Let me back up here a little. About two years ago, just before I received my doctoral degree, I had started looking for jobs. My wife and I had already spent about six years in the same Midwestern city, and we wanted to move to another region of the country. I sent about 100 job applications to various universities and companies, regardless of location. However, nothing came out of those applications, save for two interviews. Eventually, I ended up receiving a job offer from an academic institution to which I never applied. This college happened to be in the same city we already lived.

Interestingly, we had changed my wife’s doctor just a few months before the delivery. Our previous physician worked at a different hospital system, which had a neo-natal intensive care unit but not nearly as good as the one that admitted my daughter. My wife and I, without knowing what was going to happen, were apparently guided by someone Who knew what was going to happen. Our seemingly unintentional choices – including having only a single job option – eventually led to my daughter receiving care at the best medical facility possible.

“We will try and delay the delivery as much as possible,” said one of the high-risk pregnancy doctors, and then added, “each minute in the mother’s womb is gold for the further development of organs.” They admitted that there is no technology in the world that can provide the same ideal conditions as exist in the mother’s womb. These conditions include breathing (oxygen intake), feeding, and even the comfort of the baby. My wife and I could do nothing but pray and wait. In the meanwhile, we decided to name our daughter Meryem, which is the Turkish version of Mary.

About 48 hours after hospital admission, we were told that delivery could no longer be delayed. I did not want to leave my wife alone in the delivery room, even though I suffer from mild blood phobia (hemophobia). I tried to condition myself to the sight of some blood and a baby that would weigh only around a pound. However, the first look at our baby was quite a shock to me! Her skin was purplish red and quite transparent, revealing blood vessels. Later, we learnt that keratinization of the skin is not usually complete until the 25th week of gestation. Also, fat layers under the skin usually do not develop until this stage. The combination of these two factors not only made Meryem’s skin translucent, but also meant that she did not have a strong skin that would protect her from hot or cold, and high or low moisture levels. She would need to be kept in an incubator. As soon as Meryem was born, she was immediately taken to the adjacent room where a crew of about ten started working on her. She was first weighed and then intubated. This last procedure involved inserting a tube into her lungs, which would deliver oxygen and move out carbon dioxide with the help of a ventilator.

That is how our one pound and one ounce (480 grams) baby was born. According to our doctors, Meryem tried to breathe on her own, which was a rather surprising development. They also did not forget to reiterate that anything could happen at any time. My wife fell asleep after the stressful delivery, so I decided to visit Meryem as soon as possible, considering that I might not see her again. She was taken to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of the hospital in her incubator.

I was in a different world when I entered Meryem’s NICU room. I was greeted by different alarm sounds, numerous screens displaying different graphs and numbers, and different equipment generating a lot of noise. Little Meryem was wiggling in her incubator, as if she wanted to tell us she was not comfortable, but she was not complaining. I was allowed to touch her, but only through the small window of her incubator, which was protecting her from infections and other environmental factors. I also whispered the call the prayer (adhan and iqama) to her ears, and then her name, which is a tradition in Islam. The latest technology and a number of well-trained healthcare personnel were serving her in lieu of the perfectly designed amniotic sac and placenta. Yet again, I was warned to prepare for the worst outcome. Under these thoughts, I said good-bye to Meryem and went to my wife’s room. This is how our six-month adventure in the hospital started.

Our initial days at the hospital were quite challenging. We were given a list of complications that Meryem could endure, some of which could be fatal. A few of these possible complications were: various bacterial and viral infections, lung and breathing problems, intraventricular hemorrhage (bleeding in the brain), periventricular leukomalacia (white matter brain injury), patent ductus arteriosus (a blood vessel failing to close), necrotizing enterocolitis (tissue death in the bowels), chronic lung disease, retinopathy of prematurity (blindness), and deafness. Moreover, some of these complications could lead to other complications such as cerebral palsy, impairments in ambulation, speech problems, cognitive problems, physical and mental disabilities, and even death.

Meryem had a tube inserted from her mouth going deep into her lungs; this tube was connected to a breathing machine (oscillator or ventilator). The effectiveness of her breathing was periodically checked. Since she could not be fed at this stage, an IV line was providing her fluids and a little bit of nutrition. She also needed blood transfusions to replace the blood that was lost during various tests. Due to various infiltrations in her body and her immature immune system, she was vulnerable to infections, which would rarely happen in the mother’s womb. As a matter of fact, Meryem would have to deal with a number of bacterial and fungal infections, including pneumonia, in the hospital. A couple of these infections were quite severe and would lead us to think that we were losing her.

In order to accelerate lung growth, Meryem was administered steroids. However, steroid treatment caused a steep increase in her blood sugar levels. Meryem’s doctors told us that they would have to stop feeding her because of elevated blood sugar. That would mean Meryem would not be able to gain weight and thus her lungs would not develop. In fact, Meryem lost about two ounces (60 grams) during this period and ended up weighing only 11 ounces (420 grams). This vicious cycle reminded us of the extraordinarily ordinary system in the mother’s womb, where everything functions perfectly in order. A number of the brightest neonatologists in the country were using the latest technology and doing their best to treat Meryem. And they were admitting that a procedure they would perform to correct a dysfunction would lead to a dysfunction in another organ or system. All these developments made us marvel even further at what a perfect environment for child development a mother’s womb is!

Another distinctive example of this magnificent design is the closing of the ductus artery in newborns. Since oxygen is provided to babies through the umbilical cord in the uterus, babies do not really breathe, and do not, hence, use their lungs. It would be inefficient for the blood to go through the lungs in unborn children. As such, a blood vessel, called the ductus channel, carries the blood towards the aorta, bypassing the lungs in the unborn. However, since babies have to start breathing and use their lungs right after delivery, an open ductus channel would be problematic, as blood needs to be oxygenated in the lungs before being sent to the aorta. Hence, after a short period following delivery, the ductus channel closes “on its own.” In premature babies, medication or surgical treatment is required to close the ductus. If not closed in time, edema (fluid accumulation) can occur in the lungs and other organs.

Meryem had a severe edema problem. In order to address the unclosed ductus and edema issues, Meryem’s doctors gave her medication as soon as possible. We were told that if the drug did not work, they would have to take route B and surgically close the ductus. Even though the surgery per se did not bear significant risk to Meryem, we were concerned about the side effects of anesthesia. I read articles which suggested that the use of anesthesia agents in such little babies could cause heart and brain problems. We continued praying right away for a successful drug treatment. Unfortunately, the medication did not work. Meryem’s doctors sought our permission to perform the surgery, as they did not want to lose time. They also explained to us that a second drug treatment could be tried, which would have a very low success rate. Weighing our options and considering the risks of anesthesia, we asked the doctors to administer the medication for a second time and asked our friends to join us in praying for Meryem. The next day, our doctors were quite surprised; Meryem’s ductus was closed.

During the long days at the hospital, we read about prematurity, how a preterm baby was different from a term baby, and discussed all of this with my wife. We were simply amazed by the new information we have acquired on the splendidly designed development of a baby. We always looked at newborns and deliveries as something relatively ordinary. We never felt the need to think in depth about these issues before. After elaborating for hours on the perfection of the development of a baby, we came to an agreement that it would be impossible for us to accept speculations about how this all would happen “on its own.” We felt the great urge to seek refuge in the Owner of this magnificent system, and send our prayers to Him. We also asked for prayers from friends, relatives and spiritual individuals, who in our opinion had a closer relationship with the All-Knowing. We believed that, because of these prayers, Meryem would remain immune to major complications that I mentioned before, despite the pessimistic predictions of our doctors. Many times, we saw the surprise in our doctors’ eyes after an unpredicted positive outcome.

One of these surprising developments was about Meryem’s sight. Devices that made Meryem breathe had to use air that contained up to 80% oxygen. As you may know, the air we breathe has 21% oxygen. The high levels of oxygen premature babies need to inhale, due to their immature lungs, usually cause complications in the eyes. We were informed that Meryem had a very high chance of needing an eye surgery to prevent blindness (retinopathy of prematurity). In fact, one of our doctors (let’s call her Dr. Smith) would explain this likelihood by saying that, “I will eat my hat if Meryem is discharged from the hospital without an eye surgery!” Dr. Smith was actually a devout believer. Hoping that she would understand, we told Dr. Smith that we would maintain our trust in God, and keep praying. She reminded us about her strong belief in God, but also told us not to be hopeful. Just before Meryem was discharged from the hospital, we had a big cookie made in the shape of a hat, since we thought that Dr. Smith would have a hard time chewing on a leather hat. Yes, Meryem did not require an eye surgery! Dr. Smith approached this gesture quite humbly and thanked us for the reminder. She went on to say that she would keep the cookie as long as possible as it would remind her of the power of prayers.

After about a six-month stay at the hospital, Meryem was discharged on a cold day in March. These months had been a really tough period where we had to face many unknowns. The concern of losing Meryem, not being able to hold her for a long time, the risks of many complications, driving back and forth between home and the hospital countless times, receiving a call from the hospital in the middle of the night – all these tested our faith.

“Then, surely, with hardship comes ease
Surely with hardship comes ease”

We remembered and prayed this word of God, as many times as possible during this entire ordeal. We felt that having faith helped us a great deal to stay calm and conscious, especially when we had to make difficult decisions.

Meryem is about four years old now. Except a few minor issues, she is quite healthy. Pediatric specialty doctors who saw her, especially right after the discharge, would be surprised to see her so healthy. In particular, Meryem’s neurologist, after telling her that we believed the prayers were the primary reason she survived, would say, “I agree, as we cannot really explain her good condition only with science and medicine.”

Many immature babies cannot survive even though all necessary treatments are applied and heartfelt prayers are made. This does not mean their prayers are not heard, nor would we think otherwise if we were to lose Meryem. Prayer is a duty upon all of us to show our thanks for all the blessings we have been granted. The fruit of these prayers (in addition to doing fully what must be done) can either be an immediate one in this world or a postponed one in the life to come, and we may not know what good may come out of what seems ugly on the outside. The poet Nimah Nawwab puts it so well:

“God gives answers in three ways: He says YES and gives you whatever you Want. He says NO and gives you something Better. He says WAIT and gives you the Best.”

I grew up with a bias towards my own culture and judged cultures and religions that were different from my own based upon this perspective. Since no one challenged my Catholic beliefs, I left home for college somewhat sheltered and mostly uninformed about other religions and cultures. While at college, I made new and diverse friends and I would bring these friends home with me. My father said to me when I left for college, whoever I bring home is always welcome at our table. My mother has eight years of formal education in a one room rural school house and has lived her entire life in the same community where she was born and raised Catholic. Several years ago, my mother spoke with profound eloquence and simple affection about my classmates and friends that she cooked for and fed around her kitchen table. She said she grew up prejudiced because she never met anyone who was Jewish or Muslim. But after providing a place for these guests at her table, she grew to respect and love them as much as her eight children did. She is grateful for having reached out to people of diverse backgrounds and religions. She taught us that it is around a table that friends are made and prejudices disappear.

My recent trip to Turkey refreshed these good memories around my mother’s kitchen table. It was an educational and cultural exchange program to meet with university professors and community leaders in Turkey to promote international and interfaith dialogue. The program was organized by a non-profit organization in St. Louis, MO named the Niagara Foundation, and I had the honor to be selected to join. My experiences in Turkey of sharing meals in the homes of university professors and their families opened my eyes to our common bond even though an ocean and religion separates us. It was around their family tables that I again was reminded what my mother taught us: that much of the prejudice that exists among different cultures and religions is because we do not invite others into our homes and cook a meal for them. Warm food and kind conversation have the capacity to create bonds that can erase prejudices.

I was expecting family homes in Turkey to be quite different from mine, but instead, amidst the slight differences in cuisine and not wearing shoes, I knew I was at home. The bountiful bean salads, stuffed peppers, seasoned couscous, lemon chicken, lamb, lentil soup, cucumber salad, baklava, and more all adorned my hosts’ tables. How I wanted my mother to experience this! So, upon my return home, I invited Muslim friends to her home for a meal around her table. It was a simple but significant meal that bridged two cultures and two religions as one.

Having this opportunity to interact intimately with Turkish families reminds me of the story of the prophet Abraham, the father of Jewish, Christian, and Muslim followers. He welcomed three strangers into his home. And because of his hospitality, he was blessed a hundredfold with a son, Isaac, who was promised to him and Sarah in their old age by the visitors who were angels disguised as men (Genesis 18: 1-15). As Abraham and Sarah’s son Isaac is a symbol of God’s generosity, so too the Muslim families are a symbol to me of the blessings that hospitality brings to peoples’ lives.

Traveling through Turkey, my appreciation for the people grew. From the sprawling city of Istanbul to the rural cities touching the Black Sea, I could see the similarities in lifestyle, just like in the U.S. The rural countryside appeared similar to my rural home, and as our bus traveled through the rolling hills dotted with wheat fields and small towns, it reminded me of home. Stopping at a gas station and communicating with local rural people who do not speak English, it was comforting how well we could understand each other without speaking the same language. A smile, a handshake, and a meal go a long way.

While in Istanbul, I enjoyed seeing the ripe watermelons and other fruits and vegetables being loaded into wooden carts and carried into the market. The urban markets in the U.S. are similar to the markets in Turkey, not in scale but in essence. Both possess an energy that tantalizes the senses, where a local harvest awaits to be tasted and savored at home. It’s as if time stands still among vendors and shoppers, bartering and engaging in rituals that have persevered and evolved over the centuries for generations. Whether in Turkey or the U.S., shopping in an open air market unites humanity in a common ritual that is at the heart of every culture: how we produce, purchase, and prepare our food.

The occasional neighborhood mosque blends in with Turkish urban life, and upon entering a mosque courtyard, I found luscious green space with colorful flowers bordering red tomatoes and green peppers, a quiet respite from gray urban life. Catholic churches often provide the same reprieve for busy urban residents and tired tourists who grow weary of the harshness of industrial life and the demands that city life places on them. Churches, synagogues, and mosques provide sacred places to pause and be refreshed, knowing that God is present in the most obscure and discreet corners of life. Perhaps this is one essential role that religion procured through the centuries: to provide shelter from the utilitarian survival rituals being play out around us. Whether church steeples, synagogue towers, or mosque minarets, all remind us to pause and remember that when our day’s work is complete, there is more to be aware of and more to count than the coins in our pocket.

During our time in Turkey, we visited several universities, which was a highlight for me. As a university professor and social worker, I was eager to meet professors and students to discuss their curriculum and scholarship. Our interactions were informative and engaging. While on campus, I was invited to attend the Friday (Jumu’ah) prayer services, the name of which is derived from the Arabic word that means “gathering.” Muslims believe to gather in one place as one soul is a pillar of their faith. I was deeply moved by the prayer, and felt united with the people in the room. It was an honor for me to be shown by a faculty member the ritual washing of the hands, forearms, head, and feet with a threefold movement of the hand. This Middle Eastern ritual is retained in the Catholic liturgy with the priest washing his hands prior to the Eucharistic prayer. The rinsing out the mouth, blowing out of the nose, and scrubbing out the ears reminded me of the Catholic ritual of cleansing the mind, mouth, and heart with a threefold movement of the thumb before the Gospel is read on the Sabbath. The sermon (Khutbah) was impossible for me to follow, but my host was gracious in whispering to me a translation. During the Catholic prayer service, we too stand and kneel throughout our prayer, being reminded that God is great (Allahu akbar). Although I did not understand the words spoken, my soul was refreshed and nourished by the ritual prayers.

When I was a young man living in a homogeneous culture, I did not seek to understand and appreciate what other cultures believed and practiced, nor did I challenge the beliefs of my ancestors. Today I embrace the faith of my ancestors from a different advantage point, having traveled and tasted other religions and cultures. This new vision is both a gift and a responsibility, which calls me to recognize the sacredness of the faith that has been handed down to me. Returning to the U.S., I brought with me the Abrahamic thread that unites all Muslims, Jews, and Christians in our quest to know and serve God. Each day I wrap my waist and my heart with this thread so that I might seek the intersections, both within and across each faith community. This is my responsibility, which I am learning from the Vatican II teachings of the Catholic community and the Hizmet (Gulen) movement in Turkey.

Riding in a boat on the sea that bisects Istanbul, I envisioned the Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and Ottomans who sailed these same seas. This city is at the crossroads of human civilization, where war and peace have shaped people’s lives for centuries. I imagined Romans conquering this city and the Crusades trampling through it; I imagined the Ottomans achieving domination ach le an indelible cultural and religious mark on the fabric of this region and creating the culture we know today as Turkish.

The Niagara Foundation is bridging the vast expanses that separate the two continents, the two religions, the two cultures. I am confident that this effort will have immense consequences. In the memorialized words of Robert F. Kennedy, who in June, 1966, delivered the Day of Affirmation Speech at the University of Cape Town to the National Union of South African Students: “Few will have the greatness to bend history itself, but each of us can work to change a small portion of events. It is from numberless diverse acts of courage and belief that human history is shaped. Each time a man stands up for an ideal, or acts to improve the lot of others, or strikes out against injustice, he sends forth a tiny ripple of hope, and crossing each other from a million different centers of energy, these ripples build a current which can sweep down the mightiest walls of oppression and resistance.”

And so I, too, have newfound responsibilities since I have toured Turkey through the generosity of the Niagara Foundation. I pray for the courage to stand up for the ideals embodied in my Catholic faith, and to stand against injustices by embracing Niagara’s mission “to serve societal peace, love, and friendship wisely and compassionately in support of human dignity and the common good by striving to bring forth the common values of humanity; values such as understanding, tolerance, respect, and compassion.”

Gary Behrman is Adjunct Professor at Washington University in St. Louis

How can we then speak of absolute justice when there are so many innocents oppressed, murdered, and their rights confiscated at the hands of tyrants? “Is God just” Dr. Horkuc asks in this issue when He creates people in their respective particular places and under particular conditions and expect the same scores from both? Horkuc writes in this issue that the cup analogy of Bediuzzaman offers a solution to this dilemma.

Occupied with extreme work load, a great majority of us in modern times are bent double and exhausted in most cases to the point of total collapse. Is it only the amount of unnecessary work load or that we do not know how to deal with the present conditions that underlies this exhaustion? Ihsan Kose argues for a “minimum work principle” in the universe. From gravity to routes ants pursue on their tracks, to electrical circuit boards, the path light moves and all phenomena in the universe apparently manifest themselves with one common thing: lowest energy consumption. The article is prescriptive in the sense that whatever we may be busy with, we can and we should find the most efficient formula for best outcome in return for minimum amount of energy, so that we can make best of our stamina reserves.

Computer games are approached with suspicion, yet the number of people engaging with games and the amount of hours and even days we spend for them are increasing. “Gamification,” however, Ahmet Tugra argues, has become a trendy word. “It aims at transforming real life context in a manner that adopts game thinking in online platforms. From this perspective, it proposes to increase motivation, engagement, sense of enjoyment, and the positive attitudes of people towards work.” Games enhance cognitive development in children, and a balanced adaptation of games into real life contexts may help us generate more convenient work and family environment for adults.

Ink heals,
Pen befriends.
Paper mirrors,
Words are interlocutor.
They are lost indeed
when you have no mirroring ear,
when the mirror is gone,
the paper torn;
to hear
makes the pen cry, and
only then ink is revealed.

O, Beloved Friend
Fill my hands with the ink
of your inspiring winds.
Let my eyes, right and left, see
none,
All You,
thus all.
Did you hear what happened?
Did you know how it happened?
Of course you do.
But I want to tell
because this is what you do:
you know, but again, the pleasure
is to listen.
And on my part
it is to tell.
I want to forget my forehead on the soil that stands before You, welcoming,
I want to forget nothing.
But I only become Zero
In that moment.

In a world where right is equated with might, we must learn that what is truly right is pursuing basic human rights and dignity for all.

The highest ideal of human life is an individual elevating to unite with their soul, reaching radiant metaphysical realms, having divine secrets divulged to them, and attaining spiritual pleasures. A soul that takes wing toward this lofty ideal is always happy, and every endeavor made in this direction is internally enlightening and laudable; a person who targets such a life is virtuous, and the land of such people is a land of virtue.

The belief that humanity is nothing more than an animal species has done enormous harm to humanity. This thought first destroyed an individual’s desire for elevating their soul and then closed up the roads that take them to true virtue. And by reducing humanity into swarms of bugs, it deprived them of the comprehension and will to look into and supervise themselves.

According to this understanding, it is perfectly normal and necessary for the strong to destroy the weak, and for those who cannot fight back to be exterminated. When this understanding, which was derived from the idea of natural selection, was applied to human communities, it demolished the feeling of respect for general rights; it made “might” more oppressive; and by accepting unlimited animal freedom as a foundation, it reduced humanity to the level of other creatures. According to this wrong understanding, what was right-with all its aspects-depended on might. This meant that whoever had a strong body or fist, whoever had the better command of written or spoken expression, or whoever had good relations with the upper level of society, were viewed as being right and were even praised. And whoever was weak, whoever lacked power, financial means, and sycophancy – they were always mistreated and scorned.

In the meantime, notions such as the might of the soul, might of the right, and might of belief were erased from memory, in an effort to make younger generations oblivious to them. This situation put the truth and the followers of truth in a weak position before the oppressive powers and humiliated. Lowly considerations of gratifying carnal desires and the sole pursuit of personal pleasures and benefits seized souls completely, and this turned people of faith into a plaything for oppressors. The hungry wolf was respected by society, and he, in return, expected those walking corpses to pay tribute to him.

In the past centuries, the mansions of oppressors were surrounded by circles of people who, for the sake of seeking benefits, accepted being disgraced and despised, and at the same time, flattered their oppressors. Hence, there emerged queues of those who worshipped worldly power. And today as well, might still holds the upper hand, and the right and the rightful are within the grasp of that hand. The only difference is that an oppressive minority has come down and oppression has been widely distributed.

In the past, oppression and cruelty came from a few individuals; the masses are now the oppressors. Instead of the cruel individuals of the past, there are networks of cruelty all around. Nowadays, they cheerfully show up in society, revealing their ill-fated and debauched faces. During this festivity, neither the cry of the oppressed is heard, nor does anybody speak up.

Almost all of these things appeared for the first time when the notion of “right” and the understanding of freedom began to be abused. Then these views spread all over the world under the guardianship of the “industrial revolution” and the resulting technology. Thanks to the non-developed countries’ excessive love and interest for science and technology, these views were welcomed almost everywhere. Thus, the yearning for science and technology degenerated into a terrible open-door policy. Now, everything was taken in; everything was affirmed without asking for a password, without considering whether it suited the nature of that nation-particularly things that harm the social body. After this, people went astray, driven by loose morals, and they competed to deceive and oppress. Might is the only ruler; freedom is an oft-repeated pretext for every kind of corruption…

According to this new philosophy, traders can sell their goods at any price they wish. People have the freedom to hoard goods and sell them when the time comes, and to travel to lands where their ancestors marched in honor, pursuing any ignominious purpose. The media knows no limit in deprivation of character and conveys illicit content to the most remote corners – and they claim to do it to disseminate knowledge. Their publications that are audio-visually charming assail sound thinking, faith, and language; the youth are free to give way to chaos by disregarding every kind of lofty feeling and value; those who abuse religious feelings and thoughts are free to expect some benefit in return for their mumblings… how free, rightful, and wise they are, aren’t they? O freedom, how cruel do you become when abused to allow every kind of corruption!

According to the thought which has taken most of humanity within its grasp today, a good doctor is one who discovers the way to attract many patients to his personal office; a good lawyer is one who speaks for the interests of anyone-rightful or not; a good engineer or architect is one who draws projects to fill his pockets, deprived of scientific morality and a feeling of responsibility; a good singer is one who uses his or her voice to abuse the pure feelings of the people, and so on…

On the other hand, the lofty souls who observe others’ rights as well as their own, and who live for virtue, are viewed as stupid and unwise! In such a world, everything is related to a material purpose, and it is natural and inevitable that human communities and notions of humanity are replaced by a group of animals, by an understanding of humanity based on materialism and sensuality, and the belief that human values and the true notion of right will be forgotten. However, a happy future for humanity seems possible by giving due value to truth, saving it from the transgression of falsehood, taking animal freedom under control, backing the freedom of those who think, strive, live for others, and present the fruits of their lives to society before they depart from this world, making them live “forever.”

We do not wish to see humans act as slaves to carnal desires, getting more miserable every passing day with lowly feelings. We wish to see the faces who have reached inner tranquility by being servants to the Truth, those who kept away from the dark and dirty affairs of oppressors, the pure faces which reflect heavenly beauties on their foreheads. We consider these faces crystallized in colorful lines-by faith and hope, by service and joy, by love and humanity-as the guardian angels of this blissful world, and we applaud them.

How laudable are these people in service of Truth, who have been purified while flowing toward eternity, who smile at their fortune with gratitude, and who seek the Creator-the source of all beauties-through the tongue of the fish in the ocean and the gazelle on the plain, and who are enraptured with the pledge of eternity!

What are the basic traits that a teacher should have to be able to help students attain necessary language skills and cultural knowledge in an L2? As language educators, we receive this question all the time. Unfortunately, the answer to this question is not an easy one because research involving curriculum analyses, both in the United States and in Europe, has revealed a significant amount of variation in the number of domains and competencies covered in L2 teacher education programs (Richards, 2008). While some programs have predominantly focused on language and L2 acquisition research and theory, others have taken a more linguistics and methods-orientated direction. In general, though, most experts in the field would agree on a number of fundamental competencies.

Competent L2 teachers know who their learners are (1), what language is (2), how it is learned (3), and how it should be taught (4). Furthermore, they have a solid background about the foundations of L2 curriculum (5), the selection and development of instructional materials (6), and the design of a learning environment (7) that is sensitive to socio-cultural differences (8). They also know how to use the L2 as a tool for L2 learners to gain access to academic content knowledge (9). While they are also able to situate the whole language learning and teaching experience within broader learning theories (10), and competently assess and evaluate L2 development and proficiency (11), they are well aware of their professional roles and responsibilities as advocates for successful L2 education in its entirety at all levels, including institutional, national, and international. Indeed, these competencies have been categorized under the five domains of (I) Language Learning, (II) Learners, (III) Instruction, (IV) Assessment and Evaluation, and (V) Professionalism and Advocacy. Before any further ado, let’s take a look at what each competency entails.

Domain I: Language learning

This domain includes background knowledge and skills in (1) linguistics, (2) general learning theories, and (3) first and second language acquisition theories. First, L2 teachers need to be highly proficient in the language that they teach. Competent L2 teachers understand the nature of language and basic concepts of language systems such as phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, semantics, discourse, and pragmatics. They are also familiar with socio-linguistic, psycho-linguistic, and neuro-linguistic factors in L2 learning. Furthermore, they know the functions and register of the L2, including the conventions of written and spoken language, and the pedagogical implications of differences between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) (Cummins, 1984). In addition, they understand the interrelatedness of receptive (listening, reading), productive (speaking, writing), and complementary (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation) language skills.

Second, competent L2 teachers are familiar with the basic theories and concepts about first (L1) and L2 acquisition, including the language universals (Chomsky, 1965), and the role L1 plays in L2 development. While they understand differences between the processes of L1 and L2 acquisition, they have a solid background in second language acquisition (SLA) theories. For example, they know how to use different ways to maximize the comprehensible input (Krashen, 1987) opportunities for their students through authentic tasks and activities. More importantly, they know that the greatest bulk of an L2 is acquired through self-exposure and social interactions, not learned in strictly structured and inauthentic classroom settings. Finally, competent L2 teachers are able to situate SLA theories within the broader learning theories. For instance, they understand behaviorist (memorization) versus cognitivist (information processing) versus socio-constructivist (socio-cultural factors) views (Pavlenko – Lantolf, 2000) about L2 learning and development.

Domain II: Learners

Current SLA research has revealed that socio-psychological factors affect success in learning an L2. This domain covers teacher knowledge about (1) differences among language learners and (2) their levels of socio-cultural awareness. Individual differences, such as motivation, attitudes, anxiety, identity, learning styles, pedagogical beliefs, socialization patterns, and learning and communicative strategies affect success in learning an L2. For example, many scholars have found that high motivation has a positive effect on L2 learning (Dörnyei, 2005) while learners with high levels of anxiety do not seem be successful language learners (Horwitz, 2008). In fact, researchers have found that learners who strongly identify with the L2 community attain a more native-like accent than those who strongly identify with their native-speaking communities Dörnyei – Ushioda, 2009). Competent L2 teachers know about the role these factors might play in L2 attainment and plan the learning experience for their students accordingly.

Other learner-related factors concern the socio-cultural differences. L2 learners come from different families and geographical regions with different socio-economic and educational backgrounds, demonstrating a significant amount of cultural diversity. Culturally responsive L2 teachers understand the role of diversity – namely cultural products, perspectives, and practices – in L2 attainment. They know not only how to construct culturally-sensitive learning experiences to facilitate the most effective learning, but also what strategies to apply to create among students an awareness of and respect for cultural diversity. Indeed, culturally competent teachers effectively apply skills for communicating and collaborating effectively with the parents/guardians, the community members, and local resources to enhance their students’ learning. For example, such teachers not only genuinely value cultural diversity and incorporate it into the curriculum, but also organize extra-curricular activities in appreciation of diversity as an added value for advancement.

Domain III: Instruction

Under this domain, we have instructional competencies including (1) foundations of curriculum, (2) methods of language teaching, (3) learning environment, (4) instructional materials, and (5) language and content area integration. First, competent L2 teachers know the history and policy foundations of L2 education and use this knowledge to plan and implement effective L2 programs (Richards, 2001). They are able to select the most effective types of programs that are appropriate for the needs of a particular learner profile in a particular setting. For example, while most scholars agree that bilingual and immersion programs are the most effective, the most common English as a second language (ESL) programs in the U.S. are the pull-out ones, also known as the least effective programs that are primarily based on the development of BICS skills while neglecting the teaching of CALP via content-based curricula.

Second, competent L2 teachers are also able to choose and implement the most appropriate and current methods of language teaching. Such teachers know that we have come a long way since the grammar translation and audio-lingual method (Richards – Rodgers, 2001), however, we no longer adhere to one particular method because we live in the beyond-methods’ era (Kumaravadivelu, 2006). Nonetheless, this does not imply a senseless, eclectic approach; rather it entails being flexible within a consistent theoretical and pedagogical framework often referred to as “principled eclecticism” (Larsen-Freeman, 2003). Third, as the current ecological L2 learning theories would suggest (Brown, 2006), just as only a balanced amount of sun, water and care, in a nurturing environment, can lead to the healthy growth of a flower, instructional methods can lead to success in L2 learning only if the learning environment is meticulously designed.

Last but not least, an important part of what constitutes a nurturing environment is the availability of effective instructional resources. Competent L2 teachers are not only well-informed about the strengths and weakness of commercial and authentic materials but also possess the necessary skills to select, adapt, or develop their own materials based on the specific needs and goals of their students. Indeed, competent L2 teachers use the instructional materials that integrate the language and content area goals, supporting L2 learners’ BICS, CALP, and academic achievement (Cummins, 1984). For example, most English-medium universities overseas have English preparatory programs to prepare students to be able to receive, say, engineering or economics content in English; however, instead of conducting a needs analysis and basing their EFL instruction on the content of these majors, most of these programs select generic commercial materials that often times include linguistic input predominantly about shopping, holidays, food, and friendship.

Domain IV: Assessment and evaluation

This domain covers knowledge and skills about the assessment and evaluation of L2 learners’ language development. It includes background in L2 testing skills related to the placement, diagnostic, achievement, and proficiency of L2 learners. Competent L2 teachers know the commonly used national and international standard assessment tools, such as TOEFL. Such teachers also know the basic concepts and practices related to test design, development, and interpretation. In addition to understanding the validity and reliability of testing methods and tools, they understand potential relationships among the national standards, instruction, and L2 testing. More importantly, in their classrooms, they effectively apply knowledge of formal/informal, direct/indirect, and dynamic and authentic assessment. Most importantly, however, competent teachers are familiar with the construct of the “backwash effect” – the effect testing might have on student learning (Hughes, 2003). Successful learning will not take place if teaching and testing goals and/or methods are incongruent. For example, if writing skills are tested by multiple choice tests, students will invest their time and effort in developing their skills to respond to such questions, not in working on actual writing skills that they will need in real-life tasks.

Domain V: Professionalism and Advocacy

As part of the last domain, L2 teachers are required to possess certain professional qualifications and individual characteristics to be able to support L2 learners’ linguistic, cultural, and academic development. This domain lies at the heart of the profession. Competent L2 teachers demonstrate knowledge of the history of L2 teaching, keep up-to-date with new trends and current educational research, and follow domestic and international issues related to language planning and policy, as well as other advances in L2 education. Moreover, considering language learners spend only a limited amount of time with language teachers, it is very important that L2 teachers collaborate with the mainstream teachers and build partnerships with outside resources and parents to support the linguistic, cultural, and content areas of development. Also noteworthy is that such teachers claim responsibility for L2 learners and are able to apply effective strategies to advocate educational and social equity for their students, both at the institutional and broader community levels (Crawford, 2004). For instance, such teachers serve as a resource to promote a school environment that values cultural and linguistic diversity, and they advocate for equitable access to resources for language learners by becoming members of organizations (e. g.: TESOL) that support L2 learning and teaching.

Furthermore, in order for teachers to apply these professional competencies in actual classroom practices, they need to posses certain individual characteristics and dispositions that complement their professional qualifications. Unlike learning other subjects, language learning requires a great deal of patience and perseverance. Hence, L2 teachers need to be caring, compassionate, understanding, self-sacrificing, and patient. They need to establish a good rapport and empathy with their students, offering them timely motivational support. Only by doing so can they understand their students’ socio-psychological well-being and invest additional personal time and effort in students’ learning.

Last but not least, L2 teachers need to remain positive and enthusiastic about their students’ progress, because the process of L2 development is a bumpy road with lots of ups and downs. To help their students, teachers need to be able to identify their students’ struggles correctly and provide them with developmentally appropriate support. In addition, they need to be fair and treat all of their students equally. In doing so, they need to know their students very well and think outside the box, supplying innovative in-class and self-study strategies. Finally, in order for L2 teachers to be able to competently demonstrate these personal traits, they need to have effective communication skills. While such teachers are very good and empathetic listeners, they also need to be able to communicate their thoughts and feelings effectively, and with mutual respect and appreciation, to support their students’ learning.

Saban Cepik is Assistant Professor/Department Chair, ELT, Zirve University.

References

• Brown, D. H. (2006). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (5th Edition). New York: Pearson ESL.
• Chomsky, N. (1965), Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press
• Cummins, J. (1984) Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
• Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English Learners: Language Diversity in the Classroom. (5th ed). Los Angeles, CA: Bilingual Education Services.
• Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Dörnyei, Z. – Ushioda, E. (Eds.). (2009). Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
• Horwitz, E.K. (2008). Becoming a language teacher: A practical guide to second language learning and teaching. Boston, MA: Allyn – Bacon, Inc.
• Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Krashen, S.D. (1987). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. New York: Prentice-Hall.
• Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). TESOL methods: Changing tracks, challenging trends. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 59-81.
• Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring. Boston: Thompson-Heinle.
• Pavlenko, A., – Lantolf, J. P. (2000). Second language learning as participation and the (re)construction of selves. In J. Lantolf (Eds.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning: Recent advances (pp. 1545-177). New York: Oxford University Press.
• Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. NY: Cambridge University Press.
• Richards, J. C. (2008). Second language teacher education today. RELC Journal, 39: 158-177.
• Richards, J., – Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brittlestars form a large group of sea animals that are similar to starfish. There are more than 2,000 species of brittlestars. However, this article will focus on two of them, Ophiocoma pumila (Figure 1a) and Ophiocoma wendtii (Figure 1b). In spite of their similar appearance, these two kinds of brittlestars have one main difference. While O. pumila is insensitive to light, O. wendtii is highly light sensitive. For example, the latter has different colors at day and night, as shown in Figure 1b, left and right respectively. More interestingly, O. wendtii can sense shadows of predators and quickly move into dark areas such as a cave or underneath a rock.

To understand the mechanisms behind the difference in light sensitivities of these two species, Joanna Aizenberg and her colleagues investigated1 the microstructure of both brittlestars’ outer skeletons with an electron microscope and came up with a striking result: The top surface of O. wendtii’s skeleton has very well ordered lens-like hemi spherical elements (Figure 1f). The cross section image of one of those hemispheres actually looks like a compound lens made up from two hemispheres with different diameters (Figure 1g). On the other hand, O. pumila’s skeleton had a typical stereom (sponge-like calcite) structure (Figure 1e). These images strongly suggest that the lenses in O. wendtii’s skeleton are responsible for the relatively high light sensitivity. However, understanding how that really happens require further investigation.

It is well-known that spherical lenses suffer from a problem called “spherical aberration,” which means that the light rays that are closer to the optical axis are focused at a different point than the ones that are away from the axis. A quick solution to this problem is to use two lenses, whose diameters have a certain ratio, back to back; this helps to correct the aberration originating from the first one with the second one. Interestingly, when Aizenberg et. al. calculated1 the optimum compound lens configuration for O. wendtii’s skeleton, which has the minimum aberration, their result matched the original lens structure perfectly (the orange outline in Figure 1e). They were also able to locate the focal point of these lenses (d = 4-7 um* below the lens) with the same method. Their further electron microscopy studies showed optically sensitive nerve bundles exactly at that location. All these results clearly show that O. wendtii’s skeleton has the perfect geometry to collect and focus light to improve its light sensitivity. However, there is one big question about these lenses: their material.

Calcite, a kind of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is a common ingredient of the shell or the skeleton of marine organisms. Interestingly, the birefringence property of calcite makes it very unfavorable as a lens material. In a birefringent material the speed of the light depends on the direction it travels with respect to the crystallographic axes of the material. As a result, if one looks through it, they will observe a doubly refracted image (Figure 2). Being the most famous example of birefringent crystals, calcite’s refractive index is 1.64 parallel to one crystallographic axis and 1.49 in the perpendicular direction. Therefore a regular calcite lens cannot focus light on a single spot, unless it is oriented along a special crystallographic axis (c-axis to be specific), which would be along the diagonal of the prism in Figure 2.

At this point we are not surprised to learn that the optical axis of the O. wendtii’s lenses, and the c-axis of the calcite crystal that they are made of, indeed overlap. We are not surprised because we already had a strong feeling that these lenses should work. However, it is quite surprising that these little creatures can grow single crystals of calcite with a specific crystallographic orientation. As Kenneth Towe states in the context of a similar study, “This precise orientation of crystals is the big mystery of biomineralization. Organisms know how to do it; we do not yet know how they know.”3

Biomineralization, the controlled deposit of inorganic minerals by living organisms, is a very active research field attracting many scientists from various disciplines, including biology, physics, chemistry, and material science. In general, controlling crystal structures at small length scales is a very challenging task. Scientists spend millions of dollars to build state-of-the-art facilities for single crystal materials synthesis. They work in clean rooms, under an ultra high vacuum and at extremely high temperatures. On the other hand, from brittlestars to large whales, almost all living creatures have biominerals, such as bones and shells, manufactured in chemically dirty environments and at decent temperatures. Organisms are apparently equipped more efficiently than our laboratories are.

A. Ali Eren has a Ph.D. in Physics and lives in the USA. He studies physical chemistry of biological processes.

References

*1 um (micron) is one thousandth of a millimeter. Human hair is approximately 100 micron thick.

1. Aizenberg, Joanna, et al. “Calcitic microlenses as part of the photoreceptor system in brittlestars.” Nature 412.6849 (2001): 819-822.
2. ttp://jademellor.com/blog/2013/6/21/rainbow-rhombus, accessed 4/20/2014
3. Towe, Kenneth M. “Sea urchins as crystallographers.” Science 311.5767 (2006): 1554-1555.

The Fountain: What was the role of Islamic civilization in the interim period between the ancient Greeks and the European renaissance?

Salim Ayduz: The advent of Islamic civilization was after the Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Greek civilizations. Muslims studied and analyzed the developments these previous civilizations had made in the sciences and technologies, and then built their own science. Islamic civilization made a brilliant analysis of the earlier ones. Muslims engaged in a fascinating translation work of many ancient books into their own languages, mostly Arabic, and occasionally Persian and Turkish. They did not remain limited to translation; they were critical of what they were translating, and drew upon the text to develop the ideas further. While they were transferring knowledge to their culture and context, they also enhanced it, corrected some mistaken views, and came up with countless new things. Because these contributions from Islamic civilization to science are not known, there is a common misconception that Muslims merely transmitted knowledge through translations.

It is claimed many works and inventions originating from Islamic civilization were adopted in Europe without acknowledgement; are there any concrete examples of this?

There are numerous examples. The most famous one is Copernicus. We see that Copernicus exactly copied scientific facts-such as the models of the moon, solar system, and some facts about the movements of the moon-from previous Muslim scientists, such as Ibn Shatir and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, who had established the first real observatory in Maragheh, East Azerbaijan. However, Copernicus neither mentioned al-Tusi nor Ibn Shatir. Likewise, there was a person who used the name Constantine the African and died around 1099. He translated many books written by Islamic scientists and published them as if they were his own works. The scientific terminology that was used in the Renaissance period did not appear from nowhere, but was taken from the heritage of Islamic civilization, which had accumulated over centuries. It is possible to give a lot of examples of this kind, not only in philosophy but in almost all areas of life. There are number of words and terms that passed from Islamic civilization to Europe. For example, the word “arsenal” means a store of weapons. At the time, it used to denote a dock for the construction and repair of ships. Etymologically, it comes from the Arabic dar-as-sina’ah/house of industry. It first became darsana, and then darsanal. It finally passed to English as Arsenal.

It is difficult to cite a good many great scientists and great inventions in Europe before Isaac Newton. The few existing ones became prominent with a few translated works from the Islamic world. Thus, Newton made a great leap due to the developments and scientific values of Islamic civilization. As an expression of this fact, Newton said, “If I have seen further, it was by standing on the shoulders of giants.” Undoubtedly, he was referring to the Muslim scientists who had lived previously.

It was the same with Copernicus. Leonardo da Vinci, as well, made copies or more developed forms of the works previously developed by Al-Jazari, Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi, and the Banu Musa brothers. According to a recent report in The Guardian, Da Vinci’s mother was a woman of Middle East origins. Interestingly, most works from this period of Islamic civilization are found in the library of manuscripts in the Vatican. For example, there is only a single copy of Al-Muradi’s Kitab al-Asrar fi Nataij al-Afkar (Book of Secrets in the Results of Ideas), which is a very significant work in Islam’s history of technology and engineering, and that is conserved in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana of Florence.

So you are saying that Europe adopted the sciences produced by Islamic civilization?

Islamic civilization made great contributions to science. For example, one of the most essential subjects studied throughout the world is Algebra, which was developed by Al-Khwarizmi. His work, Al-Jabr wa al-Muqabala, is the foundation of all math textbooks in the world today.

One of the most important components of science is laboratory research and testing. But where does the tradition and system of laboratory research come from? A book published in the U.S. – Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist – gives us the answer: Ibn al-Haytham was an Egyptian scientist who lived in the eleventh century. He invented the dark room, the antecedent of the photo camera. In addition, he is famous for making the first laboratory experiments. He made pioneering works for the laboratory systems of today. It is necessary to give everybody their due in the history of science.

What are your suggestions in this respect?

Textbooks must relate the necessary facts. It is unfair to talk about Copernicus and Kepler in the history of Astronomy but not about al-Tusi, Ibn Shatir, Taqi al-Din Rasid, and Ali Qushji. It is wrong to solely mention Newton without any reference to Abu Bakr Razi and Jabir. It is unfortunate to not find Avicenna, Ibn Nafis, and Zahrawi mentioned in the history of medicine.

History does not record any developed math prior to Muslims. People wrote on dust and made calculations by fingers. Roman numerals were not suitable at all for math. By transferring methods from Islamic civilization, Fibonacci developed the numerals, numbers, and system of formulas, and came up with modern mathematics.

As for another example, Al-Biruni was the person behind the science of mineralogy. He was one of the people who scientifically proved, for the first time, that the world is round and is turning.

And today these scientists are being uncovered in the West?

Yes. Ironically in the West, rather than in the East where they are faded into oblivion. For example, Ali Qushji lived in Istanbul and was one of the chief architects of Ottoman science. He was the scientist who proved, in terms of physics, that the moon is round and the world is rotating around its own axis. The West has newly begun to discover Ali Qushji.

How about the later periods? Is it possible to count other such names?

Within the last century there are numerous examples, such as Hulusi Behçet, the person who described Behcet’s disease first. I wrote an article on two innovative Sufi sheikhs. One of them is Ethem Effendi, who was the sheikh of the Sufi lodge of the Uzbeks in Istanbul and lived during the time of Sultan Abdul Hamid II. He invented a single-piston engine and some other tools. All of them are preserved today in the same Sufi lodge. The other is Tevfik Effendi, one of the greatest math researchers. His book named Linear Algebra was published in English in 1872 in Istanbul.

There are many important scientists who merit attention. While talking about mathematics, it is necessary to mention the names of Al-Khwarizmi, Abdul Hamid ibn al-Turk, Mustafa Sidqi, and Matrakçı Nasuh. Most people have never heard their names. Teachers should mention their names in certain contexts. Or they should talk about Jabir ibn Hayyan, when talking about chemistry. Most of these were founders of a discipline, and you do not found a discipline everyday! Just as Jabir ibn Hayyan was the founder of chemistry, Ibn Khaldun was the pioneer of sociology.

Only people like the cartographer captain, Piri Reis, are known to some extent, thanks to UNESCO and some media coverage about him. Islands, mountains, and regions that appeared on his world map were discovered by Europeans three centuries after he drew this world map. We still have not discovered the secret of the Piri Reis’ maps.

It seems that what we know about the history of science needs a good deal of revision.

There were very important masters of firearms technology, who produced weapons, gunpowder, and cannons. Some of them developed the first rockets, but there is not even a decent museum to display such works. The same goes for architecture, but fortunately, it is possible to see many of the works at least. The great architectural genius Sinan constructed 477 buildings. Look at Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul. It is still standing firm despite many earthquakes over five centuries. How did he achieve it?

What was the factor that brought about the period of decline? Was it simply laziness, a change of regime, or lack of means?

Actually, it is not possible to explain everything with a single reason. On the one hand, there was political and, more importantly, economic decline. The most important incentive behind the scientific developments in the West was prosperity. Most scientists were from aristocratic families. They collected important manuscripts of Islamic civilization without any financial problems. Then they locked themselves in their homes and studied for days. On the other hand, there were the financial gains from newly discovered lands, which facilitated the process. New inventions triggered further developments.

Is there sufficient financial support for this field in Muslim countries?

It is a bit difficult to say. When you suggest a project as a scientist, the budget they provide is so low in comparison to those in Europe. Let me give a simple example. Ptolemy has an essential work in the field of geography, titled Almagest. It is the most important historical work on geography, astronomy, space science, and cosmology. It was a work from which Muslim scientists greatly benefited. In the 9th century, it was translated into Arabic. The original copy is lost. The budget allocated to a European scientist who would unearth all translated versions of this work to rebuild the original was five million euros. It is almost impossible in Muslim countries to get high amounts to unearth a single manuscript.

Before Britain, you used to work in Turkey. Are there any such manuscripts that call for research?

There are thousands of manuscripts left to oblivion in libraries. Each of them is precious like a diamond, but it is unreasonably difficult to approach them. There has been press coverage about the condition of the manuscripts in the Topkapi Palace. They were almost left to decay. It is one of the most valuable libraries in the world and they kept it closed for more than five years. Now you need to have an appointment to enter and there are different obstacles for researchers. They have opened an establishment for manuscripts. We are trying to publish here a facsimile of a work whose original is found in Topkapi Palace. They insisted for nine months that they wouldn’t give us a copy of the work. Similarly, it took me six months to receive the copyright payment of a project about the Piri Reis map, which will be published by Oxford University. Authorities have to facilitate easy access to these archives and manuscripts for researchers to be able to uncover the treasures of the past, possibly in digital format via the Internet.

It is said that some manuscripts were destroyed or smuggled abroad within the last century. Do you have any knowledge about this?

We hear every now and then that manuscripts are taken to countries where they are sold for higher prices. This has been a serious problem for many years. When they are not appreciated at home, it almost becomes inevitable for them to be taken abroad. Some works taken abroad and bought for personal libraries disappear for good. However, some, particularly the works that reach libraries in Europe and the U.S., are preserved well and it is easy to study these works. In addition, there are antiques trading companies in the West. For example, I contacted an establishment named Sam Fogg in order to see a manuscript in their possession. They invited me right away and gave me the opportunity to study. When I went there, I saw that hundreds, maybe thousands, of works of Islamic civilization were awaiting sale. The bitter fact is that they are not accessible once they’re sold to personal libraries. I wish it were possible to get a digital copy of such works before they are sold.

What are your opinions about a history of science curriculum?

Instead of teaching history of science as a separate subject, I think it will be more appropriate to refer to these scientists during the normal course of a given subject. If you ask students of medicine what they learned about Ibn Sina (Avicenna), their answer will most probably be “nothing.” Until the 1800s, Avicenna’s work al-Qanun was studied by European medical faculties as an essential course book; in the East and West alike, nobody could become a doctor without studying al-Qanun.

Another great figure, Şerafettin Sabuncuoglu, is completely unknown. He was a surgeon who lived during the time of Mehmed II. He was the scientist who wrote the first illustrated book of surgery in the world. He showed methods of surgery and how to use surgery tools. Incidentally, let me note that there were female surgeons as well, which is wonderful.

Another surgeon, Zahrawi of Andalusia, invented nearly 200 surgical tools, almost all of which reached our time and are still being used in hospitals.

Who was the greatest scientist of the Ottomans in your opinion?

I’d say Taqi al-Din Rasid, without hesitation. In the 1570s, he founded an observatory in Istanbul, which I think was the most remarkable observatory of all Islamic civilization. He made very important contributions, through books he wrote, to such disciplines as mathematics and astronomy. He invented a water pump with six cylinders. Nobody knows today about the observatory he established in Taksim. He made astronomical observatories from the Galata Tower for many years.

I first came across his ideas in the 70s, through a book, Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1970), by two American authors, Sheila Ostrander and Lynn Schroeder.

Reflecting somewhat the counterculture of the 60s and 70s, the authors were exploring psychic matters and occultism, and for that purpose they visited Soviet Russia, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia in the summer of 1968. As described in the back cover, “they reveal astonishing breakthroughs and key personalities spearheading exploration of man’s unknown powers” in laboratories from Prague to Moscow.

One place they stopped was the Pulkovo Observatory near St. Petersburg (then Leningrad), “the principal observatory of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the timekeeping Greenwich of Russia” (today The Central Astronomical Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences) to meet Dr. Kozyrev. They were going there to discuss “an amazing theory of time” developed by Kozyrev, whom the authors described as “one of the Soviet Union’s most renowned astrophysicists” (p. 157).

Kozyrev does deserve this praise, as he was only 17 when he published his first scientific paper. When he graduated in physics and mathematics from the University of Leningrad, he was only twenty. And by the age of twenty-eight, he had already won distinction as an astronomer and had taught at several colleges (p. 158).

He was brimming with new ideas and life was as good as he could possibly have wished it to be. Then the ax fell. In 1936 he was arrested in the Stalinists repressions and in 1937 he began eleven crushing years in a prison camp. … When he was at last rehabilitated and could return to astronomy, Kozyrev made a series of brilliant predictions about the Moon, Venus, and Mars. Much later, Soviet space probes proved him right. (p. 158)

Like many other geniuses throughout world history, his announcements were received with skepticism in the beginning. In 1958, for instance, he announced volcanic activity on the moon, which meant that there were vast natural resources to exploit. Scientists “classified him as an eccentric hunting for gas on the moon. They knew this was not possible.” But he was proven right when Dr. Harold Urey, a U.S. Nobel Prize winner, talked with him and NASA started the enormous “Moon Blink” project. Eventually, gas emissions were found on the moon.

Kozyrev was proposing a new theory when he said, “Time is a form of energy. It is to time’s properties that we should look in order to find the source that maintains the phenomenon of life in the world.” With all credit to his other findings, this theory on time may sound completely irrelevant and without basis to scientists today; but as mentioned in the beginning, the purpose of this review is not to confirm his theory, but to open up a long forgotten gateway for researchers studying time and ether.

Although approached with suspicion today, parapsychology studies peaked in the eastern bloc in the 1960s, which was the main reason the two American authors felt the need to travel overseas and spend three years researching their 450-page book. “Parapsychology, nonexistent just a decade before, was suddenly flourishing all over the USSR,” they wrote. When the authors looked beyond Iron Curtain politics, “behind the lace curtains of everyday Russia,” they began to come across “some very unusual material about life.”

“Soviet scientists were asking publicly, ‘What is man?’ Do we have unused, undreamed of potentials? Can parapsychology melt the barriers and create the supernormal human being? These were heady questions to read in Soviet publications.”

In 1966, the authors noted, the influential journal Science and Religion put out a special issue, No. 3, on current Russian telepathy research. Outstanding Soviets, including such notables as Dr. Nikolai Semyonov, a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry and Vice President of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, called for further scientific investigations of telepathy. It was in this time and context when Kozyrev’s research intensified and his speculative theory came into a form.

The authors noted that, according to some Soviet scientists (p. 159), ESP (extrasensory perception) “may involve an unknown form of energy,” which Kozyrev called “time,” in the telepathic transfer of “thought” instantly from one person to another.

“Time is the most important and most enigmatic property of nature. Time is not propagated like light waves; it appears immediately everywhere. The altered properties of a certain second of time will appear instantly everywhere at once, just as time is everywhere. Time links us all and all things in the universe,” Dr. Kozyrev told the authors in his high-ceilinged office at Pulkovo. The authors noted the following from their interview with Kozyrev:

Kozyrev’s “time” has a number of properties which he says can be studied in the scientist’s lab. He has found, for instance, that this “X” energy, or “time,” is denser near the receiver of an action and thinner near the sender. He showed us some of the instruments he has devised to chart this unusual effect. The basic equipment includes precision gyroscopes, asymmetrical pendulums, and torsion balances. The instruments, when set up in a complex arrangement, react showing a change in time density near a mechanical action (like stretching elastic) or a chemical action (like burning sugar).

This is the gist of what happens in one of the more simple experiments: a long elastic is stretched by a machine. You can think of this elastic as having two poles. The “pull” or cause end and the “stretch” or effect end. When the elastic is stretched, the registering equipment, consisting mainly of an asymmetrical pendulum made with a gyroscope, arcs toward the effect pole of the elastic. This deflection is imperceptible to the eye, but easily registered on the sensitive instruments. It is a highly important effect. It shows there has been an increase in the intensity of time, according to Dr. Kozyrev. “This has nothing to do with force fields. We shielded and calculated out any possible influence of electrostatic or any other force.” Considering Kozyrev’s rarified caliber as a scientist, he probably knows what he is talking about.

Kozyrev’s instruments also showed a thinning of time near the “cause” end of the elastic, and this was possible even when the “cause-effect” equipment was shielded by a wall one yard thick: “It reacts even through iron tubes.” Chemical cause-effect, like burning sugar, also showed the change in time density. “We postulate,” Dr. Kozyrev said, “that time is thin around the cause and dense around the effect.”

According to the authors, “what Dr. Kozyrev has found in these tests can be called PK (psychokinesis),” for the chemical events acted on the gyroscope pendulum at a distance and without the use of any known force. Dr. Kozyrev would say that “time density” brought on this startling action at a distance. PK is usually considered not as matter affecting matter from a distance, but as a mind affecting matter. The authors asked Kozyrev whether thought might have any effect on this time density. “Yes,” Dr. Kozyrev replied. “Thought definitely affects the reaction. When I purposefully think of poetry or something emotional during the test, the equipment registers more of a change than when I think of mathematical calculations. Our thoughts may change the density of time.”

“Would the density of time, then, have something to do with telepathy?” asked the authors.

“Telepathy always depends on the density of time. Time would be thin near the sender of the thought and denser around the receiver. We’ve already done tests in our lab to try to artificially change the density of time. When we can make time dense at will, we can make telepathy happen when we want it,” Dr. Kozyrev feels.

What else affects the density of time? Thunderstorms, the weather, the change of season, the activity of growing things, gravity, and density of matter have an effect on time density, which lingers longer in some substances than in others. “It remains twice as long in aluminum as in lead and five times longer in wood than in lead” (p. 162).

Another characteristic of the energy Kozyrev called “time” is that it has a flow pattern, according to his findings:

Dr. Kozyrev thought about all living organisms-animals, plants, people. Our right and left sides are not mirror images. More of the heart is on the left than the right side. Microbes produce colonies of a spiral structure. Protoplasm, the basic building block of life, is not symmetrical either. Asymmetry is a basic property of life. This can’t be a chance thing, Dr. Kozyrev thought. … Perhaps the energy of “time” flows in this pattern. If so, Dr. Kozyrev figured, he could see it and measure it in a rotating body like a gyroscope. Altering the time pattern in a rotating system should add or subtract energy.

After years of careful experiments, Dr. Kozyrev and his colleagues found that in a left-hand rotating system the time flow is positive-it adds energy. In a right-hand system the time flow is negative. … In Dr. Kozyrev’s view our world is a left-hand system and it has a positive time flow that adds energy to our universe.

Time not only has a pattern of flow, says Dr. Kozyrev, but also a rate of flow. He calls “the rate of flow” the difference between cause and effect. “As the rate of the time flow through a substance changes, weight is lost,” Dr. Kozyrev told us. “It means that ‘levitation’ is a perfectly practical possibility.” (p. 163)

Time or ether?

Time is not matter. According to Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, “time is like an aspect or a ‘ribbon’ of motion” (The Thirty-First Word, p. 591). That is, time is not possible without motion. I argue that what Kozyrev thought he discovered was not time, but perhaps had to with what is called ether, an element which is assumed by some cosmologists to be the essence of all existence, but which is also disregarded by many scientists today. Bediuzzaman is one of those scholars who referenced ether in his work. In his partial Qur’anic exegesis, The Sign of Miraculousness (Isharat al-I’jaz first published in 1914), Bediuzzaman explained the verse (Hud 11:7) as follows:

… the verse “the heavens and the earth were at first one piece, and then We parted them as separate entities”(21:30) indicates that the earth and the solar system were a sort of dough kneaded by the hand of power out of a simple substance; I mean ether, which compared with beings is a fluid substance that passes through and among them. The verse “His Supreme Throne was upon the water”(11:7) alludes to this matter, which resembles water. After its creation, the ether received the Maker’s first manifestation giving existence; that is, He created the ether, then He made it into the subatomic particles (jawâhir farda) … (Isharat al-I’jaz, pp. 254)

For Bediuzzaman, ether was something like an interface upon which all acts of God were displayed:

… being an extremely subtle, fine, obedient and subjugated page for the All-Majestic Maker’s acts, being a means for the transmission of His commands, being an extremely delicate veil for the execution of His decrees, being refined ink for His writing, being a finest raiment to clothe His acts of creation, being a fundamental component in His artifacts and a field in which to sow His seeds, ether acts as a mirror for the manifestations of the Lordship of God. (The Thirtieth Gleam, p. 477)

Bediuzzaman also referred to “ether” when he said “refined matter” in the following quote: “Such subtle and refined matters as light, electricity, and heat point to the existence of a more subtle and refined matter that fills space” (The ThirtyFirst Word, p. 589).

The observations and findings of Kozyrev, though in desperate need of endorsement by objective scientific criteria, sound, from how the American authors revealed in their interview, as if referring to this mysterious subtle matter called “ether” rather than “time.”

Conclusion

The authors of this once popular book wrote in the Prologue that they “would have to be megalomaniacs to think that scores of highly reputable scientists from centers across the Soviet Union and the satellite countries all conspired to publish data for a decade and to bluff through interviews” to impress them when they happened to meet them. The authors further noted that “whether communist observations and theories about psychic happenings are right or not, can only be determined by further investigations East and West.”

Let us conclude with the following quote from the Prologue: “As Vladimir Mutshall wrote of current Soviet telepathy research in the American Foreign Science bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 8, ‘If the Russian reports are even partly true, and if mind-to-mind thought transference can be used for such things as interplanetary communications or the guiding of interplanetary spacecraft, the reports will obviously have overwhelming significance.'”

The main reason I have extensively quoted from this book is not to confirm any of the findings, but to encourage scientists to conduct further research into the essence of matter without completely disregarding phenomena like ether.

The most significant task falling on our shoulders nowadays is to serve the development of the world’s capacity for knowledge and learning. Falling behind in this mission exemplifies the worst cases of being reactionary, obscuring the truth, or acting with bigotry; it is tantamount to failing to catch up with the world.

It is important to strike a balance between being faithful to the essence of religion and being revolutionary while interpreting God’s word, the Prophetic example, scholars’ rulings, and contemporary principles of guidance. Otherwise, it will be extremely difficult to make sense of unfolding events, recognize the blessings among them, and motivating yourself to good work. Narrating the epics of the past over friendly gatherings and self-gratifying is not the way to serve faith anymore; today’s matters are discussed in auditoriums, and the conditions of the day indicate universities, academic institutes, and research centers are the venues for solutions.

Today, there are plenty of problems to be solved in both the theological arena and the positive sciences. Bediuzzaman, who cautions us and invites skillful minds to contemplate his notable work The Reasonings (Muhakemat), notes that, “From the sixth century onwards (from the advent of Islam), everything began gradually to deteriorate in the nation of Islam” (2008, p. 34). We can then argue that no man of knowledge who was able to address contemporary problems has grown across the entire world of Islam during these several centuries. Yes, there were many men of learning who were advanced in their disciplines during this period and we do show them well-deserved respect. Yet true progress was shown in the first four centuries of Islamic history in the broadest proportions, and these achievements have not been equaled in the following centuries. That level of advancement should not be a distant dream today.

Yes, a period of congelation happened in the fifth century (eleventh century CE). Nizamiyya seems to be almost both a beginning and an end. In a way, it could be said that the last institution that gave what it could to the Islamic world was the Madrasa al-Nizamiyya. Whereas this last fountain had been a well of inspiration to many figures, such as Imam Ghazzali or Fahraddin al-Radhi, it later deviated from its objectives and could not perform the expected mission.

Coming back to our day, similar to what happened to Nizamiyya, there are many among us who have lagged behind in the course of time and events, and have resisted new transformative ideas as alternative paths to serving faith and humanity. It has been so bad that some have even opposed the ideas pertaining to a better education through successful schools and dorms to welcome as many students as possible; they’ve resisted starting TV networks and other media outlets, opening universities, etc., and their argument was whether such innovations existed and were valid in our tradition!

Some did their best to raise obstacles in the way of progress. Such reactionary ones will not decrease in number today nor tomorrow, for it is not easy to keep pace with our age and follow the developments enabled by computer technology and science. Having said that, people’s faith and devotions are exempt from such criticism; we do not speculate on those.

For that matter, the rather harsh accusations against the faithful communities that they are reactionary do have a foundation as the examples above clearly proves. Even if such accusations are not fair, believers should still ask themselves whether they truly follow the injunctions of their faith and live up to being good role models. Do Muslims represent the Qur’an in its true sense? We should perhaps approach this condemnation as a retribution arising from justice of destiny, even if it is maltreatment on the side of the condemners.

To cite an example, the last works on jurisprudence (fiqh) that are covered in classical Islamic scholarship are al-Multahak al-Abhur by Ibrahim Effendi of Aleppo and Durar wa Gurar by Molla Husrev, both from the fifteenth century CE. So much has changed after so many centuries, and scholars could have worked together to produce new volumes to address the needs of each and every age. Yet, as in the example of these two books, Islamic civilization has locked itself on certain matters and has failed to develop.

Muslims today have to solve their problems of education, and contribute to all of humanity’s cultural life with the richness of their culture and civilization. Towards this aim, the foundation of universities and substantial research centers is of a great importance. The scholars employed there shall re-examine everything stated in the name of science so far, and interpret science one more time, which is the only way to avoid dualism.

With this last expression, I especially would like to underline this fact: today, the positive sciences, with all their branches, rely on a materialistic philosophy which produces its own so-called “indisputable” truths. Naturally, while Muslims are trying to put forward something beyond these views in reconciliation with a faithful worldview, we can not help presenting issues like a patchwork.

Such an effort to take the present understanding of science and giving it a somewhat Islamic spin produces nothing more than an artificial synthesis. A true contribution of Muslims to our world would be when we can draw on our roots of knowledge and scientific approach, and produce some authentic work which is our property – this will only be possible through the work of revolutionary individuals who can think outside of the box.

This universe is a book that has emerged by the might, will-power, wish, and holy knowledge of God Almighty. And the speech of God, the holy book of revelation, is His declaration in the name of this book of the universe. Between these two books, there exists essentially no controversy. The understanding we wish to reach is this peak where these two sources of knowledge are reconciled once again. Academic studies should include a revisiting of classical theological work in the light of today’s positive sciences. What we can deduce today could perhaps be much more accurate than what was understood of these works before.

The task for believers should not only be to guide other believers to paradise, but rather, to make all the doors of the world open to the heavens for all.

This aspiration can only be realized by scientific knowledge, wisdom, a sound Islamic understanding, its vivification in one’s entire life, and presenting it in its naturally appealing way that all shall welcome. This goal is possible by dealing with all the issues of Islam at an academic level. Common thoughts and views at a lay level can promise nothing for this cause. Our culture will be resurrected and vivified by the people of true culture, and its life will be maintained and continued again by them. To cultivate the people who shall undertake such a mission surely falls upon us again.