Despite the extraordinary details, my story is quite ordinary. It is a story as quintessentially American as Henry Kissinger’s tale of arriving in New York after fleeing Nazi persecution or Madeleine Albright’s experience of seeking political asylum from the Czechoslovakian Communist Party. I was born in a Chicago hospital in the immediate days after my family fled Communist Vietnam on a 35-foot fishing boat. My mom gave me the nick-name “Nam-My,” literally “Vietnam-America” for being her first-American born child. Thus, I was different from the rest of the kids-simply by virtue of being born here. Unlike my siblings, whose early childhood memories consisted of eating plain rice with salt and hiding in underground shelters during bombings, I watched Rainbow Brite and Transformers before going to school every morning, ate Fruit Loops for breakfast, and had a regular supply of FDA-approved whole milk at my disposal- a luxury from the standpoint of my siblings who fled Vietnam with my parents in the early 1980s. My care-free childhood was like any other American kid – roller-skating madly up and down the two blocks outside of my house that made up my entire universe of a playground, playing Slip n’ Slide in my Latino neighborhood, fluent in Spanish slang phrases I did not know the equivalent to in English or Vietnamese, and catching fireflies at night on my porch. My childhood was bright and sunny and I had no idea at that time how different life would have been if it had not been for the heroic but excruciatingly difficult choice of one man out at sea nearly 30 years before: Captain Bell.

Captain Bell was a U.S. Navy captain aboard the USS Morton DD 948, an anti-submarine weapons destroyer ship deployed during the Vietnam War. His life intersected with mine on a warm day 100 miles into the South China Sea on June 9, 1982- the day he decided to defy the Navy’s orders not to pick up Vietnamese refugees. The orders he received to not pick up Vietnamese boat people made perfect sense: such practices would encourage people to continue risking their lives at sea to escape Vietnam. Yet, Captain Bell chose to defy these orders that day and through his single decision, I was born. After Captain Bell brought my family along with the other seventy other boat people to a Filipino refugee camp, my parents spent 8-9 months awaiting relocation to the United States. In the meantime, I must have been conceived because just days after leaving the refugee camp and arriving in the United States, I was born in Chicago without a single glimpse of this stormy chapter in my family’s history.

For as long as I can remember, mom went door-to-door in the freezing Chicago snow to clean homes and dad fixed bikes. Despite growing up in what later became a single parent household of four children with barely enough funds to rent someone’s basement to live in, I had always felt lucky to inherit all of the anecdotal stories my mother recounted of her life back in Vietnam. But just like many first-generation kids from an immigrant family, I struggled to figure out how to truly live up to my family’s expectations. Was I supposed to grow up and open a nail salon as 99% of the Vietnamese did in the United States? Was I supposed to do something more interesting with my life, something that would make my mother’s tumultuous journey here worth it? Should I spend my life fulfilling my filial duties to my family or go off on my own, become a self-made [wo]man and pull myself up by my own bootstraps? The burden of the past weighed heavily on my shoulders and I was desperate to find answers to my questions.

I searched far and near for answers, insight, and clues to unravel the past that I barely understood as a child. At 15 years old, I traveled and lived in Beijing hiking up the Great Wall of China and back down to the Yangtze River in search of any clues that would solve the mysteries of my past. In college, I lived in South Korea and stood at the edge of the demilitarized zone peering into North Korea to catch a glimpse of Communism at its best. Throughout my adventures, my family’s story motivated me to overcome poverty and racial discrimination in Chicago’s inner city, graduate cum laude from Northwestern University, and become the first in my family to attend law school. The stark contrast between my privileged life and that of my relatives left behind in Vietnam motivated me to later work with Vietnamese sex trafficking victims in Taiwan and to attend law school to continuing helping the most vulnerable segments of our society. From conception in a Filipino refugee tent to becoming the first attorney in my entire family lineage, I realize now that I would not be here at all had it not been for Captain Bell’s decision, a decision which altered the trajectory of many lives out at sea that day.

Most recently, this investigative process of piecing together my family history has helped me uncover the most valuable treasure I ever expected to find: Captain Bell himself. A casual internet search led me to discover that Captain Bell is still alive and living in sunny California. I recently emailed him to introduce myself as the product of his heroic decision in 1982. Nearly 28 years later through finding Captain Bell and uncovering more facts about what happened that day out at sea, I am discovering how much of a difference one person can make with even just one decision. My mother took a leap of faith by risking her life and fleeing Vietnam so that she would not have to live in a society without choices. Captain Bell defied orders to save a group of complete strangers in need. Suddenly, I realized that Captain Bell’s rescue story was not just another one of my mother’s Vietnam War stories of the past. Captain Bell was alive and by taking my own leap of faith, I could meet this man who caused my life be possible and now make his story a part of my own.

With only 72 hours left to live, the only conceivable way to spend my time would be with the two superheroes who literally and figuratively opened me the doors of life: my mom and Captain Bell. As a single mother of four-children and a hard-working nurse now in her fifties, my mom spends all day and night taking care of sick people. She deserves the world and has dreamed of visiting the hometown she left behind in North Vietnam in the 1970s. I would book First-class tickets to Vietnam to tour the town she left more than 40 years ago and has not had the time nor funds to return. The best part of this trip would be that it could allow me to spend meaningful time with my mom, writing down the tremendous war stories she’s lived through, using my art skills to draw a life-size portrait of the survivors aboard the USS Morton DD 948 on that day of their rescue, and passing my family history down to the next generation of Vietnamese-Americans. Next, I would give Captain Bell a ring and invite him to travel with me to see Vietnam, which has changed completely from the dark memories he likely remembers from fighting the Viet Cong during the war. I would organize a worldwide reunion for all of the ship-mates, refugees, and families connected to the USS Morton. The seventy Vietnamese boat people Captain Bell saved in 1982 and their children, grandchildren, maybe even great-grandchildren would all be in attendance. Aboard a beautiful ship docked near Vietnam, we would share our war stories, our sea stories, and our dreams for the future as Captain Bell’s rescue story is really simply a variation of the same stories many Americans have been telling for the past two hundred years. Yes, despite all the extraordinary details, my story is simply ordinary. And through my 72-hour trip to Vietnam with my mom and Captain Bell, it would all end the same way it began: complete strangers out at sea connected together by the fragile threads of history.

Not long after, I saw a minuscule thing coming to me from that direction; I thought it was a bird of some kind. Strange enough, the bird came to me so abruptly that I heard its sound only after it passed me… Guess what? It was not a bird; it was a fighter jet. This time, I knew where to look, and I followed it for the short while it played pick-a-boo with me.

The following day, mom took me to the celebration arena for a national day. I couldn’t believe my eyes, everywhere was full of fighter jets; but my eyes looked for the one that mesmerized me the day before. And, it was standing right there, waiting for me to come. I approached it with respectful steps, and carefully touched it. It was so cold and tough, yet so beautiful. That day, I knew what I wanted to be when I grew up. The smell of the jet fuel coming from the engines was so powerful that even I could fly with that kind of a drink.

“Hey; come here” I heard someone calling me. There was really nobody around. “Follow the sharp smell, come on here,” insisted the voice. Was I daydreaming, or had I been poisoned by the jet fuel and lost my conscience? Yeah, yeah, the voice was coming from the rear-end of the engine. It was the nozzle that was talking to me.

The moment I realized who was talking to me, I found myself in the circular, hollow structure of the nozzle. I was too nervous and surprised at first, but after a moment of looking around admiringly, I spoke with the words: “I know the inferno fire that you are exhausting. Isn’t it beautiful? You are so powerful. You are the one that is powering this beauty in the sky.”

The nozzle was not happy to hear my words of flattery. “Hey little boy, you know something, but you don’t know everything. Yes, it is true that I am exhausting that violent river of gas. You are right that this stormy exhaust is in the heart of this beauty in the sky. But you have got to learn more. I am only a solid duct that is accelerating what comes into me. I have no power to compress that humongous amount of air into a volume as small as a bird’s nest. I am completely unable to heat up the air to inferno level. And, the beauty in the sky is not taken up there by me either.”

I was totally disappointed and frustrated by the nozzle. I had thought for an instant that it was my hero; but now, my dreams were destroyed. I felt all alone in a desert. The nozzle must have realized my situation, so it picked up again: “Come on. I am going to introduce you to the unseen heroes behind our mysterious beauty. I am going to show you the inside.”

I was truly perplexed. What else could be more mysterious than a speaking nozzle? The voice of the nozzle slowly diffused into the deep and dark hallway into the engine, and I followed it. Soon, I came by long towers that had a nicely curved shape. As soon as I stepped near them, the floor that the towers were built on started moving. In the midst of this earthquake and a blinding darkness, I could faintly see another row of towers that were stagnant. I threw myself towards them. As I was dealing with my horrified and troubled soul, I heard a thunderous voice that reverberated everywhere:

“How nice to see you here, Adam!” I was doubly shocked. Not only was this unseen thing talking to me, but it also knew my name. “Do you know me?” I replied. “How could I miss your glittering eyes fixed at us whenever we pass over you? I am the turbine, one of the unseen heroes. I am the one that powers the compressors that squeeze the air. I am the one that faces the hot air before it goes into the nozzle.”

Wow, this was the man; this was the legendary hero behind the beauty in the sky. I looked at its towers that displayed nobility and their curved surfaces that embodied beauty. As I was losing myself in admiration, I heard the voice again:

“These are the eyes that I have been seeing every time we passed over you. But I have to tell you something. What you are looking for is not me either, because I cannot create the hot air that energizes everything, including me. Despite the beauties and power embodied in me, I am not the essence that bears the real beauty you are looking for.”

What was that supposed to mean? First the nozzle, now the turbine; every time, I am being attracted, and then I am left alone with a sense of deception. Are these heroes making fun of my admiration of their beauty? If so, they don’t deserve my admiration anymore; if not, then why am I having this feeling of deception? Is it wrong to attribute hero status to something?

Lost in feelings and thoughts like these, I left the turbine, and proceeded further into the darkness. Not only didn’t I know where I was, but also I had no means to determine my whereabouts. In total silence and darkness, I sat at a place that felt like a smooth and large room. Suddenly, a wind started blowing with growing speed, and a constant noise occupied everywhere. I was alarmed and sought somewhere to cling to. With the help of lightning that seemed to come out of nowhere, I saw a cavity that looked safe. After a challenging crawl, I was there. Then, a second lightning came and everywhere burst into fires. As if winds from the hell were gushing out. My jaw dropped down, I stared at this miraculous display of fire.

“Welcome, finally you are here,” told a voice that was distinctly heard despite the violent storm. I felt like I am being driven through a scenario so that where ever I enter, I experience things that I was meant to. “Am I the hero of this scenario?”, I asked myself inside, and laughed at the idea. Upon seeing so many extraordinary things, my awe of the strange things was veiled with habituation. So, I couldn’t pay the respect that was due the voice I heard. Maybe because of this, I received a kick from behind, and I had to struggle against the winds of fire to get back to my seat where I was safe and comfortable.

“Hello, are you still there?” I asked. “Can you tell me where I am?” That distinct voice appeared again in my ears: “Indeed, I am here, but you weren’t!” I bowed my head with shame. Having hurt the only one that could help me in this situation was as foolish as it could be. “And I was with you all along from the start.” What was this? I didn’t know whether to feel ashamed because of my selfish and pragmatic sense of respect, or to burst into a thousand pieces for not having recognized the one who has been with me all along?

“This is as far as you can go in this story. You are in the place where the energy that empowers everything is revealed. It is the heart of the beauty that you have been admiring.” After a second of silence, “Did you find what you were looking for?” asked the voice. I had seen strange things, but none of them had satisfied my heart nor quenched my curiosity. A sad face was my response to the question, but I didn’t know if the voice could see my face. Apparently it did, so that it directed me to another place. “You see this violent fire going on, would you like to fly away with it?” Was this guy crazy? How in the world could I survive in fire? “Well then, there are two ways to get out of here. Either you go along the fire back to where you came from. Or, if you are not able to do so, you go forward.”

With that directive, I started crawling towards the front, into the strong wind. I came across a thing similar to the turbine, and then another hallway similar to the nozzle. At first I was puzzled, because I had seen the same things that I had seen on my way previously. Had I made a mistake and proceeded backwards? That mustn’t be the case, since I had moved away from the fire.

After this stupefying similarity, I was at the mouth of the cave where everything starts. I was able to see the wings too. But now, the aircraft was moving. All of the storm that was going on inside was for accelerating. The force of the acceleration was so strong that I slipped from where I was clinging, and found myself stuck at the beautiful front curve of the wing. Strange enough, the same voice welcomed me again: “Finally you are here.” I didn’t know whether to reply to it or to lose myself while watching the beauty of the aircraft as it soared into the air with an ever increasing speed. It definitely felt like the divers who hear that beautiful voice when they go deeper than they should. I could not resist melting my body in the excitement of the maneuvers. After a while, we were hundreds of meters above where we had started. Now, the aircraft was cruising, and despite the rareness of the experience, it felt like sitting in the living room. With the steadiness of my state, I found myself emerging from the depths of excitement.

“Have you found the beauty you are looking for?” asked the voice again, to which I said yes. “Where do you think that beauty is coming from? From the engines or from the wings?” That question was most unexpected. The engine itself was not able to fly, it was only able to create a strong push. The wings were only beautiful. They did not actively do anything. They only stood there in the wind, and then, lift was there. Without the air, the wings would not create anything. As for the air, we are completely sunken in it, let alone flying. “I don’t know where the beauty is coming from. There seems to be something missing in the ingredients that created the beauty of flight. None of the ingredients seems to originate it. It looks like you put the engine, the wings and the air in the pot, and suddenly something that you did not put comes into being.”

“But you did not realize this point until you made this journey, despite that you have been witnessing the same beauty all along. “

Why was that the case? Why did I have to make this incredible journey in order to become aware of this uncertainty in the source of beauty?

“When you are not actually in a journey like this, you take all the mysteries for granted, because you consider them natural, ordinary. But once you are in the journey, you realize something different that exists neither in you nor in the things you come across. It is as if somebody is tracking what is going on, and whenever the necessary ingredients are there, he secretly adds the missing spice into it at the right amount. And, then? Behold the beauty!”

In company of al Khadr, plunging into secrets

Brilliant young people with countenances of gold

Surrounded by descending sparkling lights

Enraptured with the heavenly potion imbibed

With eyes revealing the secret attained

Their stormy vigor never exhausted

With hearts of steel, never afraid or shrinking

The entire world knows them, lauding their lands and towns

conquering charm mysteriously marks their faces

Equivalent to a genius, each brilliant mind

Waiting for a blessed dawn,

A dawn whose rooster has crowed

Digestion in grain-eating birds

The digestive system of the chicken, which is a representative of the world of birds, is comprised of organs lined up in straight line succession: a beak, mouth, gullet, craw, front stomach (with gland), gizzard, small intestine, caecum, large intestine, cloacae and anus. In addition, enzymes secreted from the pancreas, liver and gallbladder also have digestive duties. Ending in a sharp point, the beak was created especially to be able to pick up single pieces of feed. Chickens do not have assisting organs like the palate, cheek, tongue or teeth that are normally found in the mouth, the first door of digestion in most animals. Ruminating animals like cows, sheep, goats and camels use the tongue instead of a beak for taking food into their mouths, and then their teeth are used to begin the breakdown of food. In chickens, however, this breakdown is initiated with the bottom and top beak. In ruminants there are taste buds in different shapes on the tip, sides and middle of their tongues which also function as the organ for the sense of taste. Since such taste buds are not found in chickens, there is also no perception of taste like that experienced in ruminating animals.

The structure and function of the gullet, or food pipe, has similar characteristics in chickens and other animals. However, just as in all birds that eat single seeds and grains, there is another digestive organ in chickens in the shape of a bag opposite to where the gullet expands. Called a craw, this tiny pouch is a place for the storage, wetting and softening of feed, and it serves the purpose of bringing food to the consistency needed for further digestion; consequently, it lightens the burden of the stomach (just like when we leave food that is difficult to cook, like chick peas or beans, standing in water overnight before we cook it).

A chicken’s stomach is composed of two different sections, the front stomach and the gizzard. The feed the chicken eats passes from the gullet and the craw to the front stomach, where digestive secretions are made. The food is stored here briefly and mixed with the special fluids of the stomach. Found in this secretion are both the pepsin enzyme, which starts the digestion of proteins, and hydrochloric acid, which is secreted to generate the pH level that makes this enzyme effective (and which also helps in the dissolution of minerals). These two important secretions are produced by different glands in the stomach. Like the craw, the gizzard, which comes after the front stomach, is the place where mechanical digestion, which is particular to all birds that eat grains, takes place. The gizzard is called the stomach with muscles because it is comprised of a pair of thick and strong muscle layers. As a result of these muscles constricting strongly, feed is broken down mechanically and ground up. While gathering feed, the chicken usually also swallows small pieces of sand, stone and limestone as if it knows how its digestive system works. Although many of us think that chickens swallow stones because they cannot distinguish them from feed, it is obvious that there is a purpose why they are doing it. If these stones, which are like “mill stones” for the digestive tract, are not found in the gizzard, the feed is not fully ground; consequently, it will pass to the small intestine in a form that will not be fully beneficial to the body.

Depending on its characteristics, the feed eaten can stay in the gizzard for a few minutes or several hours. The small intestine, which comes after the stomach, is comprised of the duodenum (twelve-finger intestine), the jejunum and the ileum. The small intestine is similar in grain-eating birds to those of other animals. The duodenum empties the secretions coming from the pancreas and the bile coming from the gall bladder. The digestion and absorption of the feed actually takes place in the small intestine due to these secretions. Final digestion and the absorption of carbohydrates and protein are effected by bacteria found at the point where the small intestine ends, in the 10-15 centimeter-long, V-shaped caecum.

The large intestine and the cloacae are found in the advanced sections of the digestive system. The role of the large intestine, which is twice as large in diameter as the small intestine, is to temporarily store the waste from the digested food and to maintain the balance of water in the body. The cloacae is a small orifice with a structure formed by the widening of the large intestine towards the anus and where the digestive, defecation and reproduction tracts open up.

While giving grain-eating birds the above mechanisms in order to nourish them, God equipped ruminating animals with different oral, dental, gastric and intestinal structures as well as different digestive strategies.

Digestion in ruminating mammals

While secreting saliva is essential for ruminating animals, it is not necessary for chickens because of differences in their digestive system. As a result of the secretion of saliva the fodder of ruminants is softened and dryness of mouth is prevented. Ptyalin (or alpha amylase), which is found in saliva, has antibacterial properties that protect animals from infections in addition to playing a role in digestion. The mother cows constantly licking their newborn calves is both an expression of compassion and also of wisdom in protecting the newborn from probable infections (Similarly, animals like dogs and cats licking their wounds and thus speeding up healing is no coincidence, but a sign of universal wisdom and mercy). This wisdom shows that saliva, of which cows secrete 90-180 liters and sheep 5-8 liters per day, is not a waste.

The stomachs of ruminants are comprised of four sections; the first three are the rumen, the reticulum and the omasum. These three sections are called the front stomach. The section that does the real work is called the abomasum. Because the nutritional value of grass is very low in comparison with meat, it is obvious that a large bodied ruminant will need a lot of grass. Consequently, the capacity of rumen being 150 liters is a wise and fitting design. In addition, the cellulase enzyme that digests the cellulose walls in plant cells is not produced in the tissues of any mammals. The possessor of infinite knowledge and power, God placed high concentrations of bacteria, protozoa, yeast and fungus-all of which can produce the cellulase enzyme needed to break down cellulose-in the rumen of ruminating mammals. The rumen acts as a fermentation factory because of these microorganisms. Breaking down the cellulose-rich food consumed by ruminants, these microorganisms both fulfill their own nutritional needs and help to meet the host’s energy, protein and vitamin (especially B12) needs within a symbiotic relationship. I wonder where the microorganisms in the rumen learned about this synthesis and assistance mechanisms!

What a magnificent engineering wonder is the “sulcus esophagus,” a semi-duct structure in the shape of a canoe that extends from the end of the food pipe in newborn ruminants to the abomasum where the essential stage of digestion takes place. Due to this structure, milk drunk reaches the last stage of the stomach without passing through the rumen, for there is no matter like cellulose in the content of milk that needs to be broken down. Consequently, there is no need for the milk to go to the rumen. If it were not like this, the milk would go directly to the rumen where it would be ruined by microorganisms, lose its nutritional quality and be like a bribe given in vain to the microorganisms in the rumen.

These three methods of classical exegesis have been very helpful in understanding Qur’anic text. However, because they typically explain the Qur’an verse-by-verse, it can be difficult to use them as a means to understand the overall or core teachings of the Qur’an especially for today’s readers. In today’s world, people who begin to study the Qur’an can easily become confused when they see the same verse interpreted in completely opposing ways, say by radicals on one side and peace activists on the other side. To alleviate this confusion, we need to understand the major themes and overall purposes of the Qur’an.

To grasp one of the major Qur’anic themes, I will attempt to analyze the beginning of the chapter, Al-Baqara (The Cow). I propose that the major purpose of the Qur’an is to draw the picture of the ideal person by proclaiming (a) what he/she needs to believe (b) how he/she should perform worship and (c) how he/she needs to act within a society. This ideal person is a “muttaqi”-a true believer (muttaqin is the plural form). By describing the ideal person, the first five verses of the Al-Baqara chapter best summarize the whole content of the Qur’an. This passage tells us what kind of society the Qur’an intends to establish by listing the important characteristics of individuals within an ideal society. These are the first five verses:

“Alif, lam, mim. This is the Book. There is no doubt in it. It is a guide to the muttaqin. Who believe in the Unseen, are steadfast in prayer, and spend of that We have bestowed upon them. And who believe in that which has been revealed to you and that which was revealed before you and are certain of the hereafter. These are on guidance from their Lord and these are the successful.”

The chapter begins with the mysterious Arabic letters called al-huruf al-muqatta’a (isolated letters). Scholars have suggested many theories to explain such isolated letters which occur 29 times in the Qur’an. For our purposes here, it is sufficient to mention that chapters that being with al-huruf al-muqatta’a usually are followed by the verses about the Qur’an itself.

The specific Arabic words used in the second verse are a categorical negation of any doubt-their usage signifies that the Qur’an contains no doubt at all, not even the slightest one. This doubtless book, as the same verse states, is guidance (huda) for the muttaqin or servants of God. To anticipate the discussion on the next verses, we need to understand more about the word muttaqin as it is used in the Qur’an.

Muttaqi comes from the same Arabic root as the word taqwa. Thus, the meaning of taqwa is implied here. We need to consider this very important concept to fully understand these opening verses of Al-Baqara. When we consider all the Qur’anic verses together in which the muttaqin are mentioned, the evidence points to the idea that taqwa means an ideal piety according to the Qur’an and refers, as an umbrella term, to zeniths humans can excel in both religious and human terms. More specifically, the following aspects of taqwa can be deduced from the Qur’anic accounts: faith, piety, obedience, abstaining from bad deeds, and sincerity. These can be considered the interdependent sides of taqwa. Namely, when a person has the sense of taqwa associated with faith and piety in his heart, this leads him/her to perform good deeds and prevents him/her from carrying out bad deeds.

The fourth verse of Al-Baqara poses the relationship between yaqin (certain belief) and taqwa. This relationship evokes many similar Qur’anic verses that end with a special emphasis on God’s certain attributes such as All-Hearing (al-‘Alim), All-Knowing (al-Khabir), and All-Seeing (al-Basir). These attributes remind us that everything is under God’s control. Thus, the Qur’an attaches obedience of servants to the strong belief of an “Omniscient God.” Concerning this subject, we should mention another term, which took on a specific importance in the Sufi tradition: al-ihsan. Although ihsan literally means to be kind and to do good, a very famous tradition gives it a specific meaning. According to the tradition known as the hadith Jibril, the angel Gabriel (in the form of a human) asked the Prophet when he was with his companions, to explain the meaning of ihsan. The Prophet answered the question by saying, “It is to worship God as if you see Him; and although you do not see Him, He sees you.” So, ihsan refers to God-consciousness to the extent as if the person is seeing God. In brief, the Qur’an as a whole wants its followers to have such a high level of consciousness of God. Strong faith is indispensable for achieving this quality.

Another meaning of taqwa is protection-taqwa protects God’s servants from falling into sin. How can a human being sin if he or she remains constantly mindful that God is ever present? What is more, the muttaqi is the person, according to the hadith, who abstains not only from sins but also from dubious actions: “A servant cannot be among the muttaqin unless he refrains from certain permissible things for fear of falling into impermissible things.” There is another tradition that reinforces the meaning of abstinence for taqwa. According to the story narrated by Uqba b. Amir, the Prophet was given a silken garment as a present. He wore it and started to pray. When he finished his prayer, he took it off immediately as if with a strong aversion to it and said, “This does not suit muttaqin.”

Another meaning of taqwa given by the Qur’an is “good intention.” This meaning is clear in the following verse that was revealed about the sacrificial animals: “It is neither their meat nor their blood that reaches Allah, but it is taqwa from you that reaches Him.” Here, taqwa is understood and interpreted as sincerity and good intention. Another verse in the same chapter underlines the relation between the taqwa and the heart, saying “And whoever respects the symbols of Allah, such (respect) should come truly from the taqwa of the heart.” The hadith collections also contain many traditions supporting the same sense. For instance, after giving some advice to his companions, the Prophet says three times, “The taqwa is just here,” pointing to his chest.

As for the importance of taqwa in Islam, we can state that individual salvation in the hereafter and social order in this world are possible only by the presence of taqwa in individuals who together constitute the society. The Qur’an often connects salvation in the hereafter (as exemplified by gaining the eternal reward or escaping from eternal punishment) to taqwa. Among many of the verses involved, the following ones are enough to show its significance with reference to the eternal happiness: “And hasten to forgiveness from your Lord; and for a paradise as wide as are the heavens and the earth, it is prepared for the muttaqin” (3:133). “…And the hereafter is with your Lord only for the muttaqin” (43:35). Not only the Qur’an, but also hadith collections contain traditions giving good tidings to the muttaqin about the next life. For instance, according to the tradition, the Prophet declared that taqwa and good character (husn al-khuluq) are the most frequent reasons for eligibility to enter Paradise.

Taqwa, according to the Qur’an and the related traditions, includes all good religious and moral qualities. If one asks “Who is the muttaqi according to the Qur’an?” the correct answer, regarding its overall exposition, would be the following: “The muttaqi is the ideal believer who has all inward and outward qualities celebrated by religion and lives a perfect godly life.” Moreover, the first verses of Al-Baqara summarize all the characteristics of the muttaqin under the three titles: unshakable faith, fulfillment of personal responsibility before God, and accomplishment of social responsibility for the sake of the community.

The third verse discusses the attributes of the muttaqin. Three different attributes can be easily noticed in the verse: they believe in the unseen (ghayb), they establish the prayer, and they spend out of what they have been provided. In brief, the verse denotes the most perfect forms of the three categories-belief, worship, and social responsibilities. For example, belief in ghayb includes all the Islamic faith principles including the belief in God, his messengers, angels, revelations, the hereafter, and the divine decree. Meaning “certain faith,” the notion “iqan” employed in the following verse, on the other hand, marks the highest level of belief. The preference of the word iqama of the prayer which means establishing the prayer “in conformity with its conditions” instead of the verb “salla” that has a simpler sense, points out the most perfect way in praying. In addition, the prayer, the most important and the most frequent form of worship in Islam, can be considered here as the representative of all the Islamic worships because those who are steadfast (iqama) in the daily prayers would be the ones who perfectly perform the other Islamic duties. The last part of the verse is even more interesting (They spend out of what We have given them as rizq). Many other Qur’anic verses use the expression “alms giving”-zakat. Instead, the word used here is more comprehensive- rizq or blessings from God. Rizq is not limited to zakat or sadaqa (obligatory and voluntary charity), but includes everything given to humans in this world such as wealth, knowledge, time, and power. Thus, the verse seems to call God’s servants to share everything they possess with other people in the society in order to be counted among the muttaqin. The verse reminds Muslims of their social responsibilities which extends beyond their personal relationship with God. In summary, verse three provide us the picture of an ideal member of the Muslim society: he/she holds the highest rank in God’s sight by having the strongest faith, perfectly performing worship, and carrying out social responsibilities.

This verse is so comprehensive that much of Islamic scholarship revolves around these three subjects-faith, worship, and social responsibilities. These subjects constitute the major Islamic disciplines: Kalam (Muslim theology) that is interested in faith principles (i’tiqadat), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) dealing with the subjects concerning worship (‘ibadat), and Islamic Ethics (Akhlaqiyyat). In addition, these three are the main sections in the introductory course books (‘ilm al-hal) that were produced in the later periods.

The wisdom of dealing with the three subjects under discussion separately seems crucial because to confuse them with each other has caused serious problems in the history of Islam. First of all, since one’s faith cannot be known with certainty other than by God, no one has the right to denounce the faithfulness of a people or any individual unless they, themselves declare their disbelief. Not distinguishing faith from actions, some marginal groups, unlike the majority, tend to charge people with infidelity examining their actions. Secondly, it is important to distinguish between personal responsibilities in front of God (worship) and social responsibilities within a society. The former is between God and a person and affects each individual’s afterlife, whereas the latter makes a person responsible before the society. In this sense, only the state has the rightful authority to punish violators of the rules related to social duties. Likewise, declaration of war for a purpose, as Muslim scholars have emphasized, is the exclusive authority of the state. Therefore, individuals or groups cannot start war nor kill people based on their own decisions or their own understandings.

The fourth verse adds extra details to the faith principles touched on in the previous verse. “(a) To believe in what is sent down to Muhammad, peace be upon him, and to the previous prophets” and (b) “to believe in the hereafter” are included in the principle “iman bi al-ghayb.” In the fifth verse, “guidance” (huda) is reemphasized and the muttaqin are called as “muflihun” (successful). This success has been understood as both in this world and the afterlife.

When we consider this exposition of the first five verses of Al-Baqara, we can conclude that all the subjects of the Qur’an can be construed in the following three: faith, worship and social responsibility. Therefore, the main purpose of the Qur’an is to inform Muslims about these subjects. It is imperative not to confuse these three with each other. It is also important to remember that the muttaqi is the person who has all of them at the highest level.

References

• ‘Abd al-Baqi, Muhammad Fuad, al-Mu’jam al-mufahras li alfaz al-Qur’an al-Karim, Cairo: Dar al-Hadith, 1996.
• Bukhari, Muhammad b. ‘Isma’il, Sahih al-Bukhari, Beirut: Dar Ibn Kathir, 1987.
• Ibn Majah, Muhammad b. Yazid, Sunan Ibn Majah, Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, nd.
• Muslim b. al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-‘Arabi, nd.
• Nawawi, Abu Zakariyya Yahya b. Sharaf, Riyad? al-salih?in min kalam sayyid al-mursalin, Dimashq: 2003.
• Tirmidhi, Muhammad b. ‘Isa, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath, nd.

Able to dive into the water at a speed approaching 90 km, the kingfisher can grab its prey at this speed in a depth of 60 cm, instantly pivot back and then, using its wings as oars, surface above the water. In order not to lose its prey, the bird’s precisely timed diving and surfacing takes place in three seconds.

A torpedo as light as a fly

The most basic factor that enables an animate creature to dive into the water is its body being heavier than the water. With a weight of 40 g and a length of 18 cm, the kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) should remain on top of the water and not be able to catch fish because it cannot dive. However, because God put the sustenance of this bird in the depths of the sea, He gave it the special diving ability. Able to dive into the water at a speed approaching 90 km, the kingfisher can grab its prey at this speed in a depth of 60 cm, instantly pivot back and then, using its wings as oars, surface above the water. In order not to lose its prey, the bird’s precisely timed diving and surfacing takes place in three seconds. In a short period of time the kingfisher has traveled a distance 414 times its height. This shows that it can move as fast as a fighter aircraft. If we consider what the kingfisher does on a human scale, a person would be able to dive 26 meters in three seconds and then resurface with a prey the size of a sheepdog. Here another interesting point should be made. The fish the kingfisher wants to catch is actually in a different position than it would visually appear from the sky due to the difference of the degrees of deflection of light in water and air. Bereft of any knowledge of optics, how does this bird solve this problem of physics?

How heavy is a bird feather?

There are physical limits to bird’s flying capabilities. In order for a bird to be able to fly, its weight should not be more than 15 kg. In order for birds heavier than this to fly, their wings have to be proportionately larger so it is difficult for this big a bird with heavy wings to fly. Male silent swans (Cygnus olor) weigh more than 14 kg; in fact, there are even some that weigh 20 kg. However, God compensated for this situation with a special structure. Like other birds, the silent swans have some bones filled with air and the inner part of these bones has been made stronger with small props. For this reason, the feathers and bones of these birds are one-tenth as heavy as their bodies. There are more than 12,000 muscle ligaments in the wings of swans to activate the feathers used in flying. Long (50 cm) wing feathers greatly increase the carriage surface of the wings. Each feather can carry 200 grams of weight during flight. For this reason, a swan that loses just one wing feather can no longer take flight. It takes 60 days for the feathers to be completely renewed.

Because the owl’s ears were created asymmetrically (the right ear is higher), sounds reach the close ear 1/300,000 of a second earlier. This small amount of time difference is enough for the owl to determine the exact place of the source of the sound.

Are owls flying radar stations?

Under normal conditions it is not possible to hear the sound waves of a mouse eating a hazelnut in a hayloft. Possessing a sensitive receiver, owls are an exception. The facial structure of owls resembles the high tech early warning equipment on AWACS planes. Focusing on even the smallest sound wave just like a satellite antenna, this structure cannot be explained by the intelligence of an owl.

Because the owl’s ears were created asymmetrically (the right ear is higher), sounds reach the close ear 1/300,000 of a second earlier. This small time difference is enough for the owl to determine the exact location of the source of the sound. Through the 95,000 nerve cells in the simultaneous hearing center, the brain imagines a 3-D image of the prey. Due to the anatomy of it 14 neck vertebrae (humans and other mammals have seven vertebrae), the owl was given the capability of turning its head 270 degrees and determining the exact position of its prey. While flying towards the place where the sound came from, the owl can constantly recalculate the position of the prey relative to its own position, even if the prey changes its place. As a result of this precise calculation, only three seconds passes between the moment the owl first heard the sound of the prey and the moment it makes its deadly attack.

Is there a mathematical formula for remaining alive?

The formula is this: 7-15-70. It is difficult to immediately understand what these three numbers mean. However, these numbers make it almost impossible for a starling to be caught by its enemies.

We can explain the meaning of these numbers as follows: Whatever 7 close neighbors do, imitate them; constantly fly at least 15 cm from them; do not ever fly more than 70 km per hour. There is one more rule: Keep your distance from all enemies. When these principles are followed, enormous protection follows.

Flocks of starlings are comprised of several thousands of birds that move like one organism. In less than a second, the flock’s direction, size and breadth can change. In this situation their enemies do not have much of a chance against such a tight mass. For predatory birds need to determine their targets in order to catch their prey. The fast and sudden movements of the flock prevent attack from predatory birds. In spite of this, predators who attempt attack go back empty-handed. For acting like one body, this enormous flock encompasses the enemy in a counter current with the waves they create and narrow it down until the bird can no longer fly. Becoming dazed, the predatory bird has no choice but to fly away from the flock. This instructive action of the starlings brings to mind the Qur’anic verse: “There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, not a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you” (6:38).

The world’s best camera can see objects as big as a mouse from a height of 300 meters. This is an amazing thing, but even so, no camera can compare in any respect to an eagle’s eyes.

Can eagles see from the side?

The world’s best camera can see objects as big as a mouse from a height of 300 meters. This is an amazing thing, but even so, no camera can compare in any respect to an eagle’s eyes. Eagles can clearly see their targets from a distance of more than 1,000 meters. Eagles can even see a fish in fine detail from this distance. This special quality bestowed upon eagles is something technology would have difficulty imitating. For the lens of the eagle’s eye is soft contrary to human eyes’ and it sees clearly more quickly and it more greatly magnifies its object. In addition, each of the eyes of the eagle has two separate vision centers. This allows the birds to see clearly both in front of them and at their sides. To attain this perfect vision, more than a million light receiving cells are on duty in each square millimeter of the retina. Comparing this to a human eye, a person has 200,000 cells in the same unit of space in the retina. Due to this structure of the retina and lens, an eagle’s eyes are as large as a human being’s eyes. If a human eye were to have the same capability, it would have to be as large as an apple. Because a human does not need to hunt like an eagle, he was not burdened with such big eyes.

How much can a brain be shaken?

G-force expresses changes in a body’s weight caused by acceleration. For example, when a jet is climbing towards the sky, the gravity a pilot is subject to increases immensely and his blood puts a lot of pressure on the veins in his legs. A space vehicle has 3 G when it takes off; a war plane has an average of 10 G; and a car’s peak force is 120 G when it crashes head on at full speed. With every peck, a woodpecker’s beak reaches 1,200 G in a way that is hard to believe. In other words, it is like the bird’s head hits a cement wall at a speed of 25 km per hour, and the woodpecker does this 20 times a second.

Experiencing pressures greater than 14 G is deadly for a human being. In comparison, woodpeckers have been given the ability to endure several hundred times what astronauts experience in their landings. This is only possible with a very special histological/anatomic structure and a skull created with perfect proportions. With the beak hitting a tree in a hard manner, a woodpecker’s brain almost completely fills its skull in order to prevent a trauma from developing. Created with a spongy structure, its bone structure acts as a shock absorber. The head and nape of the neck muscles contract towards the place it has hit and the waves from the blow become harmless. Even the lower part of the tongue is wound around the skull once in order to secure the brain and protect it from shaking. This situation does not create a problem or difficulty for woodpeckers which hit their heads against trees for a handful of larva, for they have been prepared for these conditions in their creation.

Small birds creating the power of a hurricane

Having a spread of 35 cm between two wings when they are opened, swallows weigh less than a normal size lighter. At first glance the apparent body structure of swallows suggests that they should only display an average flight capability with their deficient ability to maneuver. However, when we go out into nature and see swallows soaring in the countryside, we see that the situation is not like that at all. With the amazing way in which they were created, swallows succeed in doing a job that appears to be almost impossible physically. These birds can pass with jet speed through a space only 2 cm wider than their bodies. They succeed in this by flapping their wings rhythmically without stopping. Researchers have determined that they do this by means of a wing structure that moves with a special mechanism. The upper part of the wings of swallows can turn the air into an eddy. With the pressure created by this eddy, a great power of lifting and balancing occurs. The birds virtually fly with the power of hurricanes. Until now, this style of flying was only known to exist with insects. By seemingly gluing their wings to their bodies with this wonderful mechanism bestowed by the Creator, swallows easily pass through difficult places. Consequently, swallows can make 90-degree turns at astonishing speeds. Supersonic planes also benefit by generating these same kind of mini-hurricanes.

Can there be flying submarines?

Every year in May, tens of thousands of sharks, whales and dolphins come to the South African coastlines because of the schools of sardines (Sardinella). However, the strongest sardine hunter is not under water; it is a bird eyeing its prey from 30 meters high. The northern gannet (Morus capensis) a much better hunter than other sea birds, has a perfect body structure. While even sharks can only catch one out of two prey, the northern gannet’s perfect hunting techniques enable it to make a record success. The first reason for this is its reaching its target quickly and directly; the second reason is its being able to move about comfortably under water. These sea birds can go down 10 meters at first and then 20 meters by flapping their wings. They can dive at a speed of 120 km per hour. Their capability of holding oxygen-rich air in their air bags allows them to hunt up to one minute under water. Because they usually finish their prey under water, it is not common for them to bring it to the surface.

As research supported by technological possibilities increases, many more amazing biological mechanisms will be discovered. Doesn’t it strain reason to explain the existence of animate creatures that continue life with such fine calculations by means of chance?

My most recent visits were to Pakistan and Finland, two countries that on the surface have very few in common, if any, in terms of continent, climate, people, culture, population, economy, politics, stability… you name it. And my conviction was once again confirmed that it is absolutely a necessity to see a country with your own eyes and get firsthand knowledge to be able to see beyond what you have through other means.

The Fountain presentation on media and values was conducted in four universities with great interest and participation. Students and faculties actively joined the discussion with invigorating questions on the universal themes and values The Fountain cherishes. Despite what the Western mind would expect of Pakistan, interestingly, the female ratio in the academia is visibly very high and their voice is no less strong than their counterparts in the West.

Finland has its own texture and character by all means. Although it was mid-April, there were still pockets of muddy snow especially in the northern-facing shades of the landscape and buildings. Hardly anyone in the streets was around, even at the airport terminal, with the exception of those enjoying the spring sun during their lunch break.

However different any given country might be from another, culture of coexistence is inevitably a common theme in both regardless of continent or culture. The Minister of Culture and Sports, Paavo Arhinmäki, who opened the conference organized by Finland Dialog Association and The Fountain in Helsinki on April 24, said “Encountering ethnic and cultural diversity is no longer the experience of just a few. It has become an everyday reality for many more people worldwide. Interactive skills and conflict resolution must become part of everyone’s civil preparedness. The desire to participate and act only becomes greater through personal involvement.”

This quote summarizes the universality of our need for greater awareness of peaceful coexistence and proves that our differences are a richness of diversity. Hence, this is one of the many reasons why The Fountain is actively engaged in different continents and societies and what we try to reflect in the contents. In the same vein, this issue covers themes that are universally relevant, like What It Means to Be Human, food safety, environment, bad memory, and senior citizens. This issue also offers thought-provoking articles on natural sciences, appreciating the compatibility of the type of food animals consume with their digestion system, the perfect physical make-up of birds, and the very interesting balance in the world that is bound with its rotation. Challenges in the gifted education are also separately discussed.

For those of you in the northern hemisphere, we wish you a good summer, and a reasonable winter for those of you in the south.

However, a recent book, Islamic Science and Making of the European Renaissance, by George Saliba calls these arguments into question. This book prompted me to think more critically about this long, accepted argument. Can this prominent scholar of Islam or his famous book, Tahafut al-Falasifah, be held responsible, single handedly, for causing an age of decline in the scientific activities in the Muslim World?

Many orientalists argue that Ghazali’s Tahafut is responsible for the age of decline in science in the Muslim World. This is their key thesis as they attempt to explain the scientific and intellectual history of the Islamic world. It seems to be the most widely accepted view on the matter not only in the Western world but in the Muslim world as well. George Saliba, a Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at Columbia University who specializes in the development of astronomy within Islamic civilization, calls this view the “classical narrative” (Saliba, 2007). However, interesting discoveries in the second half of the twentieth century by historians of science challenged many of the assertions of this classical narrative. An example of such discoveries is the strong connections between Ibn al-Shatir, a famous Damascene astronomer of the fourteenth century, and the Renaissance astronomer Copernicus (Roberts, 1957). If Ghazali had killed science in Islam in the twelfth century, then al-Shatir’s work from the fourteenth century could not have been so influential on Copernicus’s work. Saliba challenges almost all of the major tenets of the classical narrative on the basis of (1) a critical examination of historical evidence, some of which is quite recent, and (2) the results of his own long-term research in Islamic astronomy.

Saliba’s response to the question

In making his argument, Saliba first notes that most of the orientalists operate under the assumption that there must be a sharp conflict between religion and science. This paradigm is probably based on their European experience. To them, al-Ghazali represents the orthodox tradition in Islam and with Tahafut, written in the late eleventh century (between 1091 and 1095), they assume that orthodox religious thought won a decisive victory over rational, scientific thought. From that point on they assume that science in Islam declined, and the Islamic world did not produce anything significant in terms of scientific advancements.

Saliba argues that both of these assumptions are false. First, the European paradigm of conflict between religion and science does not really apply to the Islamic world. The religion of Islam encourages rational and scientific inquiry. Therefore, Muslims see no insurmountable contradictions between their faith and natural laws. Hence, studying religion and studying natural sciences does not create a conflict for Muslims.

Secondly, many of the scientists in the Islamic world were also religious authorities at the same time. A few examples among such scholars are Ibn al-Nafis, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi ,and Ibn al-Shatir who lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and made important contributions to such diverse scientific disciplines as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics and philosophy. In fact, these scholars were regarded primarily as religious figures by the general public with side interests in sciences. Early Muslim scholars did not hesitate to acquire scientific knowledge wherever they could find it, whether it be in Indian civilization, in Greek civilization, or in Persian civilization. Not only did they acquire these sciences through translation, but they also critically examined them in a comprehensive way. Making corrections and improvements and even introducing new disciplines, they showed a high degree of ownership and maturity. This led to a remarkable period of creativity and rapid advancements in many scientific disciplines in the Islamic world beginning as early as the eighth century (Saliba, 2007).

Contrary to the classical narrative, scientific advancements in the Islamic world did not stop or even slow down after Ghazali. Saliba gives many examples of sophisticated scientific achievements in the Islamic world well after Ghazali. Based on his life-long research in the area, he concludes that the golden age of Islamic astronomy was in the post-Ghazali period from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. Discoveries by Western historians of science in the second half of the twentieth century show that there are surprisingly strong connections between Copernicus (sixteenth century) and Muslim astronomers from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Ibn al-Shatir (Roberts, 1957; Saliba, 2007). These discoveries were shocking to many in the scholarly community who did not expect to find any transfer of knowledge from the Islamic civilization to Europe in the post-Ghazali period. Unfortunately, this new information has not been sufficiently digested by today’s scholars and does not yet generally appear in secondary sources.

Saliba also provides examples from other disciplines, such as medicine, that show that a high level of scientific production took place in more than one discipline in the Islamic world in the post-Ghazali period. How is it that such important scientific materials could have been overlooked by the experts? According to Saliba a major reason for modern historians of science to have missed the large amount of scientific production in Islamic world in the post-Ghazali period is the damage caused by the classical narrative. Most historians simply weren’t looking for it because the classic narrative stipulated that science in Islam was dead after Ghazali. Even though some new discoveries have been made, there are still many scientific works waiting to be studied from that period. As an example of these omissions, Berggren, the author of Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam, says that he used this title for his book as opposed to The History of Mathematics in Medieval Islam simply because “Such a book could not be written yet, for so much material remains unstudied that we do not know enough of the whole story” (Berggren, 1986).

The Content and the Method of the Tahafut

Even though Saliba’s arguments and evidence are quite convincing to doubt or reject the common narrative, I wanted to go straight to the source-the Tahafut-and have a closer look to see if it might be a book that can be held responsible for killing the science or scientific thought in Islamic civilization.

In Tahafut, Ghazali refutes twenty philosophical doctrines. Using a scientific, or in this context philosophical, method, he first explains those philosophical doctrines before criticizing them. His explanations were so comprehensive and so clear that he made them accessible to non-philosophers, and thus, his ideas became generally better known in the Islamic world. Next, he gave arguments to refute those doctrines. In doing so, he used the very same logical and philosophical principles and arguments that philosophers used in the first place to support their claims. Ghazali mainly argues that the philosophers who proposed the doctrines that conflict with religious principles failed to provide valid and rigorous proofs for their propositions. Hence, he attacked their methodologies using their own tools and principles.

An important point Ghazali makes in Tahafut is that he has no problems with the philosophers’ mathematics, astronomical sciences, or logic. He says (Marmura 2000, p. 11):

Regarding mathematical sciences, there is no sense in denying them or disagreeing with them. For these reduce in the final analysis to arithmetic and geometry. As regards to logical sciences, these are concerned with examining the instrument of thought in intelligible things. There is no significant disagreement encountered in these.

Therefore, it is clear that his views could not be used to justify a position against the study of mathematical sciences.

To give the reader a sense of what kinds of philosophical doctrines the Tahafut is concerned with and aims to refute, a selected few out of the twenty are listed below (Marmura 2000, p. 10, 11). The list shows that the questions discussed in Tahafut concern some of the most fundamental issues in theology, particularly in the Islamic theology.

The first problem: On refuting their doctrine of the world’s pre-eternity.

The sixth: On refuting their doctrine denying the divine attributes.

The tenth: On showing that upholding a materialist doctrine and the denial of the Maker is a necessary consequence [of what they hold].

The twentieth: On refuting their denial of bodily resurrection and the accompanying bodily pleasures and pains in paradise and hell.

Concluding Remarks

When I discuss the question given in the title of this article with my colleagues, and I argue that it would be unfair to hold Ghazali or Tahafut responsible for the decline of science in Islam, I sometimes hear the objection that “perhaps the content or the method of Tahafut may not justify this conclusion, but this is not how people understood it.” But then, one must consider the evidence given by Saliba that there is a large amount of sophisticated scientific production in the Islamic world well after Ghazali, and there is still much more to be discovered. Considering the content of Tahafut and the scientific advances in post-Ghazali period, I have a hard time convincing myself that the classical narrative is the ultimate truth on the matter. This position is supported by the fact that it is usually not realistic to try to explain most major social and historical transformations in terms of a single person, a book, an event, or the like. According to Saliba, the decline in Islamic science was the result of a combination of many internal and external reasons that took place several centuries after Ghazali.

Finally, one may wonder why this question is important or relevant. After all, these things happened a long time ago, and we have to deal with the current realities. One answer would be that there are many lessons to be learned from the history. And of course if the correct version of the history is not available, conclusions will be flawed. If anybody is interested in reviving science and scientific activities in a society, there is much that can be learned from the early Islamic period when there was a remarkable rapid and widespread rise in science, as well as lessons from the later periods of Islamic history when the Islamic world fell behind in scientific production. Some researchers are beginning to realize how much damage the classical narrative has caused in understanding the general history and the development of the modern science. It is always useful to have a critical mind to question and reevaluate assumptions when they do not conform to the evidence.

References

• Berggren, J. L. 1986. Episodes in the Mathematics of Medieval Islam, New York: Springer-Verlag.
• Marmura, Michael E. (translator). 2000. Al-Ghazali The Incoherence of the Philosophers (Tahafut al-Falasifah) Provo: Brigham Young University Press.
• Roberts, Victor . 1957. “The Solar and Lunar Theory of Ibn al-Shatir: A pre-Copernican Copernican Model,” Isis 48:428-432.
• Saliba, George. 2007. Islamic Science and Making of the European Renaissance, Cambridge: MIT Press.

Dedicate yourself to fight against the darkness that enshrouds the world, and enlighten the dark spots with torches of science and wisdom. And as long as you live, do not stop struggling against all kinds of ignorance and denial.

Keep walking on your path under the light shed by Providence; enlighten your surroundings, your soul and heart with the rays of that light. If your mind and conscience is deprived of the knowledge of truth and your heart of the lights of faith, you cannot rid yourself from evil thoughts and you cannot find the ways leading to high ideals such as faith, humanity, and love.

Even though it can be more difficult to do, do not give up being truthful, taking the right path, living honestly and virtuously. The caravans en route to the love of God and care of the society have always started from these stations and continued their way along the same destination.

Do not fail to love the young ones and respect the elderly. Be careful not to damage the bonds and values like unity around faith, home, and common goals. You should know how to stand against all kinds of adverse thoughts, paradoxes, and assimilations that harm the spirit of a society. Do not fail to keep up your essence.

Believe in the holiness of working and do not fall for the mistaken notion that others have to provide you with a living. Keep in mind that humanity is not supposed to serve you but you are supposed to serve humanity and believe that you can be of use only after your egoism is burnt in the purifying fire of altruism. Then, you will gain some true value.

Think that the most cherished great hopes and the long-awaited joys can come true only if you can orient yourself to the divine will and, instead of the power, opportunities, and strength of a mortal like yourself, you put your trust in the infinite power of the Almighty.

Always run to the mild climate of love and faithfulness and never fail to rely on their softening effects. Never forget that with these secret keys ingrained in your nature by your Creator, you can open even the rustiest locks.

All the errors, offences and sins committed by humans vary greatly in nature, form, and severity. A majority of these mistakes and sins have been portrayed and clearly defined within the disciplinary guidelines revealed in both the Divine revelation and in the Prophetic traditions, therefore referring to them is usually sufficient for a person to recognize prohibitions, mistakes, offences and sins. One may think, for instance, that not everyone has an equal capability of understanding matters entailing detailed knowledge in accordance with the original sources of religion, however a person of faith, a sincere believer should make every effort to strive, and learn the essential matters of faith to the best of their individual ability. Besides there is sufficient literature available for those who make an effort to read and learn. The main goal here is to purify oneself of these mistakes and sins at the first possible opportunity.

Repentance

If a person has been lured into, or trapped in one of the various dungeons of evil, he should strive in every way possible to repent, to ask his Lord for forgiveness and escape from sin at the first possible opportunity. He should reform himself and throughout life continuously bare the shame of this sin in his conscience, for a true believer is a person who never forgets sins of the past. Of course a person may have repented to God for his sins, and these sins may have been long forgiven, and may have repented with deep sincerity sufficient to eliminate his sins many times over. But even if years pass, a believer of perfection should constantly sense an emotion of regret and distress in his soul every time he remembers, as if he committed the sin yesterday, with the constant thought: “O Lord! How did I commit these sins when I know You exist, when I believe in You, when Your commands were clearer to me than the shinning sun” and continually interrogate his own self.

Such a belief and such an approach can lead to the elimination of sin, and it can even earn a person reward. This reward may be described as the virtue for suffering, the reward for finding the truth, a reward for repenting today for a sin of the past, or the reward for abandoning a recent sin and turning towards the Creator in repentance. Therefore it is appropriate to say that every time a believer regrets, or suffers for a sin he committed in the past, he is rewarded with a good deed which purifies the blemished pages in his book of actions and deeds.

The second point regarding the matter is that constantly remembering past sins with anguish and grief in fact prevents new mistakes and sins, for instance when an individual has the sincere understanding that: “Sinning was a huge mistake, an error which could spoil my relationship with God. For someone like me to act in such a way was sheer disrespect towards my Creator. I cannot ignore, or ever forget my disrespect and heedlessness, and I will continue to sense this grief and remorse until the day I die” He will continuously remember and sense the regret of committing sin, and when faced with the same situation again will seriously consider: “Only yesterday I hated myself for committing such a sin, so how can I possibly have the audacity of making the mistake and repeating this evil action again? Which spiritual understanding can possibly accept, or explain the tendency to repeat sin.” Therefore the probability of a person who sincerely repented for committing sin repeating the same mistake again is quite rare.

Such a person’s approach to the bestowal of rewards will be that even if he performs the greatest of deeds, or induces a deed more significant than we can possibly imagine, he will still think “I have not been successful in achieving a desirable result, under the same conditions somebody else could have achieved much more than I did.” He will continuously attempt to fulfill or substitute personal deficiencies with kindness and good deeds.

In terms of religious discipline, these observations are both a clear account and a guide of the limitations of mistakes, sins and deficiencies for humans.

Identifying intention and guiding the soul

In addition to the specified mistakes and sins, there are also prescribed judgments in accordance with certain conditions, or an individual’s actual intention of actions and behavior, for example if a person has the intention of committing evil. There are certain aspects that can prevent or deter from evil actions: this may be a person’s environment, friends or various other factors. The main problem here is that this person has the determination and tendency in his soul to commit evil as soon as the opportunity arises. Only the individual knows his true abilities and characteristics relating to this matter, therefore we are compelled to make an accurate decision between the “prohibited and lawful” as prescribed in the Divine commands, and the human conscience is the evaluator and judge between the two. If we go back to the previous example of questioning the self-conscience, we see that this is the only true means of an individual reaching a conclusion if he actually avoided an evil action due to an obstacle ordained by God, or by his own accord and willpower.

In one of the traditions, the Prophet referred to this subject: “God the Almighty ordered His angels: ‘Whenever My servant intends to do a bad deed, do not record it against him until he actually commits evil. If he commits a bad deed, write it down as one sin. But if he refrains from it for My sake, write down this as a good deed in his favor'” (Bukhari).

The subjects here are both the servant’s intention, and self-determination of avoiding evil for the sake of his Creator, thus the individual is rewarded by God for his willpower and self exertion. As we see in this tradition of the Prophet, even the human’s willpower of abstaining from evil can lead to virtue, but is this the case if the servant’s willpower or determination is not in question? Although this may not be recorded as a major sin, if a person is deterred from evil due to an obstacle beyond self-control, he may be called to account for it as a minor sin on the Day of Judgment. Therefore in every aspect of life, a human must constantly take both his good deeds and sins into consideration, and act accordingly.

There are of course many examples to be mentioned on this subject. For instance imagine a preacher who conveys to his audience some famous quotes from a scholar like Bediuzzaman Said Nursi: “Work for God’s sake, meet with others for God’s sake, labor for God’s sake; act within the sphere of ‘For God, in God’s name, on account of God’s pleasure.'” And if this preacher has the sincere intention to evoke emotions and excitement of acting for the sake of God deep in his soul, he most certainly will be rewarded accordingly. But if these words are conveyed solely to impress others with his knowledge or self-esteem, this is nothing but ostentation, and of course a sin. Again the only one able to judge this is the individual himself, his own conscience.

Considering this case as it appears from outside, this preacher is conveying the good message of God to others and speaking of Truth. But a true judgment of his speech depends on how much self-pretense and self-expression are involved. Keeping oneself out of the way is the basis of a true conversation of the Beloved. In fact it is a person’s duty to consider “If it was not me who said those words, they may have made more profound impact; it is because I said those words that some among the audience reacted negatively.” So if a person has the slightest emotion of self-expression or self-recognition in his soul while conveying the words of God, and the Prophet, or explaining belief to others, he is in fact committing a sin.

“If my good deeds are this impure…”

Similar considerations may be relevant even in the context of prayer, which is in fact a twin sister to faith. A person who is exalting God almighty should utter the words “God is the greatest” in a low voice, only audible to the individual himself. So if a person stands for communal prayer with the intention of portraying an image of submission and concentration, but lacks sincerity and consciousness, and repeats these words “God is the greatest” in a loud voice, instead of obtaining reward for performing worship, his vain behavior is recorded as a sin.

Another example is of a person who leads the prayer and recites the verse “True believers are only those who, when God is mentioned, their hearts tremble with awe, and when His Revelations are recited to them, it strengthens them in faith, and they put their trust in their Lord” (8:2) and during this recitation, this individual becomes so excited, as if his soul is overcome with submission and awe. He is displaying the conduct of a person desperate to obtain the pleasures of the Lord, just as the Companions stood in worship during the time of the Prophet. If this individual’s behavior is solely to imitate or resemble others, he is in fact corrupting his prayer, for even though these actions are not objected to if they occur as the result of indigenous motivation, deliberately portraying this type of conduct for show or self esteem does affect the merit of worship, and can also lead to sullied thoughts and opinions. It is the duty of every individual to behave according to his self-conscience and honor, thus when a person prostrates, and recites:

“Glory be to my Lord, the most high” he can become so overwhelmed with emotion that without even realizing, he recites this in a loud voice. The passion portrayed here is not a sin, but if there is the slightest emotion or desire of expressing self esteem in these actions, the individual blemishes the prayer with evil, thus adding to the list of bad deeds.

So following all these examples, if we return to the main topic we realize that although on many occasions there is no specific definition of the sins or mistakes recognized solely by a person’s instinct, it is the duty of every believer to question his actions, and his good and bad deeds in every aspect of life in order to determine and amend mistakes and sins. A sincere believer should constantly seek refuge and plead for forgiveness from the Creator in conduct which may seem favorable, but in fact could possibly entail evil or sordid intent. He should continuously bear the question and doubt in his soul: “What will become of a person like me whose good deeds can bear such impurity?” A true believer must acknowledge his faults, and repent to the Lord asking forgiveness for sins: “O Lord of Mercy and kindness! This servant of weakness, heedlessness, disobedience and ignorance who strayed from the path of truth acknowledges, and repents for the sins he committed, and seeks refuge in Your compassion, for only You are the forgiver of sins.”

Primarily a person must purify his egoistic desires, and recognize the ego as the essence of disobedience and sin in order to purify the soul of evil. A believer who lives with the constant fear in his heart will always recognize mistakes and deficiencies in every aspect of life, and with God’s will and mercy, as a result of his awareness, he will never be exposed to serious downfalls in life. As for repentance from minor sins, such a person turns to the tidings of forgiveness in the Divine declaration “If you avoid the major sins which you have been forbidden, We will blot out from you your minor evil deeds and make you enter by a noble entrance (to an abode of glory)”(4:31), seeking forgiveness from God the most Merciful, the most Gracious with the sincere aspiration that He will forgive our minor sins.