“Every great magic trick consists of three parts or acts. The first part is called ‘The Pledge.’ The magician shows you something ordinary: a deck of cards, a bird or a man. He shows you this object. Perhaps he asks you to inspect it to see if it is indeed real, unaltered, normal. But of course… it probably isn’t. The second act is called ‘The Turn.’ The magician takes the ordinary something and makes it do something extraordinary. Now you’re looking for the secret… but you won’t find it, because of course you’re not really looking. You don’t really want to know. You want to be fooled. But you wouldn’t clap yet. Because making something disappear isn’t enough; you have to bring it back. That’s why every magic trick has a third act, the hardest part, the part we call ‘The Prestige.’”

The above quote is taken from the script of the movie “The Prestige.” This article is not about that movie; nor is it a critique of any film. It is an attempt to use the theme of the movie “The Prestige” to provide a different perspective on the brutal power struggle that has taken place in the international political arena over the last century. For those readers who have not seen the movie, the story is about two famous rival magicians who sabotage one another’s performances. When one performs a successful trick, the other becomes obsessed with disclosing the secret of his competitor. The rivalry is so intense that in the end they become murderers.

Drawing an analogy, I see that the battle for “The Prestige” among today’s power centers is not that different from the deadly rivalry of nineteenth century magicians-only today’s magicians have more advanced methods and more engineering power. Moreover, the tricks they use in competition for supremacy are costing more lives than ever. Throughout human history there has always been a battle of supremacy among nations. Mostly, this has been carried out with political or diplomatic sanctions, but when necessary, this volatile rivalry has been transformed into disastrous wars with intelligent tricks.

Now, read the remainder of the article and decide for yourself whether the above analogy facilitates an understanding of the bigger picture of some global conflicts. In the end, we will focus on an alternative way that could attain much better results with more humane means.

The Pledge

The basic nature of the power struggle is that the involved parties always try to dominate one another in any domain of power-economic, military, diplomatic, ideological, technological, or cultural. They strive to establish systems and sanctions over others in order to divide up, or rather not to divide up, global resources.

In this ordinary struggle there will come a day when one or several of the parties involved in the struggle begin to feel that other means are necessary to establish a new world order, and they start to perform their magic. They start with the death of a preeminent person, or an unfortunate event; this may be a local disaster or a much unexpected incident. But whatever happens, they make a great noise about it, manufacturing a crisis, and thus attaining global attention. Sometimes the crisis is so disruptive that people are able to think of nothing else.

One recent example of this type of crisis is the tragic events of September 11, 2001. On a busy and beautiful New York morning everything stopped and events occurred that would shock the world. Some twenty crazy people-and whoever was behind them-killed more than three thousand people, bringing down the WTC towers and shaking not only New York City, but the entire world, in a matter of hours.

On another September morning, sixty years earlier, a similar disaster occurred when a madman decided to march with the German army to seize the entire continent of Europe. That march ended six years later, after millions of lives had been lost, including the lives of those who had started it.

Around twenty-five years before that, yet another disaster started with the assassination of an archduke in June 1914. Again, a sudden death and a shock wave of deaths followed the onset of World War I.

The number of examples can be increased, but the important thing here is that on a normal morning, people are shocked by unexpected news and their daily routines are disrupted. For most people, their world views change and the important paradigms shift, initiating a great change in their lives.

The Turn

Experiencing the shock that has been caused by the unfortunate events of “the pledge,” even before people have a chance to mourn, hundreds of questions start to fly… But how? Who? Why? While trying to extricate themselves from this trauma people cannot help but keep asking themselves: Who could do this? Why would they do this? And consequently, they start searching for answers.

Any victim of a disaster, indeed, anybody who experiences such an incident, is naturally filled with intense emotions. Even long after the trauma most people are still upset, anxious, sad, or angry, while others even become depressed. Therefore, they can neither think straight nor find any meaningful explanations for events. Even if they were to ask questions, it would not be possible to find any immediate answers. As a reaction, they try to find someone to blame for the situation, so that there is a target for their emotions.

It is at this point that the technical or social engineers of “the modern magicians” come on stage and make the real picture disappear by transforming it into another image. People who were looking at the screaming children or listening to the cries for help a day ago no longer see or hear such things. People who were searching for the responsible parties and who were trying to discover the truth behind all the noise, stop and search no more. The social engineers smoothly direct the attention and emotions of the general public to something else, convincing them that the source of the problem has been located; there are no more investigations. Whether that which has been selected is really responsible for whatever has happened is not really important. Rather, now what is to be done is to take appropriate action.

This is what happened to our grandfathers at the beginning of the twentieth century, or during “the turn” of World War I. By no means was the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand the sole trigger for the conflict; for some reason (!), the war plans (German Schlieffen Plan, French Plan XVII, Austria-Hungary’s Plan B and Russia’s Plan 19) had already been engineered long before 1914.

Similarly, in “the turn” of World War II, the invasion of Poland and the Sino-Japanese war led to a global conflict that split a majority of the world’s nations into two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. Whatever the war plans that had been engineered on the two sides before the 1940s were, it was not long before more than twenty countries started fighting one another; after six years, World War II, which had spanned much of the globe, resulted in the deaths of over fifty million people, making it the deadliest conflict in human history. God knows whether justice was delivered in the end or not.

The “magicians” of that time, maneuvering the war as they wished, used every trick including, but not limited to, thousands of armored vehicles, hundreds of bombers, submarines, and finally the atom bomb, to change the direction of the war. Like in the movie “The Prestige,” some say they used the methods of Nikola Tesla, and tried to make huge objects literally disappear (the alleged Philadelphia Experiment ), and sometimes they managed to do so, but in rather more costly and deadly ways (the Manhattan Project ).

In “the turn” of 9/11 attacks, Iraq was invaded due to the allegation of weapons of mass destruction being hidden by Saddam Hussein and his connections to Al Qaeda leaders. Since this invasion, there have been some claims that the terrorist attacks and allegations were a “turn” to pave the way for a new era in human history. Let us first take a look at the third act of the aforementioned wars.

And The Prestige

The prestige, the third act, of World War I could be characterized as “New Imperialism” or “ethnic nationalism.” New imperialism was distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed “empire for empire’s sake.” This consisted of aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence of jingoistic doctrines in colonizing countries that denigrated the ability of the subjugated people to carry out self-government. In reaction to this, ethnic nationalism became popular in such colonies, sometimes in the form of nation-states, sometimes in extreme forms like ethnic cleansing. In the end, it would not be unfair to say that “the prestige” of World War I was very different from what had been intended.

The prestige of World War II can be depicted as post-colonialism or liberal institutionalism, both found in the discourse of Cold War. The former dealt with matters of the cultural identity of the colonized societies, whereas the latter suggested that with the right factors, the international system could provide opportunities for cooperation and interaction. Many nations in the Middle East or the Far East experienced identity problems, and in some cases these issues evolved into new crises or even civil wars. Opposing camps were maintained throughout the Cold War, with some different allies or enemies, and more deadly weapons were built. The idealism of liberal international institutions did not help much, because alternative blocks were formed in the opposing camps and this only accelerated the race to dominate one another in different power domains. Again, “the prestige” of World War II was very different than the intentions that had formed in people’s minds.

What is more interesting is that, within the causality of international relations, “the prestige” of one war became “the pledge” of the following. The nation-states or ethnic cleansing that appeared in the aftermath of WWI evolved into WWII, and the liberal institutionalism of post-WWII era has now evolved into a global war on terror. As part of the ramifications of liberal institutionalism, if states are unable to cooperate then they are curbed, with either economic or military actions. The future remains uncertain in many aspects with regards to the power struggle in the world.

In The End

All in all, the main question still remains: Are the magicians of our time achieving “the prestige” they have been creating for so long? Have we yet observed a third act which deserves our applause? I seriously doubt it. All the magic tricks they have used neither justify the means nor have they brought any prestige. For the most part they have even lost what is left of the global prestige they had. But the social engineers still keep fueling the fire with their self-fulfilling prophecies of a “clash of civilizations” and an inevitable Armageddon.

Obviously, this never-ending rivalry among modern magicians cannot bring any good to any state or nation, including those who are in control of it. The intelligence and the engineers of these magicians could very well use more productive ways to promote liberal democracy and build alliances among different nations.

There have indeed been ongoing efforts for the “alliance” or “dialogue of civilizations,” which has actually been discussed many times in this magazine, The Fountain. In two such articles, the necessity for dialogue is emphasized with evidence from religious texts given, as well as quotes from modern philosophers, and the conclusion drawn is that dialogue among people from different walks of life is inevitable. Sooner rather than later we have to learn to live together on this unique planet and share its resources with respect and compassion for all. “Even though compassion and hatred are both present as realities in this world, it is indeed compassion that is the essence of all existence. Were it not for compassion as the essence of creation, human beings or any other thing would not have come into existence nor would they remain in existence.”

In order to achieve this compassion, everyone, not only modern magicians, has to make a paradigm shift in our minds and hearts, because, as Einstein eloquently put it, “The real problem is in the hearts and minds of men. It is easier to denature plutonium than to denature the evil spirit of man.” He is probably right that such a task is harder than splitting an atom, but surely, it is worth pursuing.

Veli Keskin is a freelance writer living in Maryland, USA.

Notes

1. This quote is taken from the script of the film The Prestige, written and directed by Christopher Nolan, adapted from Christopher Priest’s novel. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0482571/quotes
2. Plot Summary for “The Prestige”, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0482571/plotsummary
3. The Planning of the War, http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/plans.htm
4. The Philadelphia Experiment, http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq21-1.htm
5. The Manhattan Project, http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/index.htm
6. Salih Yucel. “The Necessity of Dialogue,” The Fountain, 2007, No. 57.
7. M. Fethullah Gulen. “The Necessity of Interfaith Dialogue,” The Fountain, 2000, No. 31.
8. M. Fethullah Gulen. “Compassion,” The Fountain, 2008, No. 63.

How does Islam view the idea of psychological projection developed by Freud? First of all, it is appropriate to highlight the writings of Said Nursi in which he tells the story of two travelers with different states in their hearts. One was serene and optimistic and viewed the world in positive ways while the other one was anxious and pessimistic, seeing the world as all negative. Both went to similar places, where ordinary lifestyles could be observed. The former one saw the place as beautiful with many good things existing there. However, it was different for the latter; wherever he looked he saw negative things.

According to Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, this difference of perspective between these two travelers is actually rooted in the state of their heart. The first traveler had no unnecessary anxiety in his heart; he was serene and content because he had relinquished all to God. He knew that whatever God had decided upon for him was best for him and he was never frightened of the future, because as long as he did the best he could, God would give him the best. Therefore, as a result, he had nothing to be depressed or worried about, as he knew that everything was taken care of by God.

The second traveler, however, had not put his trust in God enough to believe that everything was already under His management. He believed that he had the power to change things, but also believed that he did not have enough power to control everything, which in turn led to his insecurity and ego. In his heart, anxiety kept haunting him and he was worried about almost everything. As a result, in order to control his anxiety, he turned to drinking and other sins. When the two met, the first one commented that the second had perceived of everything in a negative light because he had no certainty in his heart.

There is one difference in the concept of psychological projection as coined by Freud and that from the Islamic perspective. For Freud, psychological projection happens when someone needs to suppress their negative thoughts or feelings. Considering the examples given above, lying and stealing are bad deeds and the feelings of guilt are that which the doer desires to repress. However, in Islam, projection can happen with both positive and negative feelings, as explained metaphorically by Bediuzzaman Said Nursi in his book.

Projection of this kind from an Islamic point of view can be related to a hadith regarding the heart, “…In the body, there is a piece of flesh. If it is good, the whole body is good, and if it is bad, the whole body is bad; truly, it is the heart.” This hadith underlines the importance of having a good heart to reflect well on the outer world. To apply this to the story of the two men, an insincere, insecure, worried heart reflects the similar world for the second man, while the contrary is true for the first man.

Realizing this aspect of the human psyche makes an impact on Muslims as preachers. Technically, all Muslims are in some way a preacher, regardless of their professions. Be they an engineer, educator, psychologist, policeman or officer, these professionals are entrusted by God to enjoin the good and forbid the bad. Being a good preacher might require us to filter our thoughts from unnecessary projections to those we are preaching. For example, a good Muslim psychologist who works as a counselor, and who also happens to be a single parent, must not perceive his or her client from his or her own point of view. This includes not jumping to conclusions too soon, for example, saying the client is lonely (as he or she feels, as a single parent) and deciding that all the problems of the client are rooted in loneliness. A good preacher must understand the nature and background of the audience and make an analysis that is as objective as possible.

Another impact of projection is the importance of cleansing the heart in order to construct a more optimistic view of the world. Al-Ghazali emphasizes the effectiveness of remembrance of God as a way to cleanse the heart. Performing additional forms of worships, in addition to the obligatory ones, can be a good way to make remembrance of God, for example, uttering istighfar (repentant supplication) before sleeping and engaging in self-supervision, or muraqaba. Cleansing of the heart can help a person have a more positive light in viewing this world, thus allowing more room for improvements and more opportunity to achieve something greater in life.

Psychological projection also gives us an understanding about how others might make criticisms based on their state of heart. This is important to note, because sometimes people easily succumb to the poison of criticism and cease performing correct actions merely because they are blinded by this criticism. For instance, a man is told by his friend that his good appearance when going to mosque will make others say something bad about him, because others might envy him. However, the second man’s statement may just reflect his own envy towards the first man’s good appearance. If the first man succumbs to the statement, he will try to worsen his appearance, despite the fact that we are encouraged to dress nicely when going to the mosque. By being aware of the existence of psychological projection, the first man can be more objective towards the “advice” of the second man and analyze it in the best way.

To benefit from understanding the nature of projection, we can go back to the story told by Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. From this story, we can learn that projection can be both good and bad for the self. The heart, as the core of the self, can project serenity, confidence and many other positive feelings onto real life, if it has been cleansed and is pure and reflective of the line of the religious prescriptions. A positive state of heart can be very important to lead us further and it can make it easier for us to worship God. However, if the heart is negative, this can be bad as it will project whatever negative thoughts and feelings a person has. This insecure state of heart can lead to other sins, such as drinking or other problems that are rife in today’s society.

Once again we need to emphasize that understanding projection is important for us as people, because all believers are preachers. Whether we are to help others or only ourselves, pensive reflection on our backgrounds and assessments of our lives can be made to ascertain the state of our heart, and this in turn will make it more effective in helping others. Therefore, as we can see, understanding the real nature of our feelings and thoughts can be very helpful in developing ourselves.

Taufik Mohammad, PhD, is a senior lecturer in Universiti Sains Malaysia.

References

• Reported by Bukhari and Muslim with the authority of al-Numan bin Basheer. The Hadith Software, version 1.0, Islamasoft Solutions, 2002.
• Said Nursi, The Words, NJ: The Light, Inc. 2005.

We have a book written in golden letters lying in front of us. The decoration of the pages is attractive and impressive.. the small diamonds that are spread out over the pages are so shiny.. the cover is attractive.. the pages are velvety like a rose.. the colors are lively and bright.. the letters have been written by a talented calligrapher and are so harmonious; each one is a work of art.. While one may be interested in the book and its material another will find understanding what has been written and its content more compelling…

We recognize and perceive that which exists and evaluate that which is happening around us by using our natural senses, intelligence, and experience; as a result we are able to make inferences about the world through methods of deduction or induction. Positivism claims that the only true and valid knowledge is that which is based on actual sensual experience. According to materialism, the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is matter. In general, in analyzing matter and physical phenomena the deterministic approach is employed; all events are thought to be unavoidable consequences of the preceding sufficient causes. Sometimes the deterministic descriptions and formulations may end up in chaos. Chaos theory deals with the chaotic character of such formulations qualitatively. The quantum theory could also be interpreted as a deterministic tool that describes physical phenomena, more specifically, the behavior of matter and energy, within a range of probabilistic likelihood.

Some philosophers tend to include other factors in the cognitive faculties and the means that shape human perception and cognition: for example, emotions and intuition (e.g. Kant, Bergson). This apparently is a diversion from materialism and the deterministic point of view. The human being is not only an elegant combination of atoms; we also have a part that is not a function of matter or time: and this is the soul. If we restrict ourselves only to the natural senses and matter, as the positivist and materialist approaches do, then severe limitations on human perception are imposed, as demonstrated below. In general, it is not possible to perceive the truth completely without using all of one’s cognitive faculties. The question is then, how can a new program of reasoning be systematized to combine the senses and mind along with the emotions and intuition in a coherent manner? This novel program, which is called qualitative inference, is defined in this article using examples; however, first there is a brief introduction to a related topic, known as qualitative reasoning.

Qualitative reasoning is a relatively new approach in the estimation of possible solutions to real-world problems through non-quantitative reasoning. This approach provides a program to reason about the behavior of physical systems, such as the physiology of the human body, automobiles, etc., especially in the case of inexact or incomplete data, or when there is a lack of the precise quantitative information that is required by conventional methods. Qualitative models are more able to express states of incomplete knowledge about continuous mechanisms than traditional models which have been developed for the analysis of physical phenomena, as the former guarantees the ability to find all possible behaviors consistent with the knowledge in the model.

To get a flavor of what is meant by qualitative reasoning, consider this everyday scenario: You are confronted with a water-filled pan on a lit stove. You can easily predict that the pan will warm up, which will warm the water. At some point, the water will start to boil, and the pan might eventually become empty. To make these predictions, the exact values of the variables involved, such as the amount of water, the temperatures of the stove and the water, or the boiling temperature need not be known.

Observing pouring rain and a river’s steadily rising water level is sufficient to make a prudent person take measures against possible flooding-without knowing the exact water level, the rate of change, or the time the river might flood.

Qualitative inference is a program of qualitative reasoning that extends inference to the non-physical aspects of physical information, including reason, the relation between subjects and objects, etc. The universe itself is a great set of information, but this may not be exact or complete enough for metaphysical inductions. Needless to say, any such possible inductions should be consistent with known physical information. Consequently, in qualitative inference, the two key points we are referring to, namely the use of incomplete or inexact data and consistency with physical knowledge, are crucial.

While the deterministic approach could be considered to be the interpolation of existing physical knowledge and information in order to justify what is known or to discover what is unknown, qualitative inference can provide a tool for the extrapolation of existing physical knowledge and information. It can be used to reach what is unknown, physically unobservable, or even impossible to validate, regenerate, repeat, comprehend, or completely embrace by using standard scientific techniques.

Qualitative inference

With some examples we will explain how qualitative inference can be applied to everyday, real life experiences for inferences and inductions that are beyond our physical world.

A coincidence or a gift?

Let us take the example of a package sent to a person in the mail. Let us specify that it is a shirt. Let us further specify that the color of the shirt is the favorite color of the receiver, it fits him very well, the design is his preference, and the brand and the fabric of the shirt are those that he generally chooses. Based on this information, as it is incomplete, it would be difficult to answer questions about the possible relationship between the sender and receiver, the purpose of this shipment, etc. from a positivist or deterministic point of view. Through qualitative inference one could conclude, however, that the sender is someone who knows and is close to the receiver, who would like to please him likely because the sender likes him, and that the shirt has been mailed as a gift. This inference is obviously consistent with the known information. If we were to exclude the sense of love, enjoyment, pleasure, and closeness between two people it would not be possible to make these conclusions.

The apple

The apple is one of the most abundant types of fruit on the earth. “An apple a day keeps the doctor away,” goes an old saying. Doctors in modern times agree that the apple is important as a nutrient. An apple with its skin includes about 4 grams of dietary fibers. Potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and selenium are minerals that can be found in an apple in different amounts. It also contains small amounts of iron, manganese, copper and zinc. The vitamins contained in an apple include vitamins A, C, E, and folic acid, which is an important nutrient during pregnancy. While eating an apple, one also strengthens the gingiva gums often without being aware that this is happening. The different colors of apples are very pleasant, as are their smell. How many artists have used the apple as their subject, due to its compelling beauty? It leaves a pleasant taste on the tongue and in the mouth. Many cuisines would be severely handicapped without the apple as an ingredient. The size is just right to grasp in the hand, and its flesh is succulent to bite. Different types of apples give the feeling of experiencing a new thing, yet remaining within the limits of our acquaintance. Apples are attractive and important sources of nutrients for animals as well. There is so much more to say about the apple and its importance to human and animal life, about how it is a very good source of nutrients that matches our needs, and addresses our tastes and pleasures.

With this information, the positivist perspective looks at the apple itself, its attributes, nutritional value, material properties, as well as the physical functions of the human being, and their need for the nutrients that are naturally included in the apple. This physical information, although valuable, is incomplete in understanding the perfect correlation between not only the need of the human being, but also our sense of taste and the apple, as we have briefly summarized above. Through qualitative inference, however, one could conclude that apple is a gift not only to the human being, but to most other living creatures, much like the shirt that was sent as a gift in the example above. This conclusion does not include any contradictions with the known, but incomplete, physical information. Although the sender of this gift is not known, one can infer that such a being exists and this being knows the human very well and is able to make and send this gift via the trees; this being possibly likes human beings and others who benefit from the apple, and likes to please them. However, without reference to the senses of love, enjoyment, and pleasure, it would not be possible to derive such conclusions.

Robot vs. mother

Now, we will consider another event, that in which a mother prepares food for her child. If she is feeding the baby with a formula, the steps she is likely to follow are sterilizing the bottle, boiling the water, refrigerating the water or waiting for the water to reach the appropriate temperature to mix the formula with the water, and stirring it carefully and thoroughly to make this a pleasant experience for her baby. From time to time, the order, attention of the mother, and duration of the steps may change without a clear difference in the underlying conditions. If one were to study this case scientifically, from a positivist perspective, then one would study the temperature of the water, the hygiene of the bottle, the actions of the mother, etc. for some possible inferences. But, these would be far from being a complete account of the situation and cannot reflect the entire picture or truth. The main point that a prudent person can derive from these scenes is clearly the mercy, compassion, and love of the mother towards her baby. This is the fact and main motivation that ensures that the mother take the actions mentioned above voluntarily, willingly, carefully, and repeatedly.

The Earth’s circulatory system

With this example in mind, let’s now review what we learned in high school about the earth’s circulatory system, a wonderful mechanism that purifies, cleans, and processes the water, the most important factor of the life. Human beings can survive for only a few days without water. Water is stored under the ground in natural reservoirs, whose formation alone is the topic for a series of scientific articles. Although the temperature increases as one approaches the center of the earth, sometimes the water comes to the surface at very cold temperatures; such cold clear water is the most desired substance on a hot, sunny day. Rain drops in their natural form are pure water and do not have a pleasant taste. These rain drops and the water used by people or animals is processed, that is, the water is cleaned, filtrated, and purified under ground. Minerals essential to human and animal life and some chemicals that naturally exist in the soil mix with the water. The addition of all these substances is good not only for the water’s nutritional value, but also creates a more pleasant taste. It is with these constituents that water becomes an essential nutrient for human beings and animals. Some of these additions are fluorine that strengthens the bones, fluoride, which is beneficial in low concentrations, sodium, potassium, and chloride, all of which play a role in the metabolism of the body. When the water comes to the surface as hot water, it can be used as a treatment for some diseases. The water is not processed only under the ground, as we have described here, but surface water is also atomized for the ultimate purification. When water evaporates, the vapor rises to a certain location in the atmosphere, accumulates there and forms clouds (which are a subject matter for poets, due to their beauty, especially when they appear on a sunny day). When water is condensed and catalyzed by the wind, the vapor returns to the earth as rain drops to complete the cycle.

Each step in the mechanism of circulatory system mentioned above can be analyzed scientifically, from a positivist perspective, to attain useful and important information. On the other hand, these results will never allow us to make inferences about the reason behind the perfect correlation between the needs of human beings and other living creatures and the availability of water in its most useful form as an essential nutrient with a pleasant taste, or the continuous availability of clean, fresh water for the living creatures who have no control over never-failing mechanism of the circulatory system, or the availability of water with the perfect chemical combination that allows coexistence of water in three different physical forms (ice, water, and vapor). On the other hand, using such incomplete physical information, namely the perfect match between the nature, properties, and availability of water, and the needs, the sense of taste of living creatures, a sensible person could easily infer that there is a hidden mercy and compassion acting behind the scenes, just as with the case of the mother preparing food for her baby. Without this qualitative inference, which is consistent with the known physical information and refers further to the sense of mercy and compassion, the entire picture of this phenomena and the truth can never be captured, regardless of scientific developments, the technology used in labs, or the computer systems that can carry out extremely complicated computations.

Conclusion

Qualitative inference leads us to arrive at conclusions about the non-physical or metaphysical aspects of physical phenomena. This program of reasoning considers physical phenomena and the universe as an incomplete source of information for understanding the metaphysical aspects of the physical world, helps us to make inferences that are consistent with this incomplete physical information, and to use all our cognitive faculties, including intelligence, senses, intuition, and even emotions, to arrive at non-physical inferences. Qualitative inference leads one to consider the apple as a gift and the availability of the fresh water through the natural water cycle as an indication of universal compassion and mercy for all living creatures; no living creature would be able to carry out such a process on their own. Without this reasoning, as exemplified above, only a very limited portion of natural phenomena can be understood sufficiently; the main points will always be missing or overlooked.

Through the same program of reasoning, a gift necessitates a loving sender, universal compassion and mercy requires a being that is compassionate and merciful. Just like the case studies presented above, all real life events have similar messages that can be understood by those who do not restrict themselves to physical nature. All physical events, for example, indicate a universal consciousness that implies the existence of someone who is conscious of everything. Such a being should be able to do all these things according to His will, so He is All Mighty… These examples shed light onto some of His attributes, such as His mercy, compassion, will, might, and consciousness. When other phenomena are analyzed in a similar manner, one can discover other essential attributes of this Supreme Being. As a result, qualitative reasoning not only proves the existence of the Supreme Being, it provides a useful tool in understanding His attributes.

Similarly, the rebirth of trees, insects, and the earth as a whole every spring after their death in the winter is a physical phenomena that we have all experienced. This information, through qualitative inference, can lead us to understand the Hereafter, that is, the resurrection of all human beings in another world. All the attributes of the Supreme Being mentioned above also support this inference. Mercy cannot be absolute and universal, for example, if the oppressed people and tyranny are treated the same; unfortunately, this is what seems to be happening in this world.

In brief, positivist and materialist approaches impose severe limitations on human perception. In reality, all the cognitive faculties of the human being play roles in our evaluation of our being, our position and role in this world, and our relation to others. The truth can only be obtained by a person through the systematic use of all such faculties. Qualitative inference suggests a program for doing so. While the positivist approach puts mankind into the position of being an observer of the things they can touch or see by invalidating all other sources of knowledge, qualitative inference allows one to address the non-physical or metaphysical aspects of the physical phenomena by freeing all of our cognitive faculties, and in particular allows to be a believer while observing the universe in a similar manner.

Adam forgot, so did his children.

How does our brain store information? How is it possible to make learning faster and easier? Is there any way not to forget what we have learned and to remember things more easily? Of what importance is the fact that information is never deleted from our memory, even if we have forgotten it? These are among many of the questions for which answers have been sought over the years.

Memory is one of the functions of the brain and it is defined as the ability to preserve acquired information consciously and relate it to the past. It is not just a certain portion of the brain, but rather the entire organ that functions in storing, processing, and retrieving external and internal signals. Signals that build up our memory are what we usually perceive through our five senses. When we burn our hand, or see or experience a traffic accident , when we are given a compliment and many other events are all examples of external signals, whereas internal signals are related to our nervous system or imagination. The pain one feels during a heart attack, the anxiety of a cold sweat, or a beautiful daydream are all stored in our memory too. We may or may not remember them. There is no deletion; it is simply that we do not remember. Forgetting is a state that is encoded in our makeup with differing degrees, depending on the kind of life the person has experienced. Age, gender, stress, habits, and illnesses all have varying roles in forgetting.

Short-term memory

Short-term memory refers to saving and remembering what we have learned a few seconds or minutes ago; the prefrontal brain is the location for this temporary processing. Signals are kept in this portion of the brain for a few seconds and then conveyed to the back stage (as in the transfer of data from the cache memory to the main memory in computers). We tend to quickly forget those things on which we have not spent a long time or to which we have not assigned great importance, even though we can understand them. Imagine how unbearable our life would be if we were to store in our memories and remember things in infinite detail like the color of the wall we are facing, the variety of the objects around us and their qualities, the air we breathe in and out, or every beat of our heart. The signals that come to our brain within a certain time frame are filtered according to our needs and their significance and limitations are applied depending on their qualities and quantities.

There is no consolidation processing for short term memory. Second or minutes after signals are received they are retrieved in accordance with what we need; if they are insignificant for us, they are forgotten in the same amount of time. The information that is significant for the person is consolidated in the hippocampus and reserved in mid and long-term memory units.

Mid and long term memory

After being processed in the sub-cortex (limbic system) of the brain, signals are saved. Depending on their level of urgency, the meaning they stand for, and their emotional effect, signals are saved in either the mid or long term memory. Pain, joy, pleasure, and fear are states that solidify memory traces. A heart attack, the infliction of wounds and bruises or humiliation, accidents, visits from a loved one-these are all examples of events that are easily remembered. However, a lasting record is almost impossible to attain if the subject is something that has been forced (like a student studying for higher marks) or if the subject does not appeal at all. Consolidation is necessary to make a short term memory a lasting one. However, if a student is curious about the subject and enjoys what he or she is learning, then long term memory is possible without too much effort in consolidation. Forced consolidation (e.g. a student’s orientation to attain higher marks) requires a longer period. The information is consolidated more easily when a person is in a sound and alert state of mind.

Storage in the long-term memory does not occur immediately after something has been learned or experienced. For this storage to be possible at least an hour needs to pass to synthesize the memory proteins that are responsible for recording. If electric shock is applied to a person’s brain immediately after an unforgettable event, they will not be able to remember the event. But if the electric shock is applied an hour later, the memory remains.

Once stored in long-term memory, information can be retrieved, even after months or years. When new information is obtained older information is called up and they are saved with a new pattern of storage, with the newcomers being related with the ones that have already been stored; it is in this way that long term memory is generated.

It has been argued that RNA has a role in storing old information. In experiments, guinea pigs were taught information through repeated practice which is stored in their long term memory. The brains of these animals were later minced up and fed to other animals. It was observed that those animals which had been fed the brains learned faster and more easily than other animals that had been fed on a diet that did not include the brains. This shows us that information encoded in the memory is not lost; rather it is transferred with the help of certain molecules. It is also known that DNA is related to genetic memory.

It has been found that people with good memories have a greater number of nerve cells and channels of transfer in the memory-related zones of their brains (cortex, corpus callosum, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, amygdale, temporal lobe, and prefrontal cortex), while there are less cells in other zones of the brain. Nerve cells are stimulated while signals are stored in one’s memory. Even if a person has a weak memory, activities like reading, memorization, or other engagements that improve love, happiness, and peace of mind may help long-term memory.

Forgetfulness

It is important to find out whether forgetfulness occurs because of an illness or something else. Age is one major factor. Forgetfulness in an aging person is proportionate to the number of the loss of cells.

Stress, dealing with multiple things all at once, or occupying oneself with things that are of no benefit, that is, creating a pollution of information, all affect short term memory and may cause forgetfulness.

Forgetfulness due to damage or illness

If the nerve cells of the lower occipital lobe of the brain are damaged, old information cannot be retrieved. Likewise, in case of damage to the nerve cells that are found in the temporal lobes on the sides of the brain, or due to an insufficient intake of B3 and B12 vitamins, cerebral hemorrhage or an embolism in the veins of the memory zones forgetfulness may occur.

Patients with Alzheimer indicate short term memory loss. They tend to forget visitors’ names, daily events, or the doctor’s advice.

Chronic alcohol abuse may cause damage in the hippocampus and thus in the ability to encode information.

Electroshock may also delete recent information that has been recorded in the short-term memory. Thyroid failure, Parkinson’s, hydrocephaly, schizophrenia, brain tumors, and epilepsy may also cause forgetfulness.

Some advice

Spiritual teachings and religious services have many positive aspects in our lives in addition to being our duties for expressing our servanthood to God Almighty. In Islam, for instance, principles like “enjoining good and forbidding evil,” praying at night, a brief afternoon nap, staying away from what is forbidden, reading and/or memorizing the Qur’an, and other activities may provide some protection against forgetfulness.

It is also claimed that keeping oneself busy with things that are considered morally improper, not least things that are sexually provocative in an illegitimate way, may damage neurons that are operative in memory. In order to be less affected by forgetfulness in our advanced years, it can be helpful to read spiritually and intellectually useful material, to learn and memorize new words and concepts, to keep oneself in good moral condition by engaging in charity work and helping others, and to maintain good sleep and a healthy diet

On the other hand, thinking a bit more wisely, to be able to forget (not forgetfulness) also has many benefits. Our nervous system is relaxed by forgetting, otherwise it might collapse. Forgetting old informa¬tion could well open up room for new information, although this does not mean that the information is deleted from memory; it is retrieved when needed. But, if forgetting reaches a level that is above medically ex¬pected averages, then medical help should be sought.

There are incidents of patients who are suffering from dementia and Alzheimer regaining their memory after electroshock therapy. Perhaps this is evidence that we will remember and testify for all our actions when we will have to account for them.

The lead article in this edition describes how a believer is expected to respond in difficult times. Storms are temporal and breezes are eternal in Gulen’s worldview, so thus believers “are neither shaken by the noise and clamor that is being intentionally made around” them, nor do they “panic in the face of the dust that envelopes us.” And for him, believers should trust in God, equip themselves with wisdom, and try to live up to their beliefs, God’s good pleasure, and distinct cultural values.

What would you do if terrorists installed a bomb somewhere in your city and they do not tell you how to defuse it? This is what is called “the ticking time-bomb scenario” and some people believe that under such circumstances torture is legitimate, if as a result the terrorist is forced to speak. Drawing on this scenario, Ayse Meva Nur provides an interesting discussion in this issue and she touches on human rights conventions and what Islam says about torture.

The intense rivalry between the magicians in the movie The Prestige was fatal. For Veli Keskin, the rivalry in the world stage between various power centers is as tragic as that which existed between the magicians; however, the global one has cost millions of lives. Keskin’s analogy has produced an eye-opening essay in which we find both the magicians on the stage in theatre and those on the political scene using similar techniques in shaping the perceptions of their audience.

Imagine you find a gift in your mail box one morning. It is a beautiful shirt perfectly suited to your taste. But who sent you this shirt? How did he or she know what your preferences were? Was the sender a man or a woman? With limited information it is not possible to discover the relationship between the sender and the receiver. But one can easily infer that the sender is someone who loves the receiver and wants to please the receiver. The former perspective, which is positivist, is not sufficient for explaining many things in our lives; but with qualitative inference we can reach some conclusions. Huseyin Coskun gives this and many other examples and explains how “qualitative inference allows one to address the non-physical or metaphysical aspects of the physical phenomena by freeing all of our cognitive faculties.”

1. Genes and inheritance
2. Obesity
3. Lack of exercise

The diagnosis of diabetes is described as a level of sugar that is above a certain amount in the blood stream. In fact, diabetes itself is the metabolic disorder of three food sources: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (Cholesterol and especially triglycerides). As healthcare providers we, doctors and scientists, are very much aware that the physiology-that is, the mechanism-of this wonderful sugar metabolism is one of many harmonies existent in the human body. While patients with diabetes seek help from us, our help is limited to what we have learned-and are still learning-from the human body. Thus, the medication we use today are not miracles, but rather a good example of understanding how one of the many mechanisms in body works.

Since the discovery of insulin in 1921, a hormone that is secreted from the pancreas and the only one to work at lowering the level of sugar in the body (several others increase the sugar level)-the development of treatments for diabetes has been focused on greatly in an effort to better serve humankind. Such developments include tiny, sharp needles and pens to deliver the insulin-known as insulin pens. Currently many alternative insulin delivery methods have been developed-via the skin or lungs-yet none of these are as successful as the human body’s normal program for dealing with a rise in the sugar during stressful conditions and after meals. Despite the incredible efforts and impressive studies carried out on both animals and humans, not every method of diabetes management (treatment) is suitable for every individual. Each person is unique regarding the capacity of their pancreas to generate insulin.

In the United States, more than 20 million people have diabetes; however this number is well below the actual number of sufferers. Having enough insulin is not the solution to the problem, while resistance to the action of this hormone can limit its efficacy leaving the glucose (sugar) level high. This further suppresses the pancreas’ ability to provide insulin and the remaining glucose becomes toxic to many vital organs, causing several of the following conditions:

• Heart (heart attack)

• Liver (fatty liver)

• Brain (stroke)

• Vessels (hardening of the arteries)

• Blood (easy clotting)

• Feet (gangrene and amputation)

• Immune system (suppression of the immune system, in turn leading to a tendency to infections, giving the opportunity of germs to invade various parts of the body; in the same way increase of tuberculosis bacteria, yeast infections, pneumonia)

• Skin (late healing after abrasions or trauma)

Excess sugar is converted into cholesterol which will further accelerate the detrimental effects to the vital organs (brain, heart, kidney).

Current suggestions for the management of the problem with sugar are education, better diets, correct and regular exercise, correct medication and careful follow-up. We know that God created cures for every illness. Respecting and thinking of this will encourage many of us to concentrate on solving the problem of diabetes. Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, indicates “Eat and drink, but never waste” and “Leave the food table before you are full.” The diet that is recommended for people with diabetes is to eat small amounts of food during the 3 main meals and to add 3 snacks to control the undesirable rise in sugar that occurs after eating a large amount. We are informed that we are full due to the induction of tension receptors in the stomach after the meal, the induction of the brain, and the digestion of food that leads to an increase in the level of sugar in the blood stream… etc. Unfortunately, most diabetics wait for the third mechanism to operate before leaving the table; as a result, they may continue to eat and further increase their blood sugar level, and this may in turn be the reason for early or late complications in diabetes.

Today, the greatest number of diabetics per population are the Pima Indians living in Arizona. Interestingly, a new molecule that has recently been developed seems to have a preventive efficacy for the development of diabetes and to assist in its satisfactory management, even after the diagnosis of diabetes. This molecule was actually found to be present in the saliva of Gila Monster again that is fairly close to the area where these affected tribes live.

Kelly J. Smith is a clinical diabetes research scientist in Arizona. 

By virtue of the light that faith and trust in the Absolute Truth emits within us, we are neither shaken by the noise and clamor that is being intentionally made around us, nor do we panic in the face of the dust that envelopes us. Instead, with this strength from the inner light, we are resolute in the face of the tyrant and any of the cruelties that befall upon us without cessation. For we are of those who hold trust in God and arm ourselves with wisdom; we are of those whose endeavor it is to aspire to spiritual zeal and God’s superior pleasure in every place while living up to our unique cultural values.

At the present time, with the dawn of every new day and the fresh blessings that are within-may the Hand of Power behind them be glorified-we, together with all believers, seem to be elevated to a realm that in its beauty contains pavilions of heaven, exquisiteness, and great beauty; this occurs after we have been cleansed from innumerable centuries of ancient fog and smoke that cover the entire world. The seething animosity, hatred, and raging wrath on our right or on our left does not concern us. So prevalent are these perpetual breezes within those most terrifying of blizzards, typhoons, and thunder storms, which are part of the commonplace events that go unnoticed, that they cause the weak at heart to despair; yet we march resolutely on. We stride towards those peaks of ideals that gleam with the radiant days dreamed of in our souls. Unswervingly we tread in the direction of our ancestors’ spiritual ambiance.

Gripping tightly with faith and active hope, we live with the belief that one day we will be revived as ourselves and we will stand on our own two feet. This hope to which we cling at all times has, in fact, left the windows for a new resurrection open. Even during merciless times and ruthless events, we have reserved our faith for those imminent and promised heavenly days. Lying behind our submission, surrender, and trust is the fact that we have given ourselves over to the Hand of Blessing, for He will transform both this world and the beyond into flawless abodes for us. We have arrived at the conviction that all good done in this world will flow into the vineyards and gardens in the realm that is beyond. In the face of the abundant favors which are bestowed upon believers, we always discern the divine messages and humbly rejoice at the indications of such Divine attention. We rejoice and are almost completely unaware of such severe dolor.

What is more, and this is not an overstatement, in the tasks in which we are employed and on the path on which we walk almost every one of us can hear the rhymes of the Hereafter, like beautiful poetry, echoing within the depths of our hearts. Although such sensations arise in proportion to the expanse of one’s inner world, nonetheless every believing soul can intuit these elevated ideals and esteemed reminiscences that were once a remarkable poem.

However, at times and under particular conditions such elation and literacy in the meaning of events may not be perceived. On occasion, due to our immaturity, we may even view our surroundings in a fog. Particular states of affairs may cause such murkiness, however, none of this is permanent; given that faith, surrender, and submission have penetrated our souls, then all of these shall come to pass; as they do, they will impart within us a renewed spirit of endurance. In fact, for people of this caliber of insight, life is experienced afresh every day-this is a kind of life which occasions as many unexpected events as it does ordinary ones, and each day presents laughter interspersing the laments, ecstasy follows upon agony, and permanent pleasures come with suffering.

On the horizon of the believer, the summer heralds revival in the same way that spring does, while autumn and winter paint sunsets with the color of dawn and deliver the glad tidings of resurrection. Thus is the course of these four seasons, which follow one another with unique promises of bliss in the ambiance of pure delight, enchantment, and relief. Each morning delivers the exhilaration of the revival, the days give rise to a different enjoyment to all, the evenings unwrap shutters of the realms beyond, and the nights swathe all things with such charm that the language of the soul can be decoded in the heart with each blessed hour. Every minute and each second sparks a light and holiness that melts even the coldest of hearts with the warmth of mercy.

In this spiritual atmosphere, who knows what ingenious reflections people contemplate in proportion to their capacity, what inarticulate things they murmur about realms unknown by many, in what profound visions they immerse themselves, and on what horizons of the beyond their sights are set. The moment these reflections take wing toward the heavenliness of the past, they roam in the sweetest dreams of the future and they garner a variety of things from the virgin garden of considerations that is connected to the realms beyond this world.

Yes, due to the two wings of faith and hope we are able to fly through infinity with our insight and affection. As we continue to strengthen our relationship with Him, time and again we are so aware of matters that exceed our imagination that it is as if we are being embraced by compassion from all four directions. Our ambience shimmers with otherworldliness and we regard our abode as the corridor to the Hereafter. This particular world, constructed in accordance and perception of our inner universe, transforms itself into an enchanted world that announces the luminosities that lie beyond. It is because of this boundless inner sight that our horizon never truly darkens in its entirety; even though the darkness may fall, layer upon layer, most of the time our spiritual sight shines powerfully with the gleams of the Hereafter. So long as we pay due diligence to where we are, making the best of the conditions in which we find ourselves, and set focus on our permanent horizon, we will never be destitute.

Dwelling with the marvels of His blessings, we can assuredly rely on “strong support” (Qur’an 11:80) and with such a point of recourse we can unwaveringly challenge the most gigantic waves that can confront us. On occasions though, certain times which appear to have veered off course and which are saturated with ruthless events may appear to impede our path and they can potentially dishearten some. Yet the storms or typhoons that come and clash with our bosoms will strengthen our immunity; they go as they come and leave behind numerous gifts that are manifest in the qualities that make us who we are. This is the way through which worries vanish and concerns are truly transformed into pleasures; “all praise belongs to God” replaces the moans and the events that occur around us start to shimmer with promises of imminent bliss.

Thus far, in accordance with such light, sparked by the faith and emitting from within, and the resulting hope that rests all its security upon the Absolute Truth, we have been able to perceive and evaluate everything in a manner of beauty and elation. Henceforth, with the same fervor of hope, we stand firm in our position and remain intact; our insight will discern everything through the same light. Hence now, O you unreceptive wind of hate and bitterness! Go and blow from any corner you please! Soon the Irresistible Power will surely pronounce to you “enough is enough O arrogant one, cease your snarling … cease now!”

Note

1. With the phrase “ominous days” the author is referring to the phrase “days of disaster,” found in the Qur’an, 41:16.

There are books that I have always kept within arm’s reach on my desk-books that I have enjoyed rereading over and over again, and from which I draw the strength, joy and peace of the heart. Many of the selections from the Mathnawi-the magnum opus of Rumi, the world-famous Sufi master and poetic genius-included in Tales from Rumi, were the first of his stories that I read in Turkish many years ago. Going back as far as I can remember, I was aware that I was reading stories from the celebrated Rumi, who lived and died centuries ago in the Seljuk Turks’ capital of Konya in the heart of Anatolia. Yet, I had no idea then that I was in touch with “world literature.”

I never thought that I was not reading the Mathnawi stories in their original language; instead, I read them in an abridged version in modern Turkish-a book that greatly broadened my perception of the world. I do not think that any of my peers had the language skills to read the original Persian, or even Ottoman Turkish, versions of the Mathnawi. Indeed, many of the world’s literary masterpieces are not read or offered in their original language, and except for a small subset of world literature, most works are unknown outside of their culture. Moreover, when they are translated and read beyond the author’s environment, they require so much local knowledge to be understood that they lose their flavor.

However, Rumi is one of the rare literary figures whose works have circulated beyond their culture of origin, either in translation or in their original language. Now, there are a substantial number of his works that are available in many languages. The Tughra Books has recently published Tales from Rumi, a selection of Rumi’s stories from the Mathnawi, which have been adapted for young readers. This collection of accessible and abridged tales makes the Mathnawi available in an attractive 130-page hardcover book in the English language. The range of stories is admirably broad; each tale in this collection-from “The Rabbit and the Lion” to “The Teacher’s Fear”-has a fascinating, action-packed plot and ends with a moral that reinforces the message. It is most likely that readers will come away with a burning desire to read more of Rumi. Its intended audience includes readers interested in exciting tales and in world literature, especially younger readers, who wish to eliminate barriers and to broaden their perspectives.

Recently, there has been a growing global perspective and the increased awareness of the need to expose children and teenagers to world literature and to broaden their understanding of the larger world. In this age of globalization, while acknowledging the cultural perspectives of Rumi’s stories, young readers will become better aware of the commonalities that exist across the boundaries of various cultures. The stories in Tales from Rumi are selected from among numerous stories in the Mathnawi, adapted and edited by Professor Ali Fuat Bilkan, and translated into English by Jeanette Squires Okur. The stories will provide an enjoyable avenue to this great work of world literature and will offer a truly global perspective for this age group as well.

I would like to especially point out the potential benefits of incorporating this world classic into a secondary education curriculum. Other than recommending it for a list of suggested reading at secondary education institutions, I think that this collection of selected and abridged translations of stories from Rumi’s world classic could also be successfully used in school character education programs, which focus on personal, social, and global dimensions. The classroom study of Tales from Rumi-in an explanatory manner, respectful of cultural and linguistic diversity-will offer teenage students excellent opportunities to discover similarities in values across geography, culture, and time. Rumi’s tales have a variety of vivid human or animal characters portrayed with all the character, wit, and failings of humans. The spectacular and amusing illustrations and snapshots throughout the book are also moving and meditative-bringing the tales to life.

Native and nonnative English readers can understand the virtues and vices of characters in the tales and draw important lessons by making use of their reasoning skills and their appreciation of the book’s enlightening and comprehensible morals. Indeed, there is always more to be found in all the tales when they are read and reread, told and retold, visited and revisited, and mediated upon. In this manner, the tales’ messages may reveal themselves variously at different stages of human development. The tales could provide younger readers with the key to a better understanding of the elements of a good character and provide them with an understanding of the universal traits of respect, modesty, generosity, and the need to learn from mistakes-wisdom that have been revered by the generations of the past and acknowledged by those in the present.

Tales from Rumi is surely a marvelous introduction to one of the best books of the world literature for the youth audience, readers who do not wish to be myopic but want to see more of the world and cross borders they have not yet crossed.

Huseyin Bingul is a staff editor of The Fountain.

Almost all of us are familiar with the fact that our bodily organs are composed of tissues, which are made of cells. The perfect machinery of the cells is controlled by our genes; i.e. DNA and RNA. Therefore, a minor defect or mutation in the genetic code may affect either partial or entire systems within the body. Some of these genetic diseases are inherited from our parents or relatives. Others may be introduced into our body through environmental mutagens, such as ionizing radiation, ultraviolet rays, or different chemicals within our food and drink; these can result in cancer or cardiovascular diseases. We can protect ourselves from the latter by using appropriate outfits, taking care with our diet, etc. However, inherited genetic disorders are usually unavoidable and sometimes have fatal consequences. Modern medicine is striving to find a way to treat these diseases. Although there are some medical procedures that may lessen the pain of patients or extend their life expectancy, there is no available comprehensive curative therapy for genetic disorders.

Gene therapy has become one of the rising stars in the field of molecular medicine during the last decade, with more than 1500 proposed or ongoing clinical trials worldwide. Gene therapy promises to provide curative therapies for a large number of inherited or acquired diseases, such as monogenic disorders, cancer, or cardiovascular disease. Gene therapy is universally defined as the replacement of an abnormal/dysfunctional gene in the cells of an individual with its correct and functional version. Mechanics use a number of tools to fix our cars for us when they give us trouble; in the same way, gene therapy can be used by doctors to alleviate or completely eradicate some diseases from our bodies.

Gene therapy is classified into two categories based on the target cells that are to be treated. The transduction of the differentiated cells of an individual, i.e. the somatic cells, is known as somatic gene therapy; the transduction of reproductive cells, i.e. gametes (sperm or ova), is known as germ-line gene therapy. Currently, there are many regulations in place that limit the likelihood of the modification of the germline in any gene therapy approach. This is because fear exists that the ability to alter the germline will result in the widespread application of gene therapy to achieve eugenic genetic enhancements, such as improvement of intelligence or physical characteristics. On the other hand, transgenic animals, which are used to detect the function of the genes within an organism, can be generated by modifying the germ-line. Furthermore, gene therapy is also classified into two groups: adult and fetal (in utero) gene therapy, according to the individual to be treated. There are several advantages and disadvantages to these methods, such as immune response, the pooling of mitotic cells, the amount of vector that is required, etc.; however, these are matters for a different article.

Gene therapy is achieved by using special exogenous genetic material transfer agents which are called vectors; these can be compared to the special tools used by auto mechanics. Over the years, a number of gene transfer vehicles, i.e. vectors, have been developed and these can be divided into two principal categories: non-viral (synthetic) and viral (virus-based) gene delivery systems.

Non-viral gene transfer can be achieved by using both physical and chemical methods. The physical methods include: i) Electroporation, in which areas of the cell membrane break down as result of an applied electric pulse, thus allowing DNA to enter the cell, ii) Ballistic gene transfer (the Gene Gun), which bombards particles coated with DNA into the cells, and iii) Microinjection, in which DNA is transferred through microcapillaries into the cells [1]. In terms of chemical gene transfer, lipofection is the most promising method; in this method negatively-charged DNA molecules bind to cationic lipid particles through electrostatic interaction and the DNA–lipid complex enters the cell through endocytosis/pinocytosis. Although these non-viral delivery systems exhibit low toxicity and can be easily produced in high concentrations on a commercial scale, in general, gene transfer using these agents is inefficient and often transient. Therefore, as a result of the viral vectors’ ability to efficiently deliver and integrate genes into the host genome, they are being engineered extensively to achieve a sustained and high-level expression of the gene of interest (transgene).

Viral vectors

Have you ever thought that one of the major pathological agents that cause catastrophic and even fatal diseases could be used to treat the same or a similar disease?

Viruses are equipped with specialized molecular mechanisms that allow them to efficiently transport the genomes into the cells they infect and use the cell’s machinery for their own reproduction. Molecular biologists first harnessed this machinery of transduction in the 1970s. Paul Berg used a modified SV40 virus containing DNA from the bacteriophage lambda to infect monkey kidney cells that were being maintained in culture. Viral delivery systems are based on replicating viruses that have the ability to deliver genetic information into the host cell, a process known as transduction [2]. Due to the fact that there are several advantages to viral vectors, these are the vehicles being employed in approximately 75% of all ongoing clinical trials worldwide. Numerous viruses are being used as the basis for the vectors, including, but not limited to, adenovirus (24%, n=377), retrovirus (20.9%, n=329), adeno-associated virus (4.3%, n=67), herpes simplex virus (3.2%, n=51), vaccinia virus (7.9%, n=124), poxvirus (5.8%, n=91), and baculovirus (more detailed information is available at www.wiley.co.uk/genmed/clinical). The first step to construct a viral vector for transferring the gene of interest involves the identification of the viral sequences that are necessary for replication and pathogenesis. Then some of the genes are removed to make room for the transgene and to render the viral vector replication-incompetent. Consequently, the vector is unable to replicate within the host, and therefore is safe for delivering genes to human cells or tissues (Figure 1).

There are advantages and disadvantages to all of the currently available vectors; the suitability of the vector, therefore, actually depends on the disease or condition that is being treated. For instance, if the goal of the gene therapy is to increase bone marrow engraftment with the transient expression of a growth factor, the use of chemical transfection or naked DNA transfer methods would suffice. However, if the objective is to provide long-term treatment for an inherited disease, then the use of an integrating viral vector is more desirable. Thus, a vector that might be ideal for treating one defect may not be ideal for another. Driven by the desire to develop the “perfect” vector, scientists are continually striving for novel forms of gene delivery that might become the “magic bullet.” Somia and Verma [3] have proposed that the ideal gene therapy vector should include all of the following properties: 1) easy production at a high titer on a commercial scale with a reasonable shelf-life for transport and distribution 2) sustained or regulated expression of the transgene product that is adjustable to the nature of the disease, 3) absence of immune response against the vector and the transgene product, 4) ability to target specific tissues and/or cell types while avoiding professional antigen-presenting cells, 5) absence of size limitations for the genetic material to be delivered by the vector, 6) site-specific integration of the transgene into the chromosome of the target cell to avoid insertional mutagenesis, or faithful division and segregation if it is to reside in the nucleus as an episome independent of local chromatin environments, and 7) an ability to infect dividing and post-mitotic cells. Unfortunately, none of the currently available gene delivery vectors carry all of these features; however, many vectors have enough of the attributes to make them promising for clinical use.

Candidate diseases

During the last 4 decades, gene therapy for many diseases has progressed from preclinical to clinical studies; these range from monogenic recessive disorders such as hemophilia and cystic fibrosis to more complex diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), neurological and ocular pathologies. The prevalence of diseases that fall under the scope of gene therapy is enormous and most of them have catastrophic or fatal outcomes. Therefore, gene therapy approach for almost any of the diseases mentioned above has an obvious appeal and rationale. To date, more than 1,540 gene therapy clinical trials have been initiated, and these are continuing or have been completed in 28 countries, using more than 100 genes, including antigens, cytokines, tumor suppressors, growth factors, and deficiency genes [4].

Candidate monogenic disorders that are considered to be good candidates for treatment by gene therapy include the hemoglobinopathies, X-linked genetic disorders, amino acid metabolism disorders, and lysosomal and other storage diseases. Currently, there are more than 4000 monogenic diseases registered in the OMIM database. The ultimate aim in treating monogenic diseases with gene therapy is the correction of the disorder by the stable transfer of the functioning gene into dividing cells (stem/progenitor cells), which will ensure the permanence of the correction [5]. The first recognized successful clinical gene therapy trial involved the treatment of 11 children who suffered from SCID-X1 (Severe Combined Immunodeficiency), an X-linked inherited monogenic disorder caused due to a mutation in the common cytokine receptor gamma chain (γc). In these patients, immunity was not fully developed due to the blocking of T-cell and natural killer cell development as a result of mutation. Unfortunately, the trial in SCID-X1 also exemplified one of the potentially serious side effects of gene therapy. Three of the children developed uncontrolled clonal T-cell proliferation, that is, leukemia, almost 3 years after treatment. This case was associated with the integration of the retroviral vector close to the promoter of the LMO-2 proto-oncogene. As a result, LMO-2 protein expression was up-regulated in an abnormal way and resulted in leukemia [7]. Another candidate monogenic disorder for gene therapy is cystic fibrosis (CF), in which abnormally thick mucus is produced in the lungs of the patients, causing difficulty in breathing and increasing the frequency of serious lung infections. CF is known as the most common inherited genetic disease in Europe and USA, especially within the Ashkenazi Jewish population. The average life expectancy of patients with CF is less than 40 years; hence the treatment of this disease has become one of the prime targets of gene therapy research.

In addition to its use in the treatment of monogenic diseases, gene therapy is also becoming a therapeutic alternative for the treatment of various forms of cancer. Indeed, almost 65% of ongoing clinical trials are related to cancer (more detailed information is available at www.wiley.co.uk/genmed/clinical), an area in which much more promise can be seen; this is also a reflection of the urgent need for new therapies to tackle the escalating incidence of this disease. Several different principles are used to treat cancer, including gene therapy that is targeted at tumor suppressor genes, such as p53, or central signaling molecules, as well as “suicide gene” therapy, in which the transgene is capable of converting pro-drugs (selectively less active drugs) into drugs that are toxic for tumor cells. Furthermore, various gene therapy protocols have been developed to strengthen the host’s anti-tumor immune responses by immunotherapy. Most of these studies have been early clinical trials designed primarily as studies of the safety, applicability, and toxicity of gene therapy. Several of these phase I and II studies have, however, shown partial remission of tumors and, in rare cases, complete remission. However, complete cure of the tumor has not yet been achieved. In some trials, including TP53 gene therapy trials, regression in tumor size has been observed in up to 50% of patients. China has become the first country to license gene therapy as a regular treatment for neck and head cancer; here Gendicine, a replication-defective Ad5 vector expressing p53 from a Rous sarcoma virus (RSV) promoter, is used for therapy [6].

In addition to its applications for cancer and monogenic diseases, gene therapy has become one of the favorite methods in cardiovascular research field. This is in step with the rise in clinical trials for cardiovascular gene therapy from 8.3% to 9.1% during the last few years, becoming the second most popular application for gene therapy. In accordance with the variety and occurrence of cardiovascular diseases, different gene therapy strategies have been developed to tackle each disease on its own terms. The expectation is that gene therapy will provide a new avenue for therapeutic applications in the growth of blood vessels, as well as the protection, regeneration, and repair of heart tissue, the prevention of the reoccurrence of constricted or narrowed arteries following cardiovascular intervention, the prevention of the rejection of a bypass, and risk-factor management [4]. Long-term therapeutic gene expression is required in some diseases, such as hypertension research, where reversal and prevention are the key targets. On the other hand, for some other types of cardiovascular diseases, such as ischemia, atherosclerosis, and restenosis, shorter-term gene control will be sufficient to prevent further progress of the symptoms. Therefore, different gene-therapy vectors have to be considered for the treatment of each specific cardiovascular disorder.

Consequently, gene therapy offers new avenues of treatment for diseases including monogenic disorders, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, infectious pathologies and many more. As we follow the tradition, “God did not send down any illness for which He did not also send a cure (Bukhari)”, gene therapy using either viral, non-viral, or any other novel methods may pave the way for the cure of many diseases that are highly prevalent in the world and which for decades have been perceived as untreatable.

Dr. Ferhat Ozturk is a postdoctoral research associate at University of Nebraska Medical Center.

References

1. Wells DJ. “Gene therapy progress and prospects: electroporation and other physical methods.” Gene Ther. 2004 Sep;11(18):1363-9.
2. Kootstra, N.A. and I.M. Verma, “Gene therapy with viral vectors.” Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 2003. 43: p. 413-39.
3. Somia, N. and I.M. Verma, “Gene therapy: trials and tribulations.” Nat Rev Genet, 2000. 1(2): p. 91-9.
4. Edelstein, M.L., M.R. Abedi, and J. Wixon, “Gene therapy clinical trials worldwide to 2007–an update. J Gene Med, 2007. 9(10): p. 833-42.
5. http://www.biomedisch.nl/en/gene_therapy_targeted_diseases.php
6. Peng, Z., “Current status of gendicine in China: recombinant human Ad-p53 agent for treatment of cancers.” Hum Gene Ther, 2005. 16(9): p. 1016-27.
7. Cavazzana-Calvo M, Fischer A, Gene therapy for severe combined immunodeficiency: are we there yet? J Clin Invest. 2007 June. 117(6):1456-65

One category of galaxies is the spiral; this is dependent on the galaxies’ appearance. The magnetic field of the Sun is also a spiral. Among many things that have a spiral form are the cochlea inside our ears, our navel cord, our fingerprints, the teeth of mammoths, elephant trunks, some spider webs, the horns of some goats, cluster of sunflowers, thousands of types of mollusks, the pattern in which subatomic particles move, plus many more examples. Grapevine shoots, ivy, some microorganisms, and the positioning of some leaves around their branches are in the form of a helix. Nature displays brilliant examples of spiral and helix forms over a wide spectrum, ranging from fossils to galaxies. Below we will discuss some of them:

The Archimedean spiral

Named after its discoverer, this spiral is the geometrical location of a point which moves across a line turning around a fixed point at the speed of q and with a straight angle (Figure 1). The equation for the polar coordinates is p=aq. The distances between the curves are equal. A good example of this type of spiral is the spider web constructed with equal distances from the center.

The Equiangular (Logarithmic) spiral

This spiral type was defined by Descartes in 1638. In an equiangular spiral, any line that crosses the center cuts through all coils of the curve (Figure 2). The equation for polar coordinates is Inr=a.q or r=ea.q. Sea shells and the shells of snails are formed with this spiral.

Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Ratio

The following numbers, the sequence of which is made by adding the last two numbers together, are known as Fibonacci numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, … In other words, each number is the sum of the preceding two numbers. Let us divide each number with the preceding one and write down the quotients:

1/1=1; 2/1=2; 3/2=1.5; 5/3=1.666…; 8/5=1.6; 13/8=1.625; 21/13=1.615…; 34/21=1.619…; 55/34=1.6176…; 89/55=1.618…

If we continue to divide in this way, we will reach a mathematical constant, i.e., 1,618034, which is known as the golden ratio (φ).

Let us now draw a new geometrical shape with the Fibonacci numbers. Next to a 1-unit side square put another square that has equal dimensions. Then add another square, this time equaling the sum of the sides of the previous two (2 units). As we continue to add new squares with double the units of the previous two we get what is called the Fibonacci or golden rectangle. When we draw an arc from one corner of this rectangle to an opposite corner and continue drawing through neighboring squares, as in Figure 3, we will get a spiral. A good example of this is the nautilus shell. The golden rectangle and the spiral is frequently used in fine arts, architecture, and technology.

The Helix

The space curves that coil around a cylinder and cut through its main axis at a right angle is called a cylindrical helix (Figure 4). An ivy plant climbs a tree in a helix, and a helix is the shortest distance to a certain height. The Selimiye Mosque, Edirne, Turkey, features one of the best examples of helices in architecture. The architect Sinan designed the minarets of this mosque with three balconies, which are reached via different stairs that have no connections between them.

The 3D Archimedean spiral and the Logarithmic spiral (Helico spirals)

Conical helices are the space curves that coil around a right cone and cut through its main axis at a right angle. Sea snails, or limpets, have this spiral shape (Figure 5).

Galaxies and hurricanes

Galaxies and hurricanes are also spiral in shape and they have some similar features. Sharing the Stamp of Unity, the law of which governs the entire universe, both galaxies and hurricanes are affected by major forces, like the force of gravity, angular momentum or rotation.

Spiral galaxies are divided into two categories: elliptical and barred spiral galaxies. Barred spiral galaxies have arms that extend away from the main core (Figure 6).

(As evidence for a people open to belief) We have assuredly set in the heaven great constellations, and We have made it (the heaven) beautiful for those beholding. (Hijr 15:16)

The Nautilus: A wonder of creation

The hard shell of the nautilus has a beautiful logarithmic spiral shape. Each coil is at a distance from the next at an increasing proportional distance, each coil is multiplied by a constant. The chambers in the shell are similar, but they widen in a geometric sequence. It is amazing that calcium carbonate, the material that makes up the shell, can accumulate in such a way so as to comply with this geometrical pattern. In this pattern, the nautilus occupies the least space that is possible, thus losing as little heat as possible. Architects have been inspired by the nautilus to produce designs to use the smallest possible space to contain the most possible room.

The Cochlea

The cochlea in our ears is like a double-ramp tunnel coiled upon itself. Etymologically, the word cochlea comes from a Greek word that means snail. The spiral shape of the cochlea reminds one of sea shells.

Horns

Horns of the sheep and goats have the shape logarithmic spiral; they grow in the form of helicoids, as if coiling around a cone.

The Rose

The leaves of a rose are lined up and shoot out in a spiral shape.

Spirals open for us gateways to thought in our efforts to explore the wisdom and beauty that have been set in motion in the universe and are constantly maintained. Spirals, like other living or non-living objects or beings around us, are exquisite works of art that point to the fact that nothing exists from coincidence. Looking through a telescope to a marvelous galaxy in outer space or examining a sea shell on the beach or holding a rose in the spring may become a rewarding act if we contemplate on their Fashioner, for such “contemplation for an hour is worth voluntary prayer for a year.”