Quoted from fgulen.com

The first rank of ma‘rifa is discerning the manifestations of the Divine Names surrounding us, and spectating the amazing climate of the Attributes behind the door of mystery, half-opened by these manifestations. During this journey, lights flow continuously from the traveler’s eyes and ears to his or her tongue, and one’s heart begins to direct those acts, which serve as a tongue confirming and proclaiming the Ultimate Truth. This tongue becomes, so to speak, a diskette of “good words,” and various lights from the light-giving truth of: To Him pure words ascend, and the righteous deed causes them to rise (35:10) begin to be reflected on the screen of his or her conscience.

One who has acquired such ma‘rifa is immune to all evil and is enveloped by breezes blowing from the realms beyond. As Ibrahim Haqqi of Erzurum states, “God said: ‘I can be contained by neither the heavens nor the earth.’ He is known by the heart as a Hidden Treasure in the heart,” translating the allegorical hadith qudsi: “Neither the heavens nor the earth can contain Me, but the heart of a believer contains Me,”2 corridors of light are opened from his or her spirit toward the One known by the heart. The traveler is so enraptured with observing such scenes that he or she does not think of returning to a normal life.

A traveler who is completely closed to all else save God, who has resisted all corporeal desires and impulses in order to be carried by the tides of Divine company, has reached the stage of ma‘rifa. One who travels around this point is called a traveler to ma‘rifa; one who has reached it is called an ‘arif (one who has spiritual knowledge of God).

The differences found in commentaries on ma‘rifa are based on the temperaments and schools of thought or levels of ma‘rifa itself. Some have sought ma‘rifa in those who have it, and they have seen the feeling of awe observed in them as the manifestation of ma‘rifa. Some others have seen it as connected with serenity, and judge the ma‘rifa’s depth according to the vastness of serenity; still others have seen it as the heart’s complete closure to everything but God; while there are still others who have understood it as the heart’s wonder and admiration amidst the tides of Divine manifestations. Such hearts always beat with wonder and amazement, for the eyes of their owners open and close with amazement, and their tongues pronounce with wonder and admiration: I acknowledge that I am unable to praise You as You praise Yourself.3

With the spirit always flying upward toward eternity, and the heart enraptured with the pleasure of finding peace or being at rest, but always self-possessed and cautious, a life lived in ma‘rifa is as calm and peaceful as that lived in the gardens of Paradise. Side-by-side with the angels, those who have acquired ma‘rifa are included in the meaning of: They do not disobey God in whatever He commands them, and carry out what they are commanded (66:6). With feelings that are like buds waiting for daylight to blossom, such souls open fully with ma‘rifa in “daylight” and experience the pleasure of intimacy with Him at every moment with a new dimension of ma‘rifa. So long as they keep their eyes fixed on the door of the Ultimate Truth, they are intoxicated by meeting with Him several times a day or even every hour, and are enraptured with a new manifestation at every moment.

While those supposing themselves to be scholars continue to “crawl,” and philosophers continue to philosophize and struggle to build on the information they have, an ‘arif (one who has attained knowledge of God) always tastes peace and talks about peace in an effusion of “light.” Even when ‘arifs quake with fear and awe of the Almighty, they feel infinite pleasure and, while their eyes weep, their hearts always smile.

There are differences of manners and tendencies among ‘arifs based on temperaments and schools of spiritual training. While some are deep and silent, like whirlpools, others “gurgle” like waterfalls. Some always weep for fear of committing sins, and never tire of praising their Lord; others continuously travel in awe, modesty, and familiarity and never think of leaving this “ocean.” Still others are like the earth which everybody else “treads,” as no one shows them respect or thinks that they are ‘arifs; or they are like clouds sending “water” to everyone under them, or like breezes, for they touch our feelings and blow us good and favor.

An ‘arif can be recognized in several ways: such a person expects favor from and becomes intimate only with the Known One; he or she lifts his or her eyelids and opens the doors of his or her heart only to Him; he or she turns only to Him in love; and experiences the greatest suffering when anyone other than Him is desired. One who has not acquired true knowledge of God Almighty cannot distinguish between the Beloved and others, and one who is not intimate with the Beloved cannot know separation’s torment and pain. Muhammed Lutfi says: “There is the light of knowledge of God in the eyes of the soul of an ‘arif. One with an ‘arif receives God’s help and knows what knowledge of God is.”

Our Lord! Be in our favor, and do not be against us; help us

and do not help others against us. And bestow blessings and

peace on our master Muhammad, chosen among and sent to

us, and on his Family and Companions, noble and godly.

Notes

1 al-‘Ajluni, Kashfu’l-Khafa’, 2:343.

2 Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, az-Zuhd, 81; ad-Daylami, al-Musnad, 3:174.

3 Muslim, “Salah,” 222; Abu Dawud, “Salah,” 148.

We are faced with many challenges in life, and we are able to find solutions to most of these challenges with our minds. We drive home from work and we try to find the best route considering the traffic, the cost and time required to make it to our destination. We consider cost, fuel consumption, maintenance, and after-sale service and then select the best alternative when buying a car. An airline company assigns pilots to the flights considering work hour constraints and aircraft maintenance schedule. A company has limited budget and many project alternatives. Each project has a cost and revenue and the company tries to find the best projects that will maximize the revenue. In each case, the optimum solution is desired. The problems can be modeled as a mathematical problem in which an objective function, decision variable and constraints exist. The objective is the maximum revenue, the decision variables are the projects and the constraint is the limited budget for the company. However, most of these theoretical problems are more complex in practice and need special solution search methods.

Once a problem is formulated, the next step is to use a solution method to find an optimum solution. Finding an optimum solution is similar to finding a treasure on a mountain or in the ground with limited time. If there is no sign of the best location or no guidance to the right direction, this search is pointless and a waste of time. In other words what this means is that we merely hope to find the best solution and continue on digging. This is obviously not an efficient method. Sometimes helpful information is provided for the location of the treasure and we directly climb the mountain to reach it. Most cases are between these two strategies. One can look at some places randomly and look for some clues of treasure, then move to another location and continue until he gives up or finds the treasure. Another useful approach might be looking for the treasure with a group of people. Each group member chooses a random path and shares information about their experiences until they reach the treasure [1]. These methods are trial-and-error based search methods.

People use their intelligence and instincts when they try to find a solution for a problem. We tend to choose the directions that will take us minimum time when driving home. Kids learn using trial and error methods and we tend to solve problems in daily life using trial-and-error approaches. The solutions that are based on trial-and-error are called heuristics. Heuristics methods can find a good solution to a complex problem in a reasonable amount of time but there is no guarantee that the solution is best. These methods are preferred when the best solution is not required and a good solution is desired in a short time. Computer programs and simulations are developed to solve large-scale complex problems using heuristics.

The best designs, solutions, inspirations, and engineering mechanisms that are beyond the reach of current technology are abundantly found in nature. Scientists visualize and simulate the behavior of animals in nature and apply their strategies to problem solving. These strategies provide successful heuristics methods.

Ants teach us how to find the right path

The behaviors of ants provide a good solution method to solve complex problems on graphs. An ant leaves its nest and randomly chooses a path to look for food. If it finds the location of food, it returns to the colony and leaves traces of a chemical on the return path called “pheromone.” When another ant finds this chemical, the ant follows the same path to reach the food. More ants that follow this path leave the same chemical markings, making the path more attractive to follow. If the path is long and unattractive, the chemical evaporates and loses its attractiveness as it is not used frequently. If a path is used more frequently, it will be more attractive for an ant as each ant leaves traces of chemical one on top of the other [2]. The most attractive path is the path that is shortest or optimal since it is preferred by many ants that make the chemicals denser and keep it fresh all the time.

It is required to find the shortest path to an optimal solution of a complex problem. A graph is used to analyze all the possible paths and hence find out the shortest path. The traveling salesman problem is a famous example of such problem. There are many possible combinations of the optimal solution. The required computational time becomes exponential as the size of the problem gets bigger. On the other hand, ant colony optimization can provide good solutions in a very short time.

The search algorithm works in such a way that each ant randomly selects a path in the search space and the length of the paths (value of the objective function) are recorded. The solution developer arbitrarily assigns ants to the search space and allows them to select a path. This search process is replicated many times and as one path is selected more frequently, then it means this path is shorter and better than other paths and hence can be preferred as a good solution. This solution is recorded as the best solution to a large scale problem.

Social behaviors of bird and fish swarms

Modeling the social behaviors of animals in their natural habitats provides us a way to reach a good solution. Bees, termites, ants, birds, fish and wasps are good examples of animals that have a social and collaborative life style. These animals work together in a social environment and interact with each other to continue their life and supply their basic need of food. Food is distributed often times far away from where these animals are located and they have to find a trail to reach their food without knowing the exact location. The physical paths and mental strategies used by each animal to find a solution to their problems—which is in a way like developing a natural algorithm to find the right way to the food—is noteworthy enough to do extra research.

Algorithm designers have modeled the strategies of these species and found out that it can be used to find an optimal solution to a problem [3]. If a group of birds is considered, the information that each bird in the flock is equal to the solution has been obtained so far. The best known food location signals the best solution. This information is distributed in the flock and other birds move to this location to focus on the area. The move from one place to another by each bird represents the development of a solution in the optimization problem. The most important issue is the collaboration of each individual in the flock, whether it is a bird or a fish.

In a flock, each bird acts as an agent to achieve a global objective while co-operating with other members without any conflict. Each member in the flock is governed by local rules and interactions among which agents lead the flock to its global objective. As mentioned, this objective might be to find food, foraging or constructing shelter. The behaviors of these agents illustrates that a self-organized social community exists without any education and experience as there is no central control in this system. A member of the flock does move according to directives from an authority or according to a plan. Each member coordinates its movement according to movements of its neighbors. Each bird stays close enough to the flock so it does not lose it. It also avoids collisions if the members of the flock move very close to each other. This is called “separation.” Each agent follows the average heading of its group which is called “alignment.” Since there is no leader or bird which makes the commands, the movement of the entire flock is the result of collaboration. Each member is free to fly in any location point of the flock. As there are more eyes that are collaboratively looking for food, one bird uses the eyes of all other birds. It is interesting to note that a school of fish show a similar organized behavior. An observer might conclude that the motion of these groups is pre-planned, but in reality they are not.

The motion of a school of fishes and flocks of birds are animated in computers, and their movements are modeled using mathematical formulations. The flock starts its motion from a current location X0. Let’s say that f(x) is the problem that needs to be maximized, i.e., we would like to find a solution X that will maximize f(x). The function corresponds to the best location that the food is abundant for the bird flock. The flock moves from X0 to X1 then X2 and ends with Xn which is the last point during the search. Each point represents a possible location for the food, the best is represented as:

This is the point where the food is abundant and the swarm concentrates to this area. When the swarm moves from Xn-1 to Xn based on the velocity vector given,

note that the new location is determined based on the inertia, personal experience and social influence. Then when they find food, every member benefits from the result.

Artificial bee colony is another method that is used in optimization problems. Each honey bee goes to look for food and returns to the hive with some nectar [4]. The bee then dances in the hive signaling the amount of nectar it found at the source. Other bees choose one source depend on the dances of returning bees and they also return to the hive with some nectar. The amount of nectars is evaluated and the abandoned food sources are replaced with sources that have less food. The amount of food corresponds to the objective of the optimization problem that will be maximized. The number of returning bees with nectar corresponds to the number of solutions to the problem. Since bees share information through dancing, the location that has the highest amount of food is determined as the optimum solution to the problem.

Bat algorithm, firefly algorithm, krill herd algorithm, and intelligent water drops are some other important methods that are inspired from nature. It is also worth mentioning that new methods are being tested and we can expect that they will be in use in the near future. These methods basically mimic the behaviors and strategies used in nature and apply these strategies in solving real life mathematical problems.

Nature as a source for humankind

Nature is the service of mankind as a source of food, a shelter, and a source of life with its oxygen and water. Humankind now realizes that nature contains solutions to their problems more than ever. Biomimetics, a science that has been developed recently, is the science that analyzes the systems, processes, models and materials of the creatures in nature and develops methods that help to solve real world problems. Bath University in the UK developed a database that contains the engineering systems of natural creatures and when a new machine, material or solution is developed, scientists benefit from this database. They estimate that only 10% of the potential in the nature is currently being used. The heuristic methods that have been analyzed in this article are only some of the available algorithms.

How can animals display such a level of knowledge to find methods and solutions? Do they develop them all by themselves? Are they able to share knowledge among themselves in a conscious way so as to reach optimum results, or are they born with these capabilities? Nature offers a banquet of amazing phenomena for us to ponder over with all sorts of models and systems to provide solutions for many human problems.

In other words, intelligent human beings benefit from the strategies of the species that are not intelligent. It means that there is another global intelligence behind what is beyond the reach of human capability.

References

Yang, Xin-She. 2010. Nature-inspired Metaheuristics Algorithms, Luniver Press, 2nd Edition, UK.

Dorigo, Marco, Thomas Stutzle. 2004. Ant Colony Optimization, MIT Press.

Reynolds, Craig. 1987. “Flocks, Herds, and Schools: A Distributed Behavioral Model”, Computer Graphics, Vol. 21(4), July.

Karaboga, D., B. Basturk. 2007. “A Powerful and Efficient Algorithm for Numerical Function Optimization: Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) Algorithm,” Journal of Global Optimization, Vol. 39 (3), pp. 459-171, November.

According to psychoanalytic theories, aggression within the human body is reflected outside via various forms. From this standpoint, we can become harmful to the people around us and may have a negative impact on our environment without even knowing.

We happen to witness either direct or indirect aggressive behaviors in our daily lives. One of the hardest sides of human nature to manage is aggressive attitudes and behaviors that stem from a well-laid foundation of anger. Thee feeling of anger, sometimes mixed with hatred and revenge, is found to lie at the source of aggression. Anger is in fact ingrained in our nature to motivate people to protect themselves from harmful and dangerous situations. In other words, anger should be employed for self-defense, when our property, life, and the values we uphold are under attack. Left untrained, it causes a portrayal of aggressive attitudes and behaviors which in turn negatively affects the entire life of a human being. The external display of this feeling via brute force and verbal abuse can be referred to as an active form of aggression.

Inclination towards psychopathic and sociopathic states occurs in the next stages. Psychopathic inclination is used in psychiatry to describe personality disorders characterized with a lack of empathy and consciousness. This kind of aggression results in criminal behaviors such as murder, injury, and physical abuse, which are punished by law. Another type of aggression that is more common yet hard to notice is in the form of hidden behaviors which are displayed passively, thus “passive aggression.” Gossip, envy, jealousy, hatred, animosity, foul language, lack of trust, being unable to appreciate favors, rejection, mockery, and destructive criticism fall under this type of behavior. Beneath these types of behaviors lie the untrained aggressive feelings innate within every human being.

Rehabilitation of aggressive behavior, in other words, controlling the feelings of hatred, revenge and anger, contributes positively to a person’s social life. Otherwise, if emotions of anger and hate trigger an uncontrolled outburst of aggression for no valid reason, it becomes an antisocial behavior. People who display their instinctive aggression through speech and action will fall into the swirl of gossip, envy, jealousy and destructive criticism without even realizing what they have done, and these behaviors in time will result in disruptions within the spiritual life of the person.

Gossip may oftentimes start off with the intention of bringing to light certain issues and can later transform into the gossip of an individual and can hurt their feelings or cause damage. Twelfth century jurist and theologian Al-Ghazali listed the psychological reasons lying behind the act of gossip as; to satisfy the desire for revenge, to fit into a specific environment or peer group, bigotry, jealousy, to look down on others, to have fun, displaying others’ shortcomings to make people laugh, and to mock people. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi explains in his Twenty-second Letter, how gossip is a vile weapon used by envious people and how people with self-esteem will never stoop so low to employ such an unclean weapon: “Backbiting consists of saying that which would be a cause of dislike and vexation to the person in question if he or she were to be present and hear it. Even if what is said is true, it is still backbiting. If it is a lie, then it is both backbiting and slander, and a doubly loathsome sin.”

To be aware of one’s own faults and contradictions

We do not show the instinctive aggression within us only via brute force or violence. We also reflect the unwanted emotions within us through gossip and secretive talks. Obviously these are not pleasant manners. In order to distance ourselves from ill habits like envy, revenge, and gossip, there is great need for self-rehabilitation and prayers to help improve our spiritual life. We may observe from time-to-time that even religious people, who pray and carry out the basic principles of faith gossip as well. This is a major contradiction. There is no justification for gossiping after we acknowledge the fact that the Creator knows everything we do or keep inside.

If behaviors like gossiping, envy, jealousy, and destructive criticism have become a regular habit, it should be alarming for that person. For it is these habits that will eventually make the person more aggressive and this passive aggression will generate more harmful results. These behaviors that have turned into habits will hold the person under its control and influence. Individuals who are suffering from these disorders won’t be able to notice that they have changed in time and have lost some of their qualities. Positive manners and attributes like mercy, forgiveness, loyalty, tolerance, empathy, and sensitivity of the conscience will start to disappear slowly.

Are we aware that we are harming ourselves?

People who act with emotions of passive aggression should not forget that they are first and foremost harming themselves. These harmful emotions in time lead them to loneliness for these emotions have an impact on the person’s behavior and overtime, their relationship with others is disrupted. If one person starts to harm others through aggressive behaviors, he or she will face negative criticisms. A person trying to harm somebody that he or she dislikes will notice what a harmful behavior this is when they themselves are one day rejected socially and kept distant by loved ones.

Because aggressive emotions put a person in great stress, overtime biological imbalances appear. The urge to harm someone will cause tension, unhappiness and psychological chaos, eventually ruining one’s daily life. As a result of these, many psychosomatic symptoms from headache to hyper tension, digestive system anomalies to fatigue may emerge.

These habits result in serious damages to social life, as they prevent proper communication and dialogue, cause conflicts in between individuals and generate hostility. Individuals with the aim of harming others via these behaviors lead to degradation of social order, love, and friendship. So it is wise for us to think again before displaying these behaviors that harm marital affairs, disrupt workplace order, distance people from one another, and cause lack of happiness and greater conflicts.

Immediate recovery from aggression

In cases where the conscience loses against the ego, more aggressive behaviors of individuals are observed. It is best to consider such behaviors as spiritual illnesses and take necessary action for rehabilitation. Aggressive disorders perish the heart, and cause injuries in one’s spiritual world. If these behaviors continue, love, tolerance, friendship and peace disappear. For personal and social peace, it is imperative to restrain passive aggressive behaviors. On the one hand due attention should be given not to make such acts legitimized in the public view, while on the other hand those who suffer from such failures should be treated without too much of exposure so that they are not offended. In one of his wisdom-filled words, the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, states: “God will cover up on the Day of Resurrection the shortcomings and faults of the one who covers up the faults of the others in this world.”

In a nutshell, the main cause of passive aggression can be said to be a lack of profound awareness in one’s conscience. Aside from this, feelings of insufficiency, desire to be in a respected position, desire to attain greater benefits, wanting to rise to a higher status than the one already present, receiving gratification from the misery of others, lacking in empathy, and being selfish are among the many symptoms behind this disorder. The cure for the mentioned state of mind may be possible if and when one becomes more careful about spurring their spiritual nature. Praying for the people that are subject to jealousy, avoiding vain talk, staying away from gossip, keeping oneself busy with healthier habits, forgiving, being humble by seeing the shortcomings of ourselves first, noticing the positive sides of others, and being constructive and kind when we have to be critical are among the many precautions that can be taken. It is clear that curing the illness of aggression, whether it has been displayed voluntarily or involuntarily, lies on all of our shoulders.

The life of a star is affected by two main factors: while gravitational forces pull the gas contained in the star towards the center, pressure that is generated by the nuclear fusion which takes place in the center pushes the gas outwards. When a star runs out of fuel, gravitational forces take over and it results in the sudden collapse of the star. As a result of this sudden collapse, oversized stars get dispersed into space through a massive explosion. These explosions are called supernovas.

It may be a hard task to predict beforehand whether a particular star will be dispersed in the shape of a supernova. When explosion takes place, dispersal of the supernova happens so fast (within 2-3 minutes) that it is almost impossible for astronomers to capture the exact moment of the explosion. After the initial explosion, there is extreme brightness and this lasts for a couple of weeks. This event when observed from a distance is taken as if the birth of a new star. Later on, the brightness gets dimmer and eventually disappears. Astronomers only have to investigate the remnants of the supernova from this point on. In some supernovas, stars get completely destroyed by dispersal into space (Type 1), but in some, a neutron star is left behind (Type 2).

Type 1 supernovas

Even though supernovas are known to be explosions of oversized stars, smaller ones can also explode and still be considered as a supernova. Interestingly, supernovas of smaller stars are even brighter. Stars with a mass less than the total mass of eight suns turn into a red giant at the end of their lives. After the red giant stage, exterior layers of the star get blown into space and it turns into a white dwarf with a mass equal to 0.6 times the mass of the sun. If a hydrogen rich material from a large star nearby flows over this white dwarf, it turns the white dwarf into an explosive composition. The white dwarf reaches the brightness of a million stars by exploding. These types of explosions are called novas.

Even though we see stars in the sky as individual bodies, 60% of them are found in pairs. An amazing star bomb is generated when the two white dwarfs in a star duo join one another. These massive explosions of White Dwarfs as a result of their complete dispersal into space by thermonuclear chain reactions can even be observed from distant galaxies. They always explode at the same mass threshold and since the amount of released energy is the same, they are used as standard light sources by astronomers. When the resulting star (formed after the two dwarfs unite) exceeds the critical size of 1.4 times the mass of the sun, it starts to collapse on its own with gravitational forces. Central pressure increases during this collapse and with the start of thermonuclear reactions, it eventually builds up internal pressure.

Since the outer layer of the star is hardened, it completely disperses into space with an enormous explosion. Remnants left behind by the explosion begin to expand very rapidly (at a speed of 30,000 km/s). Brightness more powerful than a billion stars is generated during the energy release of Type 1 supernova. In other words, the energy supernova released for a couple weeks is much greater than the total lifetime energy released by the sun. The initial strength of the supernova diminishes after a few weeks. As the supernova expands, its brightness decreases proportionately.

Ultimately it becomes a gas and a dust cloud known as a nebula.

Supernovas may be observed in different levels of brightness depending on the distance of the star to the earth. Closer supernovas can be seen as big and bright as the moon however distant ones can be observed like a bright, dimmed star, or may not be visible at all.

Type 2 supernovas

Stars with a mass between 8 and 50 times the mass of the Sun go through a series of changes a lot faster than smaller stars, eventually turning into a neutron star. During these kinds of changes, all stages of nuclear fusion takes place, as first hydrogen, then in order, helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, and iron are synthesized in the stars. Iron is found in the center and other elements surround it in layers. When such a star runs out of fuel, nuclear fusion ends. The finale of nuclear fusion reactions at this stage is characterized especially with iron representing a stable nuclear structure.

When the reactions are over in the center, the iron core collapses on its own with gravitational forces. Because of the intense pressure on iron, protons of this atom unite with its electrons forming neutrons. This event takes place very fast and also particles called neutrinos are emitted. These particles apply an outward pressure on the exterior layer of this star which has already turned into a super red giant, causing burst of external layers into space. This event is described as being a Type 2 supernova.

Remnants of supernovas

Supernova remnants are radioactive. In fact, a major portion of the light emitted by a supernova is derived from radioactivity. Furthermore, supernova remnants are very powerful sources of cosmic radiation. These remnants can be observed in two forms: the first form is directly observable gamma rays when high energy particles including protons and electrons interact with interstellar gasses; and the second form is indirectly observable radio waves when high speed electrons emitted via explosion get accelerated at the interstellar magnetic fields. Gases rich in heavy elements that constantly expand are left behind after supernovas. Because of abundant neutrons in the environment, elements heavier than iron are also synthesized. This richness is entirely thrown into the interstellar place. All of the heavy metals including iron are thought to have joined the solar system through a supernova explosion. “We have sent down iron” in Chapter 57 of the Holy Qur’an may refer to the dispersal of iron and other elements into the space through supernova explosions.1

Sun rising from the West

What happens when a star nearby our system explodes as a supernova? A second sun appears in the sky. Does such a supernova explosion disrupt the conditions on the earth via causing a similar or bigger impact than the sun on the planet in terms of light and heat? If such an exploding star happens to be in the west, can we consider it as the sun rising from the west? Considering that supernovas are strong light sources, a second sun appearing in the near sky for a couple of weeks will have significant impacts on planet earth.

At first, day and night would disappear. Planetary temperatures would rise to lethal degrees. Evaporation of seas and oceans may cause worldwide flooding. Local temperature rise caused by the two suns may generate severe storms. Remnants of the star as it loses brightness after a couple of weeks can color the sky blood red as described in the verse: “And finally when the heaven is rent asunder, and it becomes rosy like red hide!” (Rahman 55:37). Events pointing to doomsday as described in apocalyptic verses can take place. Surely God knows the best of everything.

Notes

1 For a similar discussion on a possible connection of this phenomenon with this Qur’anic verse, you may refer to a previously published article titled “Supernova Explosion and a Miracle of the Qur’an” by Nuh Gedik (The Fountain #54, 2006).

References

Silk, Joseph. 1997. A Short History of the Universe, W. H. Freeman.

Zeilik, Michael. 1994. Astronomy: The Evolving Universe, New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2013/issue-94-july-august-2013/the-convivencia-july-2013/ Mon, 01 Jul 2013 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2013/issue-94-july-august-2013/the-convivencia-july-2013/ For a period of almost four centuries, when Medieval Spain was ruled by the Moors, the believers in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam lived together in peace and harmony. La Convivencia refers to this coexistence. For over 400 years, knowledge and mysticism thrived in the Spanish towns of Toledo, Cordoba, and Granada as students and teachers in all three disciplines helped one another to learn, translate, and understand ancient teachings.

The year 1492 marked the destruction of an unprecedented form of coexistence between the Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Al-Andalus, a state that had thrived since the eleventh century. Was the purported reality of La Convivencia a mere construct of mythology, recreated by the Spanish historian Ramon Pidal and his student America Castro, or one exacerbated by populism? This in microcosm forms the basis of the article which is divided in three parts. Firstly, the historical context will be sketched in order to determine how the spirit of Convivencia crystallised. Secondly, the essay will draw upon political, religious, and socio-economic determinants to best understand the reality of La Convivencia. Thirdly, by way of historiography, the essay will attempt to reconcile the notion that La Convivencia was a retrospective utopian fallacy with the equally persuasive assertion that there really existed such an unprecedented social fabric in medieval Spain. Drawing upon proximate and remote factors, it will be argued that to blindly subscribe to utopian historical interpretation only exacerbates this theoretical misguidance and continues flawed historical documentation. This essay also seeks to provide an alternative. Perhaps by looking at the very tenets of Islam itself, one can channel the confused conclusions of the Convivencia into a cohesive understanding, for within the Qur’an lie the very seeds of democratic pluralism. As an overarching analysis, the essay will draw upon aspects of La Convivencia that should inform the peace process in the Middle East. For when Muhammad XII Abu ‘Abd Allah left the gates of Granada in 1492 marking the “last sigh of the moor,” the death knell of the ever celebrated Convivencia reverberated throughout the medieval world.

Historical landscape

If indeed, the postulations of Convivencia by historian Ramon were based on a genuine reality, how the spirit actually precipitated would form a useful basis. According to some historical accounts, Arab armies first arrived in the peninsula in AD 711. Although records of the conquest are tenuous, it is known that the Arabs had gained control over North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic (Chejne 1974). Having observed the socio-economic degradation of the Visogoth rule and the proximity of a fertile country, the Arabs made their advance from the Southern tip and met Roderick the ruler of Spain at the Barbate River (Chejne 1974). Having defeated his armies, the Arabs advanced North and Muslim rule was accepted voluntarily by many Spaniards (Esperanza 2008, 25). Al-Andalus was ruled by the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus until 750 when the Abbasid dynasty came to power in the East. Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu’awiyah, an Umayyad prince escaped, and fled to Spain where he established an independent Umayyad state in 756 (Gampel 1992). Andalusian rulers who were sovereign politically continued to regard the Abbasid caliphs as the ultimate religious authority for almost 200 years until the eighth ruler of the dynasty, Abd al-Rahman III al-Nasir, claimed the caliphate title for himself and his progeny in 929.1 It is at this point that historian Ramon Menendez Ridal and his student America Castro form the historical rhetoric resembling something of a pax Islamica, the golden age of Islamic civilisation which embodied the spirit of Convivencia. Rosa Menocal describes how this planted the seeds for an unprecedented level of scientific, philosophical, and metaphysical discovery, rendering medieval Spain the ornament of the world (Hillenbrand 1992, 10). It will be stated here that prima facie the spirit of Convivencia was no mere myth. What led to the success of the coexistence was a convenient political cocktail mixed with proximate social factors and the religious dynamics of Islamic presence.

Political determinants

Arguably, political factors were most influential in facilitating the Convivencia process. There were two key political figures present in the upper echelons of Islamic rule in Al-Andalus in the tenth century which directly impacted upon the birth of the amicable coexistence. The rule of Abd al-Rahman III from 912 to 961 came the closest to achieving the full realisation of this coexistence and in 929, he officially declared himself Caliph and “Prince of All Believers”(Allen 2008). He conducted his policy of reconciliation of the Berbers, Arabs, Jews and Christians of the Iberio-Hispanic population. He also worked directly with the Mozarabs, a controversial term generally used to refer to Christians who lived under the Muslim rule, and placed them in positions of power. Furthermore, the Jews and Christians could practice religion without harassment or persecution. The maliki fiqh or law was an effective legal instrument which regulated the practice of all three religions (Lewis 1984). Abd al-Rahman III also rotated posts within the bureaucracy and placed even former Jewish and Christian slaves in positions of power. The Muslim rulers in Spain relied on the Jews for diplomacy and public administration who were inaugurated into posts of commerce and played important roles in cities such as Toledo and Cordoba. As a direct result of this, a thriving mercantile class grew during the Islamic rule in Al-Andalus. Intrinsic to the success of Convivencia during his reign was the political figure Hasdai Ibn Shapmut, the Jewish Vizier of the Abd al-Rahman III. Their collaboration led to a convenient political marriage of ideas (Lewis 1984). Both he and Abd al-Rahman III had a common goal of removing their Jewish and Muslim communities respectively from their Eastern centre and advancing intellectual and religious independence. Consequently, this led them to create an educational structure that encouraged the importance of Greek Philosophy, particularly the works of Aristotle which was translated into many languages. This political manoeuvring had social manifestations—the Jews shared the same Romance and Arab vernacular as the Christians and Muslims. This further inaugurated the social unification among the three faith-communities of the peninsula” (Hillenbrand 1992, 11).

Aristotelian philosophy

The nuances of Aristotelian philosophy should perhaps be examined closely. Aristotelian thought directly challenged the sole use of religion to justify the denouement of certain political theory. Although both political figures were not secular, both Abd al-Rahman III and Hasdai promoted the prominence of such philosophy insofar as it pertained to political policy. Whilst the political collaboration of Abd al-Rahman and his vizier in the tenth century facilitated Convivencia, the philosophy of twelfth century was arguably the crux of the flourishing of the Convivencia. The presence of Islamic interpretations of Aristotle by Averroes and Maimonides achieved the archetypal Aristotelian scholarship (Constable 1997, 99). They urged the need to develop a state based upon the interpretation of Plato’s Republic (Constable 1997, 99). Such strong cohesion in philosophical debate led the Jews, Christians and Muslims to believe that there was a place for the three Abrahamic (Ahl Al-Kitab) faiths to coexist. It would be intellectually barren however, to state that the flourishing of Convivencia can be solely attributed to internal factors. The presence of more remote factors played into the hands of those in power. Just before the Ummayad Caliphate was established in Al-Andalus, the Visogothic rulers had conducted extensive anti-Semitic policies. These policies were particularly rampant within the state and church in the first two decades of Visogothic rule. Highly possible within the formulation of what constituted the spirit of Convivencia could be the fact that the Jews saw the Muslims as their liberators from Visogothic rule. David Lewis certainly holds this view (Allen 2008). This begs the question, was Convivencia a mere construct of retrospective utopianism or a reality exaggerated by populism and recreated through historical account?

The need to recreate history

The raison d’etre behind the recreation of history vis-a-vis the moors was a direct result of the lack of scholarship in this particular period in Spanish historical account. Thomas F. Glick in his book Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages argues that until the 1970s, historians were grappling with how to express an account of the rise of nationalism of a nation-state without alluding to socio-psychological dimensions (Glick 1992, 123). For long after the Muslim political reign came to an end, he claims that “the image of the moor remained as the quintessential stranger, an object to be feared” (Glick 1992, 123). He claims that the forgotten chapter in Spanish history was incinerated in the flames of the Spanish inquisition. Thus, transposed into the historiographical field are subconscious fears which have transferred into a bias that underlies historical interpretation. Unless a historian is purged of this bias, the historian cannot play a valid role as an interpreter of Spain’s history (Glick 1992, 123).

Convivencia: a fallacy?

The primary part of this essay has dealt with the underpinnings of Islamic reign and the machinery upon which La Convivencia functioned. So far the proposition has been that Convivencia was in fact a reality. However it will be argued here that perhaps to some extent it has been exaggerated. Much retrospective idealism was created through the historical accounts, the populism created by the Museum of Three Cultures in Cordoba and the mythos created by Washington Irving in the Tales of the Alhambra. Many contemporary historians purport that this retrospective utopianism of the Convivencia precariously masks the very presence of institutional fundamentalism in medieval Spain—both in its Jewish and Muslim manifestations in the nature of forced conversions, exile, lower standards of citizenship, higher taxation, and violence (Hillenbrand 1992, 7; Rothstein 2003, 9).

Thus, three prongs of analysis come to the fore. Firstly, whilst there might have been a great deal of tolerance, it is important to examine the social fabric and the differentiation of toleration within the classes (Hughes 2005). For the spread of Convivencia’s spirit was not a monolithic one working at equilibrium amongst classes. Cruz claims that whilst the aristocracy benefitted from policies of Convivencia, many of the lower echelons of Jewish and Christian society remained segregated or in conflict with their Abrahamic counterparts. Amongst the Christians, it was the nobility, scholars and upper ranks of clergy who enjoyed the fruits of Convivencia (Hughes 2005). Amongst the Jews, it was the rich merchant class who had little interaction with the lower echelons of society (Hughes 2005). Furthermore, cultural coexistence was more tangible amongst the Jews and Muslims than with Mozarabs. The case in point here is that aspects of divergence in culture were masked by simultaneous developments in philosophy and metaphysics. Such development in thought veiled the unearthed intricacies of conflict and carefully transposed the spirit of Convivencia onto the forefront of historical scholarship. Secondly, by way of resolving whether the theory of Convivencia translated into praxis, it is useful to analyse the intricacies of Abd al-Rahman III’s policies more microscopically. If indeed he did intend on conducting the policy of Convivencia, he did so with a very different goal in mind. His policies were mainly aimed at the homogenisation of the Jews, Christians, and Muslims into one culture. Furthermore as one analyzes the work of Pidal and Castro, it becomes obvious that they propose a similar thesis—the Spanish racial fabric would not have been what it is today without La Convivencia. This therefore seems more like one of convergence rather than coexistence.

Fallacy continued: the exoticism of architecture

A third and a more remote layer, compounding this mythos of Convivencia is the presence of ever-undulating, overwhelming architecture in Andalusia. Rothstein states that this idealism led to a form of architectural mysticism through the creation of monumental buildings such as the Alhambra and the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Rothstein claims that such overwhelming architecture declares mystery which allowed this historical idealism to achieve its physical manifestation. He claims that the “position or status of the individual is the focus, [not the individual itself]” (Rothstein 2003, 9). This is quite different from the humane ideal so often attached to Convivencia. The outcome is not a version of tolerance as she claims that the viewer is absorbed into a world that overwhelms, inspiring awe with intricacies in architecture of monumental proportions that seem beyond comprehension. This perpetuates the retrospective utopianism in its more tangible manifestation.

The thesis here however, is that whilst these interpretations temper the level of utopianism attached to the Convivencia, it was undeniable that this level of coexistence was unprecedented and arguably has not been replicated yet. What then was the lynchpin of Convivencia’s success?

Principles, civilisation, and influence of Islam: future directions

For indeed Al-Andalus was the enlightened society that combined the triune people of the holy book (Ahl Al-Kitab), their beliefs, humanism, and artistry, it would serve as an extraordinary model for any Muslim country, especially for the peace process in the Middle east. Whilst the underpinnings of truth and mythos of Convivencia have led to mixed conclusions, the assertion here is that the spirit of Convivencia has been undermined by Eurocentric historiography. The fallacy in studying the Convivencia from this perspective is that it disregards Islamic determinants from the formulation. Often the impact of the Islamic civilization and its influence are measured against the yardstick of European historiography. Perhaps imbued within this bias of reviving the rhetoric is the Huntington thesis philosophy. This thesis seeks to offer an alternative by looking at the very principles of Islam. For if most historians attribute the success of Convivencia to the Aristolean division of religion and state, why did Abd al-Rahman III go about Al-Andalus making Islamic proclamations and orations? It is unlikely that the Islamic leaders in medieval Spain really conducted a policy of disestablishment and privatization of Islam (Sachedina 2001, 24). Sachedina’s study of the Islamic roots of democratic pluralism provides a useful stepping stone. One reason why the three faiths could have coexisted so amicably could be attributed to the Qur’an’s very definition of belief itself. The Qur’an states that “Those who believe (i. e. professing to be Muslims), or those who declare Judaism, or the Christians or the Sabaeans (or those of some other faith) whoever truly believes in God and the Last Day and does good, righteous deeds, surely their reward is with their Lord, and they will have no fear, nor will they grieve” (2:62).” The apex of the Qur’an’s inclusive spirit can be extrapolated beyond the realm of the three religions of Abraham. It is particularly informative in terms of the universal application of the religious pluralism and community identity in Islam. An oft-quoted passage reads: “Humankind were (in the beginning) one community (following one way of life without disputing over provision and other similar things. Later on, differences arose and) God sent Prophets as bearers of glad tidings (of prosperity in return for faith and righteousness) and warners (against the consequences of straying and transgression), and He sent down with them the Book with the truth (containing nothing false in it) so that it might judge between the people concerning that on which they were differing” (2:213). The presence of post-911 terrorism had tainted the essence of Islam, often making it synonymous with fundamentalism. This is largely due to the obscurantist and exclusivist schools of thought which have monopolized juridical interpretations. The peace process of the Middle East must learn the inclusive spirit of the Qur’an.

Overarchingly, La Convivencia was indeed a reality however much obscured by both utopian and realist schools of thoughts it may be. As a final analysis, perhaps the reason why Convivencia blossomed at the Golden age of Islam lies in the very crux of the faith’s capacity to engage in a pluralistic world of communities (ummah) with secular concerns such as the universal good and forgiveness (Sachedina 2001, 24). Far from being antithetical to modern Western values of liberal democracy, Islam can assist this very liberal project of public international order. Blindly prescriptions to mere Eurocentric rhetoric would only exacerbate this theoretical misguidance and continue flawed historical documentation.

Note

1. As a historian I note that there are many conflicting and unclear records of the conquest. I have attempted to reconcile several academic views and historical interpretations.

References

Allen, Marilyn Penn. 2008. Cultural Flourishing in Tenth Century Muslim Spain among Muslims, Jews, and Christians. Unpublished master’s thesis submitted to Georgetown University, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

Bresheeth H. and N. Yuval-Davis (eds). 1991. The Gulf War and the New World Order, UK: Zed Books Ltd.

Chejne, Anwar G. 1974. Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Constable, Olivia. 1997. Medival Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim and Jewish Sources, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Cruz, Miguel. 1991. “The Roots of Coexistence” The Unesco Courier, 12, December.

Esperanza, Alfonso. 2008. Islamic Culture through Jewish Eyes: Al-Andalus from the Tenth to Twelfth Century, New York: Routledge.

Gampel, Benjamin R. 1992. “Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Iberia: Convivencia Through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews” in Vivian B. Mann, Thomas F. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. Dodds (editors) Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, New York: George Braziller Incorporated.

Glick, Thomas F. 2005. Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages, Boston: BRILL Publications.

Hillenbrand, Robert. 1992. “The Ornament of the World, Medieval Cordoba as a Culture Centre” in Salma Jayyusi, The Legacy of Muslim Spain, Leiden: E. J. Brill Publications.

Lewis, Bernard. 1984. The Jews of Islam, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Rothstein, Edward. 2003. Was the Islam of Old Spain Truly Tolerant? New York Times, New York, NY, September 27.

Sachedina, Abdulaziz, 2001. Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism, New York: Oxford University Press.

Online Video Resources

Hughes, Bettany. 2005. When the Moors Ruled in Spain. Wildfire Television.

Gardner, Robert H. 2007. Cities of Light: The Rise and Fall of Islamic Spain. 2007. PBS.

Sarah-Mae Thomas’ piece on The Convivencia touches on the kind of coexistence we’ve failed to achieve in these modern times. Her piece is a critical approach to this “too-good-to-be-true” period of history when Muslims, Christians, and Jews were able to establish a relatively successful civilization of peaceful coexistence in Andalusia. It was a period when none were forced to emigrate from Spain, and Muslim immigrants from North Africa fused harmoniously with the local Christian and Jewish populations.

In fact, from a cosmological perspective, since Adam and Eve had to leave our eternal home, we are all immigrants. Gülen once wrote “Towards the Lost Paradise,” dreaming of generations to come who would be adorned with the values and virtues that would entitle them to once again regain entry to that garden. The secret to this entitlement, he says in the lead article, is mastering time, and utilizing it as our most precious value.

Katharine Branning felt the deep and eternal yearning of an immigrant when she visited the eight-century old Cathedral of Chartres in France. On her pilgrimage, she walked this monumental place of worship’s famous labyrinth. Katharine’s engagement with the labyrinth reads like an antidote to an immigrant in a foreign land. She overcame her apprehension by taking “slow and deliberate steps.” “This was no race,” she told herself, “there would be no tricks, no teasing decisions to be made, and no one would judge [her] performance.” Her inner voice said that she “just needed to surrender [herself] to the path, and accept the insights it would give [her].” As she navigates the labyrinth, Katharine’s wide and deep inner reflections encompass our diverse journeys of faith and self-discovery, as we immigrate between the centers and peripheries of our human condition.

Anticipation overwhelms me in the presence of His Grace

Cleansed is my body, before the purification of my soul

Ascension to His Mercy is my objective and my goal

Two feet on the mat, the mat of salvation under my feet

My very existence being beckoned for my Lord to meet

Humbly I gaze, visualizing with clarity His holy House

For this fire within me, only His Compassion can douse

With a wave of my hands, everything carnal is set behind

Proclaiming His Greatness, to all that is worldly I’ve become blind

His Words of Compassion and Mercy come forth from my very lips

All that is chaotic or meaningless has been totally eclipsed

Submissive to His Will, from His own Book, are the words I speak

“Only Thee do we worship, and Thine aid do we seek” (Qur’an 1:5)

I announce His Majestic Governance and Rule of all the realms

Being in submission to His Omnipresence, truly overwhelms

The burden of my deficiencies weighs heavily on my shoulders

Compelling my back to bend, I denounce all attributed partners

He has no partners and no err can blemish His Glory or Throne

For He Sees and Hears all, and for Him everything is Known

I throw myself onto my mat, face down, my forehead kissing the floor

O Merciful One, Your Might and Greatness, to the universe I roar

Prostrated with humility, I acknowledge all that You take or provide

It is only to Your Will that all of creation and existence will subside

Having a value of zero in my Owners presence

Soliciting forgiveness, salvation, atonement, and penance

A moment of eternity, free from time and space

Yet, everything encapsulated within His universal Grace

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2013/issue-94-july-august-2013/the-enigma-of-time-july-2013/ Mon, 01 Jul 2013 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2013/issue-94-july-august-2013/the-enigma-of-time-july-2013/ Under no circumstances can it be said that any nation possesses a greater authority than others with respect to physical power or spiritual values. However, when it comes to managing time and utilizing every second as if they were precious stones, some nations are considerably more advanced than others.

Time is not a void traversed from above. It is a precious jewel to be acquired and put to use. It is the most valuable commodity we have, and an important capital bestowed upon humanity in this marketplace we call the world. Throughout history, those who have been able to fathom the mystery of time, have uncovered the secret of how to exist with it. Those who considered time a vacuum were devoured within its gnashing teeth.

If any nation desires to attain honor, splendor, and glory, with the hopes of being a balancing factor in international relations, then they must first learn to command time. Not even a millisecond of it should be wasted, and the methods used to fully utilize time should be taught to succeeding generations.

There is one significant rule for those on this path: they have to claim full possession of their past as a foundation on which they can develop plans and projects for the future; while doing so, they should still focus on current issues, and be conscious of the present dynamics. What use is it today that we were happy and fortunate yesterday? What will remain tomorrow, even if the present circumstances shower us with comfort and felicity? If the future is a glasshouse built upon dreams, what will it offer to today’s unfortunate? The past, indeed, ought to be seen as a crown upon our heads and a source of pride – but we should be prepared for the future with such diligence and spirit that those prosperous years do not merely remain as epic tales and legends in the moth-eaten pages of books.

Creation—each particle of which is a world of hidden truth and wisdom, each instant of which contains a lesson to be learned—is an exhibition for those vigilant souls who gaze carefully upon it; it is a book with each page on display, providing inspiration for hearts; and it is a musical where every note that is heard instills the knowledge of God in the listener’s conscience and heart.

We witness the wonders of creation in a multitude of ways. We gaze upon the luminous sun, the azure sky, and the endless seas bubbling with our aspirations for eternity. We look out from between peaks and plains, with the consciousness of the vicegerents of the earth. We come face to face with distant stars by observing the depths of space through telescopes, and become acquainted with tiny insects by descending to their microscopic world. We attempt to perceive and understand the events of nature within the passing of seasons, recognizing the springs, summers, autumns, and winters that come one after another, year after year. We ceaselessly contemplate the resplendent world of the eyes and ears, listening for the wild chatter in the forest depths alongside the sweet susurrus of the wind rustling in the leaves. We listen to the sorrowful poets of day and the eloquent orators of night reclined upon their thrones in the tree branches. We strive to see the brilliant countenances in places of worship and in other works of art. We experience, one after another, heat and cold, bitter and sweet, beautiful and ugly, and discover the unifying spirit behind opposites. We greet the future with new syntheses, new evaluations, and new discoveries, both in our conscience and the external world, as we prize each moment of life with an appreciative contemplation. Indeed, we find the essence of existence through all of these; we accelerate the flow of existence with these. And then, when the time comes, we tear away from it entirely. Thus is the luminous path to union with time.

Those who complain of not having enough time to work and think, and who perpetually curse and bemoan time, can falter through heedlessness and deviancy; whereas those great souls who etch their spirits’ inspirations on every fragment of time have found it to be even more expansive than they initially thought. By using time wisely, they have explored all facets of creation, down to the minutest detail. With this care and vigilance, and through perceiving the reality beyond creation, great thinkers like Ghazali attained a second existence; those like Rumi were entranced by the uplifting breaths of time, and embraced every corner of the world with its clamor; scientists like Newton, interpreting even the smallest event, such as an apple falling to the ground, discovered the laws like gravity, and proved that time could suffice for everything. These personalities of great stature, at one with time, utilized the inheritance of the past in the best possible way, and investigated, in every detail, the time in which they lived. From the moment at which they were recognized, they were respectfully greeted and welcomed the world over and, like the seeds sprouting on the hardest rock, they took root in the consciences of even the most primitive societies.

The fortunate generations of the future are going to make the best possible use of time, are not going to fail at working while thinking, at reading while working, and while reading, they will not neglect serving others for the sake of exalted ideals. They will know how to remain forever lively, forever colorful.

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2013/issue-94-july-august-2013/the-runners-and-motor-vehicles-july-2013/ Mon, 01 Jul 2013 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2013/issue-94-july-august-2013/the-runners-and-motor-vehicles-july-2013/ The Qur’an points out scientific facts and wonders of technology in a variety of ways. Sometimes it states directly in plain terms that require little or no interpretation, sometimes it uses figures of speech and metaphors, and sometimes it is in the form of narrating the miracles of the prophets, peace and blessings be upon them all.

However, the Qur’an does not talk about science and technology as a science textbook would. The main purpose of the Qur’an is to furnish further evidence of its divine origin for people of understanding, and draw their attention to its divine guidance. The Qur’an sets the balance and speaks of the wonders of technology in proportion to their significance compared to the wonders of creation that subsist life (Gülen). Furthermore, the Qur’an presents its descriptions in ways that do not appear misleading to earlier generations, and does not force the people of modern ages to affirming faith without exercising their free will.

This article aims to present a possibly new interpretation of the first five verses of the 100th chapter of the Qur’an: Al-‘Adiyat, The Runners. I believe the first passage of this chapter which consists of eleven verses gives an amazing description of combustion engines commonly used in motor vehicles today.

Reason for revelation

There are reports from Ibn Abbas that the Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, sent out scouts to patrol around Medina. No news was received regarding the horsemen after a month had passed by. This chapter was then revealed to give the glad tidings that the horsemen were safe. Similar reports support the view that the chapter was revealed in Medina. However, there are scholars who believed the chapter was revealed in Mecca instead. Indeed, the subject matter and the style of the chapter support this latter view, and indicate that it was perhaps one of the earliest chapters revealed in Mecca (Yazir).

Major themes

There are four recurring themes that prevail in the Qur’an, namely the unity of God, prophethood, life after death, and worship, and this last one is considered with the theme justice. This chapter, among many others, explains in a few words the last two of these four main themes. That is probably why the Prophet said in a hadith narrated from Ibn Abbas that “The surah Al-‘Adiyat is equivalent to half of the Qur’an” (Shawqani).

Style

This chapter is presented to readers in rapid and powerful strokes. The text moves swiftly from one scene to another. As we come to the last verse, everything from the verbal expressions, connotations, subject matter and rhythm settle down in a manner similar to that of an athlete reaching the finish line. The rhythm of the chapter is robust and thunderous, and thus fits well with the dusty and clamorous atmosphere generated by the “upturned graves” and “the secrets pulled out of people’s chest” as illustrated at the end of the chapter. The pace of the rhythm is also appropriate in painting the picture of ingratitude, thanklessness, and extreme miserliness. The framework for this picture is provided by a dusty and tumultuous stampede of horses racing and thundering. Thus the frame and the picture are in perfect harmony with each other (Qutb).

The chapter has three passages where the rhyming words at the end of each passage changes with the content of the passage, adding to the matchless beauty of the chapter. The short verses in the first passage help the reader to picture the quick moves of the runners. The intonation of each word fits perfectly with its meaning in each verse. One can almost hear the sounds of panting in the word dabhan and the sound of the stroke in the word qadhan.

Meaning

1. By the chargers that run panting,

2. Striking sparks of fire,

3. Rushing to make sudden raids at morn,

4. Raising thereby clouds of dust,

5. Storming thereby into a host, cleaving it.

The verses of the Qur’an have multiple layers of meanings, all of which may be accurate as long as they are derived following the methods and principles of Qur’anic sciences. Below, are a few interpretations among many that are found in existing commentaries to present an overview of the chapter, and a new interpretation at the end.

Traditional views

1. One interpretation of this passage is that these verses are concerned with Muslim vanguards. This is the opinion of the scholars who thought the chapter was revealed in Medina, as explained above. The fact that God swears by the horses provides a suggestion that this passage praises those vanguards of Islam who put their lives at risk for the protection of Medina. The passage therefore deals with the zeal and enthusiasm of the Companions of the Prophet and with the great sacrifices they made against heavy odds in the way of God.

2. Imam Ali and Abdullah ibn Mas’ud interpreted chapter Al-‘Adiyat as the camels of the pilgrims. The pilgrims rush from Arafat to Muzdalifah, and then dash from Muzdalifah to Mina on camels as a part of hajj (pilgrimage) rituals. They would start campfires when they arrived at Mudalifah, and join the host of pilgrims there (Tabari).

3. The root “a-d-w” of the word Al-‘Adiyat in Arabic means to trespass boundaries. Some have interpreted this passage from a psychological standpoint, and presented the view that the description may be a reference to those who trespass limits in their hatred and enmity for others, in this context, towards the Companions and early Muslims. They grunt as their hearts are hot with enmity and hatred, the spark fires with their bitter words, gallop to the raid in the morning, kicking dust as they penetrate into the midst of a host. They are ungrateful of what they have, and are extremely selfish. The Qur’an draws attention to their negative attitudes that exist to some extend in all human beings, and warns that God is fully aware of whatever people do. In hearing such a rebuke, Muslims are instructed to avoid these character traits.

Modern views

4. According to Ikrimah, a classical commentator who lived in the first century in the Islamic calendar, the second verse refers to arms of war. Following this suggestion, modern commentators, such as Hamdi Yazır, maintain that these verses also imply firearms that use gunpowder, especially modern tanks, and other armored weaponry (Yazir).

5. Inspired by this view, I would like to advance a fresh interpretation of these verses. I believe this passage may be interpreted as a millennium aged description of combustion engines commonly used in motor vehicles. The Qur’an speaks occasionally of the wonders of technology that are developed in the modern ages, albeit not in detail.

A quick review of how combustion engines work would be useful. The four-stroke internal combustion engine, for example, is the type most commonly used for automotive and industrial purposes today. On the first stroke of the power cycle, called the intake, a descending piston draws in a fuel-air mixture into the cylinder through an inlet valve. In the following stroke, called the compression, the piston rises while both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed, compressing the fuel-air mixture to an explosive level. The power stroke begins just before the piston reaches the top when the spark plug ignites the mixture. The resulting explosive force pushes the piston down and turns the crankshaft. In the final stroke, the exhaust valve opens, the piston rises pushing up and evacuating the burned gasses from the chamber until at the top of the stroke exhaust the valve closes. The intake valve then opens and the four-stroke power cycle begins again.

As a side note, I would like to point out that the first known crankshaft was constructed by Al-Jazari in 1206. A crankshaft transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion or vice versa, and is central to all modern machinery such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine and automatic controls, etc. (Hassani).

A new interpretation

In light of this information, let’s read the verses again. In the first verse “By those that run with panting,” the runners may be interpreted as the pistons and the panting may be viewed as a description of the intake of air-fuel mixture and the exhaust of combustion gases at a high speed.

The numerical system called the abjad assigns a whole number to every letter in the Arabic alphabet. It has been in use long before Islam, and there are reports that God’s Messenger did not object its use in connection with Qur’anic verses (Yakit). It may be pointed out that the total abjad value of this first verse, calculated by adding up all letters except the letter of oath (“w”) in the beginning, is 1291, which corresponds to 1875 according to the solar calendar. This coincides almost to the point with the year 1876 when a four stroke combustion engine was invented by Nikolaus Otto for the first time.

The phrase “sparks of fire” in the second verse is an exact translation of the word ignition, and the strikers may therefore be interpreted as the spark plugs and the ignition system in the combustion engine.

In the third verse, “the name chargers” is derived from a verb that also means to move swiftly, and to enter into a wide terrain (Yazir). The verse therefore may be interpreted as a reference to the morning rush as motor vehicles propelled by their combustion engines enter the main roads and highways moving swiftly to reach their final destination.

The word that is translated as a “clouds of dust” in the fourth verse also means a groundwater deposit, and the water that accumulates in the well that opens to the deposit. (Qurtubi) In this context, I think this word can be interpreted as the fuel that the combustion engine needs to run. In addition, the translation of this word as dust would also apply to the context. The verb “to raise” in this verse also means to blow, to stir up, to scatter and to waste. (Yazir) Therefore, the verse may be interpreted as a reference to the blowing of fuel into the chambers of the engine which in return raises smokes of exhaust gases as a result of combustion.

Finally, the fifth verse may refer to the arrival of the motor vehicle into a host at the final destination, whether that may be the parking lot in front of the company building where one works, or a shopping center. The meaning of the verse is clearly consistent with our interpretation here.

As pointed out in the beginning, the Qur’an does not present the wonders of technology just for the sake of it. The Qur’an always pursues the main themes explained above. Then what is the guidance delivered in this chapter that will lead us to the straight path and help us prosper in both worlds? The two main lessons made explicit in the following passages are the virtue of gratefulness and the affirmation of the truth that man will be called to account for all his actions and intentions. The reader is thus urged to get ready for the afterlife.

Human beings should be grateful for their creation in the best stature, both physically and spiritually. They have been made capable of devising such tools and equipment like motor vehicles, airplanes, etc. that make life much easier on them. Moreover, fossil fuels are certainly a major favor of God for people of the modern ages, without which combustion engines would not have been developed. The formation of fossil fuels takes millions of years. It is by the infinite mercy of God that such fuels are made ready for the service of human beings. However the question remains, do people in return acknowledge and appreciate these great favors and blessings? Let’s read:

6. Surely human is ungrateful to his Lord;

7. and to this he himself bears witness,

8. and truly, he is passionate in his love of wealth.

The word “kanud” in verse 6 is usually explained to imply the one who is never content with what he or she has been given by God, and instead always feels miserable and needy of what he or she does not have. It describes the selfish, egocentric and materialistic worldview of the ungrateful. How fitting is this description to the man of the modern ages of advanced technology!

However, the uncorrupted conscience of human beings bears witness to their purposeful ingratitude and rebellion against God. Moreover, the life, attitudes, and acts of an ungrateful person attest to his or her demonstration of ingratitude to God. Finally, humans themselves, as well as their limbs and body parts, will bear witness against their ingratitude on the Day of Resurrection. As an alternative translation, some say the third person pronoun in verse 7 refers to God. That is, God is a witness to their ingratitude.

So what is the recipe, the cure for this ingratitude and selfishness, and the hatred and enmity for truth and exalted virtues? The latter verses tell us:

9. Does he think he will not come to know when all that is in the graves is raised and brought out;

10. And all that is in the breasts is laid open and made out?

11. Surely their Lord on that Day will be fully aware of them.

Human beings are a passionate self-lover. But their love is only according to what they imagine to be good for himself, like wealth, power and the other pleasures of this world. This is our nature, unless we have faith we will not be able to change such concepts, values, and concerns. Faith changes a person’s ingratitude to humble thankfulness. It changes greed and miserliness to benevolence and compassion. It makes a person aware of the proper values which are worthy of being the object of ambition and struggle. Indeed these are much more exalted than money, power and mundane pleasures (Qutb).

Hence, the final touch in the chapter provides the cure for ingratitude, greed and miserliness: a firm faith in the afterlife. It portrays the scene of resurrection in a way that makes a person shudder, and puts their love for wealth and indulgence in worldly riches out of their mind, unshackling their soul and setting it free from earthly attachments. It is a frightening scene in which we witness the scattering about of the contents of the graves and the bringing out of closely-guarded secrets.

Does he not know what happens when this will take place? Mere awareness of all this is enough to inspire man to seek an answer and explore every avenue in search of it. On that day God knows them and all their affairs and secrets. God certainly knows everything at all times and in all conditions, but knowledge of “that day” has the effect of drawing their attention. He will be knowing full and well who is who, and what punishment or reward he or she deserves. He knows all of that they used to do, and He will compensate them for it with the most deserving reward.

The use of the word “the breasts” indicates that the judgment will not be passed only on the apparent events as for what a person actually did, but the secret motives and intentions hidden in his or her heart will also be brought out to make a thorough evaluation of his or her actions. It is clear that such full and absolute justice cannot be served in any court except in the court of God.

May God help us to live a life pleasing to Him, having a strong faith in Him that will illuminate our whole beings; and a firm faith in the resurrection and afterlife that will help us lead a righteous life in this world, by adopting the highest virtues including gratefulness for His unlimited favors. May He pardon and cover our mistakes on the day when the innermost secrets of the heart will be laid open, and may He place us, out of His infinite mercy, in the company of His beloved servants in the gardens of Paradise.

References

Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2001. Isarat-ul I’caz, Introduction, page 12, Istanbul, Yeni Asya.

Gülen, M. Fethullah. 2000. The Essentials of the Islamic Faith, Science and Religion.

Hassani, Salim T. S., Al-Jazari. 2001. The Mechanical Genius, FSTC Limited.

Qurtubi, Translation of al-Jamiu li-Ahkam al-Qur’an, Chapter 100, Buruç Yayınları.

Qutb, Translation of Fi Zilal al-Qur’an, Chapter 100.

Shawqani, Translation of Fath al-Qadir, Chapter 100.

Tabari, Translation of Tafsir-i Tabari, Hisar Yayınevi, Chapter 100.

Unal, Ali. 2006. The Qur’an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, Chapter 100.

Yakit, I. 2003. Abjad Calculation and Date Deduction in Turkish-Islamic Culture.

Yazir, H. 1938. Hak Dini Kuran Dili, Chapter 100. Istanbul.