsic beauty.” I consider myself fortunate if I am there; if I am away, I weep with yearning and to comfort myself, I rush to the apertures of my imagination to picture it in my mind. For me, it is always more beautiful than any other place. Its beauties have always remained unique, without any change, even when it was invaded with filth that tarnished the entire globe. It has always been a place that is desired.

Nothing has stained its spiritual potential and no dirt has been able to blur its inner purity. There were times when resentment, hatred, and sectarian fights festered everywhere; democracy was crippled, free thought was slaughtered, belief, Islam, and the Qur’an conceded against the most ferocious onslaughts and the winds of fall destroyed the gardens, the crops, and discolored the flowers and the roses mourned and wept tears of blood. Young saplings broke, giant cypress trees collapsed, and leaves were scattered around. Nevertheless, this “world” has always remained colorful with its inner treasures, spiritual pattern, and power of spiritual dynamics. It has always smiled gently on its own children, comforting their cries with joyful treats, softening the painful and harsh storms of reality with its magical hope-inspiring essence, and even in the most hellish conditions, cooled down the heat of those who took shelter in it with a peaceful “bard al-salam.”1

Hostility, rancor, discord, hatred and other foreign notions that originate from unbelief and which have sought to penetrate this land, have never been able to take up permanent residence, nor have conflicts and discord attained their objectives. Rancor and hatred have been defeated by love and leniency; envy and obsession have devoured and consumed themselves; and the unfortunate ones who have made the existence and continuation of such things dependent on these notions have never attained glory. The filth and the soiled ones have been rebuffed and dispersed, and only true humans and human values have remained in this land.

Yet sometimes perhaps all of us have been troubled by some unexpected events; we wish that they never happened, and bemoan the heartless and senseless acts of the people of this land, a land which is acquiescent to the heart and spirit, despite its rich historical heritage. Thankfully, such thoughts and the situation that lay behind them did not last for long; when the time came, everything reverted to its former shape; the heart was set in motion, the spirit made itself heard, the callous mood was replaced with sensitivity, and everything reclaimed its essential nature. Excluding the temporal fog that darkened the horizons, this land is indeed in possession of the treasures of pleasure, taste, and beauty from all times. We breathe in the spring in the mornings; we enjoy the colorful sceneries of the summer during the day, and at sunset we are filled with the pleasant sorrow of the fall. Days and nights, and the seasons that change reluctantly are so fresh, elegant, and soft that familiar hearts rise every morning as if invited to “resurrection,” waking up to a new day with the call for prayer and glorifications, finding themselves on a highway that leads to the heavens.

As it appears to our senses, everything in this world is seen as if through rose-colored glasses, through a mysterious veil that we cannot always perceive. The spiritual texture of this world which never fades, the pristine hearts of the people, the majority of the people being able to remain firm, with their behavior leaving indelible impressions; its marketplaces that feature noble characteristics inherited from the past; its porticos and fountains that have an impressive stance; the everlasting warmth in the sanctuaries of the places of worship; the glorifying of the Almighty by the believer singing “Hu, Hu” in chorus, accompanied by the bird song that soars up to the domes as well as into our hearts… it is not possible to witness these and many other magical scenes occurring in such a perfect way in other places. Nevertheless, not everyone is blessed with this testimony. Their inability to perceive is perhaps not a divine test or retribution upon them, but there is no doubt that it indicates a deprivation that has fallen to their share. It is most likely that these unfortunate ones were exposed to winds that blew a bit cold, or were hit by the autumn that passed a bit harshly, or were caught in an unseasonable hail, sleet or storm, and this is why they see this paradisiacal place as having the unpleasant face displayed by momentary events.

Nevertheless, such things do not last forever; they might cast our horizon in darkness for a time, but after a while they disappear, handing this world over to the brightest beauties that are inherently found there. Everywhere blossoms with its natural charm, and a peaceful spiritual expansion is felt throughout the land. Then the fog disperses and the sky is filled with the cotton-white clouds of the spring. Even if it does not rain, dew drops wash away the dust on the leaves. The dawn is followed by the sunrise, and the bright days that are celebrated in our hearts glow from a distance as every town and street, village and city assumes a spiritual transformation. This world becomes a corridor to what is beyond. As perceptions intensify, the elegance, mercy, and the poem that this storm of feelings pours into us pass beyond the upper limits of our comprehension. The gaps between our desires–dreams and the realities are filled and life becomes the way we would like to live it. Our horizons of thought are imbued with the colors of the heavenly slopes. Our disheartened feelings, our withered and cracked hearts, and our spirits, which are bent double and look like discolored flowers, pull themselves together as if the Trumpet (Sur) is heard. Then, everything and every one changes position and shouts out cheers of revival.

While some “homeless” ones suffer from a longing, although they are in their homeland, I have always kept myself occupied enjoying the beauties of my country that well up through the windows of my heart; my readings of this land have always been different from theirs. Even in our days in which hope has lost ground against the darkest thoughts, I can still hear a superb internal tune, singing the secrets from the deepest dimensions of my soul and my belief. I strive to keep my soul bound to hope and faith and as I visualize my glorious past with sweet memories, I also keep my eyes fixed on future days of splendor, days which I do not doubt will come. I try to simultaneously feel the charming colors, the glaring lights from both wings of time. Despite the suffocating grip of the present, I feel that I am strolling across a field that is more spacious than anywhere else. I leave all that is unpleasant today to be interpreted in time and submit these to the considerations of illuminated generations, for those for whom we have high hopes. In the meantime, I find myself between the light, shade, and breezes of my belief, hope, and good will. A future time of happiness caresses my sensations, even though the windows opened by my faith in God and certainty in belief do not yet yield a crystal clear view. I now witness a crude notion of darkness, which has tarnished the face of the earth in our recent past; I hear the groaning throes of agony on the deathbed on which our soul was sacrificed to our ruthlessness; I hear the requiems that are sung, for they resonate deep within, like history’s hymns of revival.

NoteSee the Qur’an 21:69, “O fire,” We ordered, “Be cool and peaceful for Abraham!”

I am the barrier between your body and the outer world and I am responsible for this area. I can sense every change in the outer world, including heat, cold, humidity, pressure, various radiations, and the effects of many harmful chemicals and physical phenomena. When I become aware of the presence of something that is harmful, I warn your organs to act according to these changing conditions. That is why everybody knows me primarily as a sense organ.

However, in addition to being a sense organ, I have many other important duties; however, if I were to list them here, this article would take up the entire magazine. In order to ensure your good health I have to carry out my duties, be they aesthetic, protective or metabolic, perfectly. Even if you only examine my appearance, you will see how beautiful I am. You should visit an anatomy laboratory one day and watch the medical students performing an autopsy. Examine the cadaver whose skin has been pulled back to allow the students to study the internal organs. Look, if you can! Although the body is miracle, if the skin is not present, it would lose its splendor and become ugly and horrible. The beauty and meaningful existence of all the other organs are only complete with me. Our Lord God Almighty has created me and dressed you with me as a garment that fits each part of your body. He has lined your palms and soles with a thick outer lining made of keratin; this enables you to walk and use some hand tools easily. If on the foot or hand I were as thin as I am in the lip area, then I would easily get punctured and injured while walking or using a tool. God has created special joints where your fingers and toes join the feet and hands. These joints allow your fingers, hands and feet to move in many different ways. In order to protect your head from the sun and cold God has changed some of my cells into hair and has given it the ability to grow constantly. God also protects your eyes with special hairs that we call eyelashes and eyebrows. With these He also completes the beauty of your face. However, these do not grow constantly like the hair on our heads. Just think, otherwise you would have to trim both your eyebrows and eyelashes everyday in order to see. The special hairs in your nose and ears help prevent the entry of harmful particles, like dust or harmful microorganisms. You may think “How important is that? Just a few strands of hair?” Of course, hair is not the most important thing of all, but is life nothing more than staying alive? Of course not! There is also an aesthetic aspect to life. We can understand this if we look at a person who has no eyebrows or eyelashes! Certainly, God has made human beings beautiful creations and the hair is an important part of this beauty. As with everything He does, the significance of the hair is much more meaningful than when first seen.

In addition to my aesthetic beauty, I should also tell you about my protective functions. My first and most vital job is to balance the level of liquid in your body and to prevent its loss. The liquid level and the amount of minerals inside your body are very important. If it were not for me your kidneys would not be able to regulate the level of these liquids. It is for this reason that people who have burns that take up two-thirds of their skin or more cannot live; the water loss in their bodies is too great. In burn care centers, they try to control the loss of liquids using very sensitive devices; however, with serious burns this is usually unsuccessful. My protective functions are not limited to liquids; I also protect your body from all kinds of bacteria, funguses and viruses. As you know, your skin can get inflamed and infected from even a thorn. If the skin becomes damaged or broken over a large area you could face serious infections. This is because if I am not present many microorganisms will invade your body and make you ill.

Your body is very sensitive to heat and cold. The temperature of your inner body normally should be between 370C and 38 0C (96.8 0F and 98.6 0F); if it increases above this temperature, then you are unwell. If you remain for a long time in cold conditions and your inner body temperature falls off, many of your organs, especially the lungs, stomach, and kidneys are damaged and cannot work properly. You could die if the temperature is too low for too long. And in contrast, if you stay too long in the heat and your inner body temperature increases, your nervous system can be damaged, as the brain is very sensitive. Then your heart and other organs will start to fail, which eventually results in death. Indeed, human beings live everywhere, from the deserts to the poles and everywhere people are able to maintain an inner core temperature that is constant between 96.8 0F and 98.6 0F. I play a very important part in this system. Although the main control center is the brain, it acts according to stimuli that I send and I carry out important functions when the brain responds to these stimuli. Later, I will tell you how I can both warm and cool you.

Before telling you about my other functions, I would also like to tell you about my structure, which appears quite basic from the outside. Of course, I am not simply a cover that wraps your flesh. First of all, I am a living organ that is being nourished, that grows, that is repaired and which is very flexible. As I get rid of dead cells, I replace them with new ones; I am aware of everything that happens in my surroundings and I allow you to feel the world around you. I consist of two major layers: the epidermis (outmost layer) and the dermis (the inner level). The visible layer, the epidermis, consists of cells that gradually die off and stiffen. Those cells are toughened with a protein called keratin which is absorbed inside their structure; everyday I shed dead skin cells. This is part of the “dirt” that is removed from your body with every shower. This outer layer contains bacteria, funguses or other parasites that have been transmitted from the outside world and which may cause diseases. These parasites are removed as the dead skin cells are shed. The innermost layer (stratum germinativum) of the epidermis has a great capacity for cell division and it constantly produces new cells from the bottom to the outermost level. These cells start out life as cylinders, but as they move towards the outer surface they become cubical and then flatten out. At the same time keratin is being produced in those cells, and as a result they stiffen and start to die off. When the cells arrive at the outermost level, they are already dead. Some of those dead cells do not fall off. They accumulate and combine to make up the structures that we call nails and calluses. In this way the cells protect those areas that are most sensitive or most often used.

You will be surprised to see what great biological activities take place in the epidermis. Even when a person dies, this layer does not die right away. After death the nails and beard continue to grow. This occurs because of the activities in the germinative epithelium, which makes up the basal layer of the epidermis.

Beneath the epidermis is the dermis, a relatively thick layer. This is the layer which keeps the skin lively and firm and which produces the color. Many works of arts are present in this layer to complete my splendid structure. This layer consists of connective tissue with fiber bundles that is made of collagen protein. As people get older, their skin dries up and starts to lose its collagen proteins. Once the fibers start to decrease, I lose my firmness, and then I start to wrinkle. Although people are not happy with wrinkles, which are inevitable, I don’t think this is something to worry about; wrinkles are also a sign of maturity and experience. In the structure of my dermis there are other parts that have very important functions: The sweat glands, which are in the shape of coiled tubes, spread throughout the body act as ventilators; in addition, the hair follicles, the sebaceous gland, which helps to nourish and moisturize the hair, the chromatophores (pigment-containing cells) that determine the skin color, the hair muscles that give your hair flexibility and the blood vessels that nourish me are all important. I also have special receptor cells that can sense temperature, pressure and pain and there are nerve endings scattered among these cells.

In different parts of the body I am more sensitive to particular sensations. My sense receptors (corpuscles) vary in shape and you human beings have named them after the scientists who discovered them. There is Pacini’s corpuscle, Meissner’s corpuscle, Ruffini’s corpuscle and Krause’s corpuscle. Each of those receptors is thought to be receiving independent stimuli, but this has not been proven by experiment yet.

Do you ever wonder why you and your friends have so many different skin tones? This is the result of the work of the chromatophores (cells that contain pigment) which are located in the dermis, at the point closest to the epidermis. These cells, which have a number of branches, move in relation to the intensity of the light, and their branches can stretch and shrink back. These movements cause the pigment granules (melanin granules) to disperse within the cell or aggregate towards the center. This is how they can lighten or darken the skin color, causing you to get a “tan.” The seasons, the length of the day and the intensity and duration of the sunlight all affect the movement of these cells. These cells darken your skin color during the summer and lighten it during the winter. But, why is this necessary? This is a wonderful physiologic mechanism that has so many amazing purposes and meanings. I am sure you have noticed that people who live in Northern Europe and North America have a lighter complexion than those who live in the more southerly regions of the earth. This is because the countries in these northern regions are exposed to a less intense sunlight for a shorter time. The further north you go the more rainy and cloudy it is. However, sunlight also plays a very important role in the synthesizing of vitamin D in your body. The molecule known as 7-dehydrocholesterol can be converted into vitamin D only with sunlight. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is highly important for calcium absorption and bone metabolism. If you do not have enough exposure to the sun, then vitamin D cannot be produced; this could result in disorders like rickets (most common), as well as several other bone diseases and skeletal complications. However, it is interesting that sunlight is a two-edged sword. Neither too much nor too little sunlight is good for you. Too much exposure to the sunlight damages my health, causing such diseases as skin cancer and eye disorders. Our Lord God Almighty has made all parts of the earth suitable for human life. He knows well, of course, what people need in order to be able to live in places that have less sunlight and in other places that have a great deal of sunlight. In order to allow people to benefit from the sunlight everywhere, He has given the necessary qualities to my chromotaphores and the melanin granules that they contain. In places that have less sunlight, my chromotaphores synthesize less melanin. The melanin disperses throughout the cells or the cells move downwards, and my color lightens. This allows more sun absorption and this sunlight is used for vitamin D production. In sunny places, however, people are more exposed to the ultraviolet rays of the sun as well as other forms of radiation. This is why the risk of my cells becoming mutant and cancerous is greatly increased. In order to avoid such a situation, more melanin is synthesized in people who live in sunny places. The melanin in the chrotaphores gathers towards the center of the cell and my color darkens. Thus, excess sunlight is absorbed by my melanin pigments thanks to their special structure and function. This prevents other sensitive cells from becoming damaged and cancerous.

During hot weather, in order to balance your inner body temperature, the blood vessels that pass through the skin expand and more blood is carried through the skin. I give off the water in my blood through my sweat glands. While this warm water called “sweat” spreads over my surface and evaporates, an important amount of heat is released into the air. Thus, your inner body temperature does not increase and you remain cool inside. Thanks to the work of my sweat glands, I can also get rid of some nitrogenous waste and thus support your kidneys. During cold weather, however, the activities of my sweat glands decrease, and this helps you to stay warm. The blood vessels narrow so that the blood in me is reduced. More warm blood is channeled into your body so that your important inner organs do not become cold. The muscles of my hairs contract and the hairs straighten, thickening the layer of hair that covers me. It feels like you are covered with a blanket. If your body temperature falls off significantly, my receptors stimulate the muscles that lie under me and these muscles produce heat by vibrating. That is why you shiver from cold! Women have fewer hairs on their body. Do you think this is unfair? Of course not! Unlike men, women’s bodies are created in such a way that they can store a greater percentage of fat among the tissues under the skin. This hypodermic fatty tissue not only protects women from cold, but it is also used as extra storage for nutrients that they use when breastfeeding. It also helps protect women’s muscles and bones against bumps and shocks from the outside. So, this tissue works both as a temperature isolator and as a “shock absorber.” There is nothing unfair about this. And, it proves that God gives each of His creation exactly what they need and deserve.

Some people say that the skin is a mirror of the body’s health; this is true. The fact that I am visible and can be examined easily makes me the first organ to display symptoms of many diseases that lie below. Abnormalities that appear on me are usually a sign of metabolism disorders, ulcers and other glandular disorders in the body. For example, if your liver is being affected by a poisonous substance, this shows up as red spots on the hands. But not only physical ailments affect, me; I am also affected by your spiritual condition. Of course, the opposite can happen, too. That is, diseases on the skin can affect your inner organs.

I have mentioned before that my ability to renew and repair myself is very great. God willing, I can repair mild burns, bruises and cuts easily under normal circumstances. However, if the bruise goes as deep as my basal layer, there might be a scare there to remind you in the future and to give thanks to God for your health. In addition, in diseases like diabetes, my ability to renew and repair myself is weakened and I cannot easily heal. In such cases, you have to take the utmost care to keep me clean so that I do not get infected.

Well Peter, I think that I have said enough about myself. I will not continue to go on about the many symptoms of diseases that can be seen on me, including, allergies, itchiness, and infections. However, it is important for you to know that I can demonstrate hundreds of different conditions that are caused by a great range of factors, such as genetically transmitted diseases, immune system disorders, and bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. But don’t worry! As you can see, the majority of people live a healthy life despite these risks. The Creator has provided your body with a protective mechanism and has taught you how to take care of yourself. My job here is to indicate the Creator and how He has made me a flawless work of art that demonstrates deep meanings behind its complexity. Rather than continuing to give you a lecture on dermatology, it would be better if you were to live according to God’s consent. If you do so, you will be protected from diseases; even if you do become ill, you will have greater patience and moral strength. You will also be more thankful to God for your health.