Not yet knowing
as we
are known
we envision
One in all.

Embracing
letting go
justice
rolls down
gloriously.

Kasym lives with his grandson and daughter-in-law in the steppes. These steppes, native Kazakh land, can present challenges, particularly in winter. A harsh climate and specific geographic characteristics make life difficult. For those who are not born and raised there, things may be even harder. Daily life, work, travel, and other activities require struggles against nature’s routines. Kasym shepherds a herd of sheep on the steppes through winter and fights with the hardships of the season. On the other hand, some visiting hunters, equipped with advanced modern technology such as a vehicle, weapons, and a navigation tool, get lost; some even die.

Extreme cold weather and wild animals, mainly wolves, challenge the herd and the old man; they face fatal dangers. His grandson, Erali, having not heard from his grandfather for longer than expected takes off to search for Kasym. Although Erali and the old man do not seem to be on very good terms with each other, Erali’s efforts in looking for Kasym reveal his love towards his grandfather. Local folks, along with some rescuers, join Erali in his endeavor. Kasym is able to use his knowledge of the native land, where he spent all his life, to survive against the cold and the wolves’ attacks. Constantly moving, he manages to help a surviving hunter as well. Days later, just as his hopes are fading, Erali finds Kasym, who outwits nature while the visiting hunters lose their battle against the steppes.

Some critiques emphasize the parallels between Shal and Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea, about an old fisherman’s fight for a catch while fishing. This may be so on the surface as both plots weave an old man figure against nature. Both may convey a deeper message, though – the advantage of the native. Kasym’s refined local skills allow him to fight the great steppes, while a team of non-natives turn helpless. As a man of dala, the great openness, Kasym knows every trick the winter in the steppes will play on him and is ready to hit back. Kasym’s grandson, Erali, who helped initiate the rescue, may, on another level, be considered the heir to the local knowledge. Aware of the challenges in the steppes, despite his young age, Erali, a native too, is worried that the old man may be in danger.

Shal is a successful depiction of life in the dala, the great openness, of Kazakhstan. Stories such as Shal inspire thoughts on globalization and cultural identity. The artistic sphere reflects on global and local issues and provides insight into human experience. Globalization stands as one of the major issues affecting local cultures. As the world globalizes, it raises questions of a shared global culture versus local identity. A global culture comes into being through various social and cultural processes, sharing a worldview, language, opportunities, and even food (Bird – Stevens, 2003; Khondker, 2004). Cultural identity is defined by concepts of common history, and shared experiences, practices, and culture codes (Hall, 1996). Cultural identity, which may be shared by a nation, a people, or a community – as well as a diaspora – may provide people with the power for survival. It is alive and it is reshaped through new experiences (Fanon, 2007).

Many worry that the cultural identity of communities is threatened by globalization, since a global culture has been thought to be against the idea of local culture. Many questions have been put forward: Would globalization pose threats to local knowledge? Should the local be protected against globalization? Do global agreements respect local identities?

Financial gains as well as the social impacts of globalization have been the topics of many discussions and talks. Contemporary developments in internet technology and communication, through the outreach they provide, as well as improved transportation, seem to support globalization. Social media helps send messages around the globe in an instant. We are able to learn the news around the world with just a click. The globe “becomes flat” (Friedman, 2006), as multi-national companies turn borderless. Websites sell products to international customers.

Globalization, as threatening as it may sound to some, serves the common good in many respects. Smart phones, tablets, and other electronic devices accompany individuals around the clock, with apps constituting a globally shared environment where global and local characteristics interact. For instance, travelers around the globe are able to track international and local flights in an instant, no matter where they may be. International locations such as airports offer services available and known to travelers around the globe. Global aid organizations such as Kimse Yok Mu or Doctors without Borders reach those in need of assistance around the world. Policies about certain issues such as global warming cover millions, even billions, of people. Through global efforts to protect the environment, awareness is raised among many people. Global values such as human rights protect vast swaths of people (Castells, 2005). Global interfaith and intercultural dialogue efforts reach communities that are trying to avoid conflict. Various groups, communities, and nations may come to understand one another and resolve conflicts through global dialogue efforts. Different experiences are shared by the global community.

At the same time, what we consider global may help define its opposite, the local. Tomlinson’s (2003) approach to globalization and cultural identity brings along a broader lens through which to view globalization and identity. Contrary to perceiving globalization as the destroyer of cultural identity, Tomlinson puts forward globalization to generate identity. People may tend to identify with their own community the most in the event of globalization; their shared values, sense of space, and cultural identity empower continuity (Widdis, 2006). In a sense, awareness of globalization brings about awareness of local cultural identity. As in Thai educational reform (Jungck – Kajornsin, 2003), local wisdom is brought back to provide a larger living arena for generations to come. Local wisdom lives on as gleaned from a cultural existence in a local surrounding. On another level, Dupuis (2014) looked into cultural management issues between Canadian and French environments. What he concluded may be valid for localities around the globe. He emphasized the differences in local cultures and the variability of interaction between any global force and local elements. Thus, global contribution may rely on local wisdom.

In 1984, Kundera wrote in The Tragedy of Central Europe that the identity owned by a people is reflected in its culture and the culture becomes an increasingly-owned value for people if their shared identity is threatened. When global activities threaten local identity, it will be protected and emphasized more. The impact of globalization on local elements deserves longitudinal investigation. Yet, today, whenever there is some discussion of globalization, locality is invariably involved and the local elements affected by global activities are on the agenda of those interested.

Similarly, European Union regulations, when evaluated as documents with global characteristics, are almost always mentioned along with respect for local elements. EU legislation ensures respect for locality. Tomlinson (2003) stated that cultural identity, which will not be easily shaken by globalization, is a powerful dimension of community life. Global activities, instead of threatening, may be highlighting the local identities that represent various forms of belonging – belonging to a land, belonging in a particular culture, or belonging to a community or group. For instance, there is no doubt that locals seem to have an advantage in their own territories when extreme locations such as deserts, poles, or glaciers are considered. Populations living in or around these territories possess localized knowledge, experience, and familiarity, all of which define their identities. It would take a foreigner, no matter how well equipped, years to attain and master such knowledge.

The interaction between globalization and local elements may be viewed from even more diverse angles. For instance, although conflict on the international level is more visible (than interdependence), global activities may indicate a dimension of interdependence (Pevehouse, 2004) between the local and the global, similar to the interdependence among states in the US or the interdependence among EU countries. In Wittgenstein’s words, interdependence is very much a part of the natural context:

“Just as we cannot think of spatial objects at all apart from space, or temporal objects apart from time, so we cannot think of any object apart from the possibility of its connection with other things.”

Various considerations of globalization and locality breed new concepts such as glocalization and grobalization. Glocalization refers to the interaction between the global and the local, with distinct outcomes in some geographic regions (Ritzer, 2003). Singapore may be one example where glocalization processes prevailed. Grobalization, on the other hand, is about growth and globalization concerns in a more corporate sense. Both glocalization and grobalization, and related concepts of hybridity and creolization, are worth further appreciation. They are hereby mentioned solely for the sake of suggestion.

Thus, in the Shal, Kasym’s story would have taken a different course if the visiting hunters had collaborated with him, the native. Shal offers a beautifully painted picture of struggles for survival on a harsh land where local knowledge, wisdom, and expertise are invaluable and global information may mostly be short of depth.

References

• Bird, A., – Stevens, M. J. (2003). Toward an emergent global culture and the effects of globalization on obsolescing national cultures. Journal of International Management, 9(4), 395-407.
• Castells, M. (2010). Globalisation and identity. Quaderns de la Mediterrania, (5), 183-189.
• Dupuis, J. P. (2014). New approaches in cross-cultural management research The importance of context and meaning in the perception of management styles. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 14(1), 67-84.
• Fanon, F. (2007). The wretched of the earth. Grove Press.
• Friedman, T. L. (2006). The world is flat [updated and expanded]: A brief history of the twenty-first century. Macmillan.
• Hall, S. (1996). Cultural identity and cinematic representation. Black British cultural studies: A reader, 210-222.
• Jungck, S., – Kajornsin, B. (2003). Thai wisdom” and glocalization: Negotiating the global and the local in Thailand’s national education reform. Local meanings, global schooling: Anthropology and world culture theory, 27-49.
• Khondker, H. H. (2004). Globalization to Glocalization: Evolution of a Sociological Concept. Department of Sociology, National University of Singapore.
• Kundera, M. (1984). The tragedy of central Europe. The New York Review of Books, 31(7), 33-38.
• Pevehouse, J. C. (2004). Interdependence theory and the measurement of international conflict. Journal of Politics, 66(1), 247-266.
• Ritzer, G. (2003). Rethinking globalization: Glocalization/grobalization and something/nothing. Sociological theory, 21(3), 193-209.
• Widdis, R. W. (2006). Globalization, Glocalization and the Canadian West as Region: A Geographer’s View. Acadiensis, 129-137.
• http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2182115/

I was surprised and asked myself for a couple of seconds, “What time has come?”

A moment later, I remembered that Peter’s wife was expecting a baby. I had told them, “Whenever required, I will be ready with my car.” However, a few days earlier, my wife had told me that they still had a month until the baby was due.

I got up, dressed quickly, and went downstairs to meet them. We were at the hospital within 5-10 minutes. While his wife was being taken to the delivery room, Peter was both excited and nervous. We both waited outside the delivery room, praying.

After some time the doctor came out of the delivery room and told us that the baby was prematurely born and had to remain in special care for a while. Reassuring us that “premature” did not mean something serious, the doctor said, “No need to worry!” and continued: “We consider babies who are born before the 36th week to be premature. Nearly 8% of births are premature. There are many reasons behind this. Does your wife smoke cigarettes?”

Peter replied, “No.”

The doctor continued: “Even though premature birth usually is seen with mothers who abuse harmful substances like cigarettes, and those who work difficult jobs and suffer from malnutrition, there are also other physiological causes. Babies who are born prematurely are put into incubators to protect them and help regulate their temperatures. Monitoring the body temperature of a baby inside an incubator is very important; if their body temperature drops below a certain degree, it could be life threatening.”

Peter became sad and confused. He must have imagined babies in incubators as lonely and deprived of their mothers’ attention. He hesitantly asked, “Isn’t there any other way?”

The doctor said, “In fact there is; recently, a more effective new method that can replace incubators has been found. We can implement it depending on the condition of the baby.”

We started to pay more attention to the doctor.

“The method is called Kangaroo Mother Care. The premature baby is initially taken into an incubator for a review of his or her overall health. Then, the baby is handed over to the mother to balance his or her body temperature. The mother places the baby so its chest aligns with the center of hers, and wraps the baby with her body. In this position, the skin of the mother and baby are in direct contact. Thus not only are the body temperatures of the babies kept under control, but they can also access their mothers’ milk just as in the case of kangaroos.”

When I asked about more possible advantages of this method, the doctor continued:

“Studies have shown that the Kangaroo Mother Care method is very successful and even safer than the incubator. This method contributes positively to the development of the baby since it enforces the emotional relationship between mother and baby. There are other benefits of Kangaroo Mother Care, too: the baby relaxes with the warmth of the mother, balancing his or her heart and respiratory rhythms. Therefore, it reduces the need for incubators and the time spent in hospitals.”

Then the doctor told us that we could go home; they were going to keep the baby under control and decide within a couple days whether they would resort to this method or not.

Once we got home, I searched for information about Kangaroo Mother Care. An article I read mentioned how well it regulated heat.

The body temperatures of people living in both Ecuador and the Polar Regions are kept constantly at 36-37 degrees Celsius. The thermos-regulation center located in the hypothalamus is assigned the task of balancing body temperature. This center, which occupies a very small space, works like a thermostat. It mobilizes the system to lower the body temperature when we are overheated, and increases it when we feel colder. The center, which is composed of two sections, is located in the frontal and mid part of the hypothalamus; the frontal one is in charge of initiating mechanisms lowering our body heat and the one in the mid-section is assigned to increase it. What stimulates the center are the heat sensors embedded in our skin.

There are two different thermos-receptors for cold (Krause end bulbs) and heat (Ruffini endings). Even a small amount of temperature difference is transmitted to the center instantly and the system becomes active. Sweating is executed to reduce body heat. For this, body heat is transported to the skin. The enlargement of blood vessels plays a critical role here. This way, the transfer of heat to the skin is enhanced. On the other hand, to warm us up, blood vessels constrict and shivering begins.

Our world has been created in a remarkable way. Not only can human bodies regulate their temperatures, but so can other animals – and even planets. Kangaroo Mother Care is a manifestation of this balance, as a mother is able to give her child warmth while her own temperature is regulated by her body.

Peter’s story has a happy ending. The baby recovered in a few weeks and was brought home.

References

• P. Kavitha, R. Aroun Prasath, P. Krishnaraj. 2012. “A Study To Assess The Knowledge On Kangaroo Mother Care Among Post Natal Mothers,” Journal of Science, Vol 2, Issue 1.
• www.jhsph.edu
• http://www.kangaroomothercare.com

Recent research in neuroscience has opened new horizons for understanding the brain both as a control center and as an important projection screen reflecting works of the soul. To cite one, it has been discovered that social environment has an affect on the functions and development of the brain. Therefore, these kinds of studies regarding the brain have started to take place in social circles during interactions with other people rather than on individuals in isolated settings.

Mirror neurons

One of the latest discoveries in neurology is mirror neurons. A specific subset of brain cells (around 20%) carry a “mirror” feature and are located in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex. These are special types of premotor neurons related to vision and location. They are responsible for the neurological imitation of observed behaviors in one’s environment. The mirror neuron system accounts for the fast repetition of other people’s behavior in terms of the neurobiological standpoint. The mirror neurons that become active during social interactions with humans form part of the response for behaviors observed in other people. These neurons play a role in the neurobiological expression of superior-level human thinking and behavior, such as culture.

Neural mirroring is the neural mechanism that takes part in shaping intra-group or inter-group subjectivity and prejudice; it supports theories of cognitive and social psychology. In other words, it is the selective imitation of behaviors performed by people that are observed, in the mind of the person doing the observing. This situation points to a replication and recording mechanism that facilitates imitation in the human brain. Therefore, mirror neurons open a new window for understanding human socialization from the perspective of brain functioning.

The role of neurobiological mechanisms and hormones for the functions of the soul in human socialization is too significant to neglect. Whatever DNA means to biology is similar to what mirror neurons mean to understanding the spiritual side of humans. The social relations of a person are tied to one’s perception of other people’s behaviors, intentions, and emotions. The social psychology studies show that imitative behaviors are common, displayed automatically, and facilitate empathy. Here instead of concept based thinking, a direct act of copying is present. Social communication requires one to understand the intentions and feelings of people in order to develop suitable attitudes and behaviors. Because the human brain is programmed for imitation and replication, culture cannot be taught; it can only be learned through life, by imitation and replication.

Recent research performed on monkeys revealed unknown functions of mirror neurons. A neuron group at the frontal section of the brain became active when a monkey observed another macaque monkey making a mistake. It is interesting that if the observing animal made a mistake himself, this neuron group did not activate. This was a surprising discovery. Later, similar cells have been demonstrated to exist in human brain as well. It is one of the groundbreaking discoveries of 2012 that mirror neurons do not activate when people make their own mistakes, but come alive when a person watches another person make a mistake.

When a person is motivated to imitate people around them, either by witnessing their mistakes or a desire to obtain what they have, certain nerve cells become active in response to this feeling. The brain is given a role in the execution and expression of imitation, admiration, bullying, jealousy, and emulation. These mirror neurons partially explain how the brain is linked to the origin of phenomena like language, socialization, grouping, the desire to belong, imitation based learning, and cultural and mass movements.

Experiments have shown that objects generate more desire when they happen to be in another person’s hands than when they are with no apparent owner. However, because these desires will vary among people of different education levels, trainings, beliefs, and cultures, the corresponding brain responses will also be different. Humans have a natural tendency towards admiration for pleasant, nice, and appropriate things; but they also have a natural tendency towards envy and jealousy. These feelings motivate us to take on the traits of other people as our own; they help us to view others as examples to be replicated. Therefore, they play a great role in helping a person to survive and adapt in a healthy social environment. However, if a person goes too far in their emulation, it can lead to misbehavior.

Social environment, peer groups, and media

Why are people easily affected by their social environment, peer groups, and media? Why do they try to emulate what they see?

The entertainment culture achieves its desired effects on billions who have turned into a potential market via commercials, social media, and computer games. The willpowers of the masses lacking a strong foundation of belief – and who are devoid of personal discipline, educated thinking, and purified souls – are easily suppressed. It is obvious that human psychology clearly acts like an easy customer that gives the almost exact same response each time it encounters such a world. We can see this response just by looking at how the brain functions through fMRI, functional magnetic resonance imaging, which is a technique for measuring brain activity. The mirror neuron system is the neurobiological version of the effects of marketing, social media, visual arts, and computer games on humans.

Mirror neurons especially make the effects of visual culture on the brain comprehensible.

They provide answers to questions like, “Why are humans inclined to become what they see; why do they imitate those things?” And, “How do commercials and videos get their power?”

Mirror neurons also play a role in the reflection of others’ behaviors and facial expressions. An anxious or stressful person also makes us feel so. The attitudes that we observe and adopt are contagious because they are copied by the mirror neuron system. For instance, if a person or a child watches the behavior of his/her parents, they can learn these through the activation of mirror neurons. These things, once learned, constitute our subconscious collections. When learning takes place by seeing, such skills rapidly spread via imitation and mirroring. The spread of culture across a whole society or the gathering of people under a certain leader and that they show similar behavior under the same circumstances are related to mirror neurons in the brain.

The presence of mirror neurons opens doors to the birth of new hybrid research fields like neuroethics, neuromarketing, and neuropolitics; they also enable the studies and investigations of the interface of physical and social sciences. Mimicking the mouth movements of native speakers is a skill for learners of a new language and it is facilitated by mirror neurons.

Mirror neurons and violence

The mirror neuron system is effective for learning violence through observation and watching. Children and youth learn violence through mirror neurons. Mirror neurons play more prioritized roles at the subconscious levels or in cases where the conscience and willpower are ineffective. In such cases, concept-based judgment or reasoning is not necessary. Computer and video games are important technologies that teach by sensory feelings but not via concept-based thinking. Children and youth insist that they are aware of the difference between video games and reality. This is subconscious-level recognition and the brain at these ages automatically records that as a reality. The mind mirrors the visual input instead of acquired knowledge. Virtual images and reality do not make any difference to the brain in terms of objective reality. Each action and image at the subconscious level is coded automatically in a sensory fashion in the brain.

In conclusion, the existence of mirror neurons beautifully explains the fact that a neural mechanism is behind the existence of humans as a social being; at the same time, it clearly demonstrates why social environments are necessary for the healthy development of the brain, especially to set appropriate examples for younger children to adopt.

References

• The Mirror Neuron System. A Special Issue of Social Neuroscience. Edited by Christian Keysers, Luciano Fadiga. Published 30th November 2008 by Psychology Press – 258 pages.
• Gobbini, M.I., et al. 2007. “Two takes on the social brain: a comparison of theory of mind tasks.” J Cogn Neurosci, 19(11): p. 1803-14.
• Mehta, U.M., et al. 2012. “Mirror neuron dysfunction-a neuro-marker for social cognition deficits in drug naive schizophrenia.” Schizophr Res, 2012. 141(2-3): p. 281-3
• Montgomery, K.J. and J.V. Haxby. 2008. “Mirror neuron system differentially activated by facial expressions and social hand gestures: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study.” J Cogn Neurosci, 20(10): p. 1866-77.
• Oberman, L.M., J.A. Pineda, and V.S. Ramachandran. 2007. “The human mirror neuron system: a link between action observation and social skills.” Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci, 2(1): p. 62-6.
• Oberman, L.M. and V.S. Ramachandran. 2007. “The simulating social mind: the role of the mirror neuron system and simulation in the social and communicative deficits of autism spectrum disorders.” Psychol Bull, 133(2): p. 310-27.
• Spunt, R.P. and M.D. Lieberman. 2013. “The busy social brain: evidence for automaticity and control in the neural systems supporting social cognition and action understanding.” Psychol Sci, 24(1): p. 80-6.
• Tylen, K., et al. 2012. “Interaction vs. observation: distinctive modes of social cognition in human brain and behavior? A combined fMRI and eye-tracking study.” Front Hum Neurosci, 6: p. 331.
• http://www.ted.com/talks/vs_ramachandran_the_neurons_that_shaped_civilization.html

Coffee has always served as a break, as something to be shared between friends, and to spur conversations. This is true across many cultures. The term “coffee” derives from the Turkish “kahve” and from the Arabic qahwah (1) Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora are the two major coffee plant strains with commercial value. With its caffeine content, coffee is a stimulant and the majority of recent studies have shown that moderate coffee consumption is benign and beneficial for health and social life (2). As a social lubricant with a mystic potential to get people to share time together, coffee is like a common language with which people can communicate and establish and grow long-lasting friendships.

Everything started in Ethiopia and Yemen

Coffee is known to have originated in Ethiopia in the 9th century. People tried boiling it to soften the seed, which resulted in a fragrant brown liquid. It was eventually transferred to Yemen, where coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed. At the time, Yemen was a state of the Ottoman Empire (3, 4).

After coffee’s introduction, the people of Istanbul were quickly charmed by the beverage and coffee soon became very popular in Istanbul. The first coffeehouses in the world opened in Istanbul in 1475 (3). They were known as “kahvehane,” which means coffeehouse; they’re still called this today (5). In the palace of the Emperor, a unique position was the “kahvecibasi,” or the chief coffee maker who had a duty to brew the Sultan’s coffee. At home, coffee beans were roasted on special pans and then ground in mortars. The ground beans were brewed in coffeepots known as a “cezve” (4). These methods gave coffee a new identity and tradition because they revealed coffee’s natural flavor and distinct aroma. Today, the traditional method of brewing coffee with the use of a cezve is still widely used. The name given to the preparation and brewing techniques invented by the Turks is called Turkish coffee.

Spreading to the world

Coffee spread to the world from Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Europeans were introduced to coffee in 1615 when Venetian merchants brought it to Venice and lemonade vendors started selling it on the street. In 1645, the first coffee house in Italy opened and coffee spread all over the country, as well as many other lands.

In 1637, England was first introduced to coffee by a Turk who brought it to Oxford, where its rapid popularity among students and teachers led to the foundation of the “Oxford Coffee Club.” In 1650, Oxford’s first coffeehouse opened. In 1644, the French ambassador Monsieur de la Roque carried the first coffee beans from Istanbul to Marseilles, and in 1671, the first coffeehouse in Marseilles was opened. Paris was introduced to coffee when Sultan Mehmet IV sent “Hossohbet Nuktedan Suleyman Aga” as an ambassador to the court of King Louis XIV in 1669. Suleyman Aga was known by Parisian high society as a raconteur, or “Hossohbet.” In 1686, the first real coffeehouse in Paris, called Cafe de Procope, opened.

Coffee kept spreading all over Europe via various ways. In 1683, coffee reached Vienna at the end of the Second Siege of Vienna after the Turks left their extra supplies behind, including 500 sacks of coffee. Kolschitzky, who had lived among the Turks for many years as an Austrian spy, asked to obtain the sacks of coffee and eventually introduced Turkish coffee to the Viennese. (3, 4, 6).

Coffee’s voyage to the Americas

In 1668, coffee was brought to North America, and in 1696, the first coffeehouse, called “The King’s Arms,” opened in New York. French mariner Gabriel du Clieu took coffee plants to the island of Martinique in 1723. Coffee was then introduced to other Caribbean islands, and Central and South America, from this island. Then it spread to today’s number one producer of coffee, Brazil, in the year of 1727, when Portuguese sailor de Mello Palheta carried coffee saplings there (6). Coffee has now become one of the most important commodities enjoyed by people all over the world.

Coffee and health

Coffee consumption increases sports performance due to the effects of its caffeine. Caffeine improves the capacity to do physical exercise by increasing adrenalin and blood flow to the heart and muscles. Coffee enhances cognitive functioning and lowers the risk of depression. Old studies suggested the risk of heart disease from coffee. However, those studies did not always consider the presence of some other high-risk behaviors, such as smoking and physical inactivity, in sick, coffee-drinking groups. Recent studies have shown that coffee is associated with a decline in the risk of many cancers. Many studies found an association between coffee consumption and reduced overall mortality or death. Its benefits outweigh the risks in patients with heart diseases as well. Other beneficial effects of coffee have been shown on neurologic diseases including Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, and liver disease, including cirrhosis and cancer (2, 7). Although coffee may be associated more with its benefits, it is important to note that adding cream and sugar to coffee adds more calories and fat.

Coffee in social life

Coffee is available almost everywhere, including the home, work, and probably even your street corner. It plays a unique role in our social interactions. Most people start their day after having a cup of coffee. Coffee is also a bridge to building many relationships among friends, couples, classes, organizations, and teams. It is a break time to ease out of the materialist life. One would never like to miss a coffee break, as it is an opportunity to talk, to laugh, to relax, to relieve problems, or just to enjoy the drink. People do business, work, and communication with the help of coffee. In reality, people live with coffee.

Ever since the opening of the first coffeehouse in Istanbul in 1475, coffeehouses have become one of the major social environments all over the world. They host meetings or friendly gatherings. Coffee has had a great influence on societies as a source of inspiration for many works of art and culture, as it has inspired many musicians and artists. For Moliere, Victor Hugo, Honore de Balzac, Beethoven, and many others, coffee was regarded as a lifestyle rather than a simple drink. Johann Sebastian Bach expressed his love of coffee in the ‘Coffee Cantata,’ which supported coffee drinking when some tried to ban it in Germany. The world’s first painting of a coffeehouse was done by the Dutch artist Adrian van Ostade and depicts a group of people being served coffee (4, 8). Today, numerous artists, students, and people from all walks of life come together in coffeehouses to discuss many topics, to be inspired, or to have an enjoyable break.

A cup of Turkish coffee expresses a variety of things in Turkish culture, such as warmth, hospitality, and friendship. The word for “breakfast” or “kahvalti” in Turkish gets its name from the Turkish coffee. “Kahvalti” is a derivation of the combination of two words, “kahve” and “alti,” which means “before coffee.” It is also an important Turkish tradition to serve coffee in traditional cups to the prospective groom and his family, who visit the prospective bride’s family to ask for her hand in marriage. The coffee served at this occasion is prepared by the prospective bride, and in some parts of Turkey, she may choose to add some amounts of salt as a way to test the prospective groom’s patience and tolerance.

Drinking coffee is a great pleasure enjoyed by many Turks and offering it to guests is a great gesture of hospitality within Turkish culture. There are many old sayings about Turkish coffee in Turkey; one of the most famous ones being, “Bir fincan kahvenin kirk yil hatiri vardir”meaning that one feels admiration for 40 years to the person who offered them a cup of coffee. A single cup of coffee can create a friendship that lasts for a long time and it can lead to a long and friendly conversation, which is called “muhabbet” in Turkish. A single “coffee break” can be the beginning of a friendship. With its mystical power, coffee continues to play huge roles in bringing together people from various backgrounds and cultures to sit down and enjoy the same beverage while also expressing their own cultures.

Lastly, an old Turkish saying summarizes coffee’s power: “Gonul Ne Kahve Ister Ne Kahvehane Gonul Sohbet Ister Kahve Bahane,” can be translated as, “Neither coffee nor coffeehouse is what the heart desires. What the heart desires is friendship – coffee is the bridge to it.”

References

1.Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. “coffee, n.” Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1891.

2.Tahan Asli, Tahan V. “Could a cup of coffee a day keep the liver doctor away?”: One cup or two or more cups of coffee per day reduces the risk of death from cirrhosis. Turk J Gastroenterol 2014;25(4):470-1.

3. La Dolce Vita. 1999. Coffee. London, UK: New Holland Books

4. http://www.mehmetefendi.com

5. Hafalir IE. Tea In Turkish Culture. http://blog.fountainmagazine.com/index/detail/tea-in-turkish-culture-blog-2014

6.http://www.turkishcoffeeworld.com

7. Je Y, Giovannucci E. Coffee consumption and total mortality: a meta-analysis of twenty prospective cohort studies. Br J Nutr 2014;111 (7):1162-73.

8. https://ukersallaboutcoffee.wordpress.com/chapter33/

Although it is well known which aspect of the term knowledge in Islamic Sufism is most relevant in the context of this book, we deem it useful to mention some secondary matters, such as the different types of knowledge and its sources.

Knowledge, first of all, is dealt with in two categories: Knowledge without means or knowledge that is had without being acquired, and knowledge that is acquired through some means.

Every living being has its own peculiar characteristics and potentials. These characteristics and potentials are the sources of certain, innate knowledge-knowledge a creature has without having to acquire it.1 A human being’s being able to sense and perceive a lack of air, thirst, hunger, grief and joy, etc., a baby’s knowledge of how to nurse, a bird’s knowledge of how to fly and build nests, a fish’s knowledge of how to swim, young animals’ knowledge of how to avoid dangers, in short, these types of knowledge-knowledge of how to deal with the necessities of life, fall into the category of knowledge without means.

Knowledge acquired through the internal and external senses is included in the second category. Knowledge concerning the physical world is usually obtained through the five external senses-sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch-while knowledge about the metaphysical or incorporeal realm of existence is acquired through internal senses-the mind and heart with their faculties of thought, reason, spiritual discovery and experience, intuition, and so on.

As for the sources of knowledge or means of acquiring it, these consist of three, according to Islam:

1. The five external senses, provided they are sound.
2. True reports, of which there are two kinds: reports unanimously given by a group of truthful people of such a number that it is inconceivable that they have agreed to lie, and reports given by the Messengers of God, whom He has sent with special messages.
3. The third source of knowledge is reason. Axiomatic knowledge and the knowledge reached by using the mental faculties are included in this kind of knowledge.

Knowledge is also divided into two groups: that which is acquired through the mental faculties, and that which is reported knowledge. The first can be divided up into three categories:

1. Knowledge of such matters as health and education, which in Islam are regarded as incumbent upon every individual or a group of people in the community, according to the time and conditions.
2. Another kind of knowledge acquired through the mental faculties is knowledge of which Islam disapproves. Sorcery, divination and certain occult sciences are of this kind.
3. Sciences, such as geometry, mathematics, medicine, physics, chemistry, and history are included in the third category, the study of which Islam regards as obligatory on the community, even though not every individual, in order to dis cover God’s laws of the creation and operation of the universe and for the well-being of the community.

Reported knowledge is of two kinds: knowledge based on spiritual discovery and inspiration and knowledge concerning Islam and Islamic life. The second kind has been separated under four heads:

1. The knowledge of the fundamental principles, which include knowledge of the Qur’an, Sunna (the Prophet’s way of life, sayings, and confirmations), the consensus of the scholars (ijma’) and analogy or deductive reasoning. These are the sources upon which the rules of the Shari’a are based.
2. The knowledge of the subdivisions, which includes the knowledge of worship (the Prescribed Prayer, the Prescribed Alms-giving, Fasting, Pilgrimage and so on), the daily life of the believers, marriage and relevant matters, such as divorce and alimony (civil law), and legal penalties (criminal law), etc.
3. Primary sciences, such as language, grammar, semantics, composition, and eloquence, which are ways to properly understand the religious sciences, such as Hadith (the sayings of the Prophet), the interpretation of the Qur’an, and jurisprudence.
4. The complementary or secondary sciences, i.e. the sciences additional to the sciences of the Qur’an. They consist of sciences relating to the wording and composition of the Qur’an, such as phonetics and recitation; the sciences pertaining to its meaning, such as interpretation and exegesis, and those relating to its commandments, such as the abrogating and the abrogated, the general and particular, the explicit and implicit, the real or literal and the metaphorical or allusive, the succinct and the detailed, the clear and the ambiguous, the direct and firm and the allegorical.

As for reported knowledge based on spiritual discovery and inspiration, it has also been dealt with under two heads: the knowledge that occurs in one’s heart as a gift from God, and the knowledge that arises in the conscience. What we will study among the topics of Emerald Hills of the Heart is this kind of knowledge. Whether it is of the kind occurring in one’s heart as a gift from God or of the kind arising in the conscience, this knowledge is and must be based on the Qur’an and the Sunna. Any knowledge one finds in one’s heart or conscience which has not been filtered through these two pure sources is not reliable. It cannot be binding knowledge for either the individuals themselves or others, it cannot be considered as authentic, sound knowledge. This important point has been stressed by many great Sufi leaders. For example:

Junayd al-Baghdadi says: “All the ways that do not end in the Prophet are closed and do not lead to the truth.” He also reminds us: “Anyone who does not know the Book and the Sunna is not to be followed as a guide.”

Abu Hafs² explains: “Anyone who does not continually control him or herself in the light of the Book and the Sunna cannot be regarded as belonging to this way.”

Abu Sulayman ad-Darani³ warns: “I admit the truth of what-ever occurs to the heart only provided it is confirmed by the Book and the Sunna.”

Abu Yazid (Bayazid) al-Bistami4 admonishes: “I struggled against my carnal soul for almost thirty years and did not find anything more difficult for it to accept than the objective criteria of the Book and the Sunna. You should not be misled by anyone, even if they work wonders like flying through the air, rather you should consider their care in observing the limits set up by the Shari’a and following the commandments of the Book and the Sunna.”

Abu Sa’id al-Kharraz⁵ sums up the matter: “Any intuitive knowledge which is not compatible with the spirit of religion is false.”

Abu’l-Qasim an-Nasrabadi⁶ teaches: “The essence of the Sufi way is strict adherence to the Book and the Sunna, holding back from the misleading inclinations of the carnal soul and innovations in religion, being able to overlook the faults of others, not becoming negligent in one’s daily recitations to glorify and praise the Almighty, being strict in fulfilling the religious commandments without applying special exceptions or dispensations, and refraining from personal, insubstantial opinions regarding religion.”

The Sufi leaders give knowledge precedence over the spiritual state of the Sufis, because that state depends on knowledge. Knowledge is the heritage of the Prophets, and the scholars are the heirs thereto. The Prophetic saying, “The scholars are the heirs of the Prophets,”⁷ is the highest of the ranks recognized for scholars.

The knowledge of the truth or knowledge that leads to the truth is the life of the heart, the light of the eye, the cause of the expansion of the breast (with peace, exhilaration, and spiritual happiness), the stimulus to activate reason, the source of pleasure for the spirit, the guide of those bewildered as to which way to follow, the intimate friend of the lonely, and an invaluable table of heavenly foods offered on the earth and one to which the angels show great respect.

Knowledge is an important step toward belief, a standard to distinguish between guidance and error and between certainty and doubt, and a Divine mystery manifesting the truly human aspects of a person.

There is no exaggeration in the following saying of a friend of God:

A human being is truly human with knowledge;
but without knowledge is entirely bestial.
Action without knowledge is purely ignorance;
so, O friend, you cannot find the Truth without knowledge.

By knowledge, the Sufis mean, rather than the familiarity that is reached with the mind, hearing and sight, the light and radiation that come from the realms beyond the material world and have their source in God’s Knowledge. This light pervades the spirit and bursts like flowers in the meadows of the innermost faculties of the person, and swells and flows in the gifts of the All-Eternal. In order to be able to receive this Divine gift, one should, first of all, turn with all one’s inner world to the Eternal Sun and, freed from the influences of the body and carnal pleasures, lead a life at the level of heart and spirit, and open one’s breast to God, the Ultimate Truth, with belief, love, and attraction, and then one should be able to rise to a level where one can be taught by God through inspiration.

As declared in the Divine declaration (18:65), We taught him knowledge of a special kind from Our Presence, God-inspired knowledge is the rain of mercy that pours down into the depths of a person’s inner world from the Realm of the Holy Presence-the Realm where those who are the nearest to God experience His Holy Presence-without any intermediary and veils. Deep devotion to God, sincere adherence and loyalty to Him as well as the Messenger, being sincerely pleased with whatever God decrees or causes to happen for one and trying to please Him, the sincerity and purity of intention in one’s acts or doing whatever one does only to please Him and because He wants us to do it, and having a heart pursuing certainty in the matters of belief over and over again-all this is what is required to be rewarded with God-inspired knowledge, especially in abundance.

Since the Prophets received Divine Revelation and were taught by Him, their knowledge is a God-inspired knowledge that comes from Him without any intermediary. As for the knowledge of purified, saintly scholars and other saintly persons, this is also a God-inspired knowledge, the only difference being that the source is the rays of light of the Prophetic knowledge. Khadr⁸ is regarded as the only one in receiving this knowledge. However, he can only be so regarded for a certain period of time and spiritual rank and for the state particular to him. In certain particular matters, some people may be superior to those who are superior to them in general terms. Similarly, in certain particularities of God-inspired knowledge, Khadr is superior to those who are greater than him. He is in no way superior to either Prophet Moses, upon him be peace,⁹ or the other great Messengers.

As a Messenger charged with teaching people God’s commandments and guiding them in their lives so that they could attain happiness in both worlds, Prophet Moses knew God’s commandments concerning the human individual and social life and the sensitive relation between them and the outward and inward aspects or dimensions of things. But, Khadr’s knowledge is restricted to the inward dimension of things. He points to this difference in his conversation with Moses: “Moses! I have a kind of knowledge which God has taught me and you do not possess, while you have another kind of knowledge which God has taught you and I do not possess.”¹⁰

In conclusion, God-inspired knowledge is the kind of knowledge which one cannot acquire by studying or being taught by others. It is a special gift from God and a kind of illumination, from a sacred source, that one finds in one’s heart. Rather than being the kind of knowledge about the Creator acquired by studying creation and which therefore leads from the created to the Creator, it is a kind that pours from the Maker to the conscious works of His Art. It is even regarded as the emergence in the human spirit of the knowledge about some mysteries pertaining to God, the Ultimate Truth, as special gifts from Him.

Anyway, it is always God Who knows best the truth in every matter.

Notes

1. The modern scientific term for this kind of knowledge is instinct. (Tr.).
2. Abu Hafs ‘Amr b. Salama al-Haddad an-Naysaburi (d. 879). A blacksmith of Naysaburi, visited Baghdad and met Junayd, who admired his devotion. He also encountered ash-Shibli and other Sufis of the Baghdad school. Returning to Nishapur, he resumed his trade and died there in 879. (Tr.)
3. Abu Sulayman ad-Darani (d. 830). An ascetic known for his weeping in worship. He was held in honor by the Sufis and was (called) the sweet basil of hearts (rayhan-i dilha). He is distinguished by his severe austerities. He spoke in subtle terms concerning the practice of devotion. (Tr.)
4. Abu Yazid (Bayazid) al-Bistami (d. 873): One of the greatest Sufi masters. Junayd said: “Abu Yazid holds the same rank among us as Gabriel among the angels.” His life was based on self-mortification and the practice of devotion. (Tr.)
5. Abu Sa’id Ahmad ibn ‘Isa al-Kharraz al-Baghdadi, a cobbler by trade, met Dhu’n-Nun al-Misri and associated with Bishr al-Khafi and Sari as-Saqati. Author of several books including some which have survived; the date of his death is uncertain but probably occurred between 892 and 899. (Tr.)
6. Abu’l-Qasim Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud an-Nasrabadi (d. 977): One of the famous Sufi masters and scholars. Born in Nishabur and died in Makka. He was famous for his devotions and refraining from sins. (Tr.)
7. al-Bukhari, al-Jami’us-Sahih, “‘Ilm,” 10.
8. As recounted in the Qur’an (18: 60–82), Khadr is he with whom Prophet Moses made a travel to learn something of the spiritual realm of existence and the nature of God’s acts in it. It is controversial whether he was a Prophet or a saint with special mission. It is believed that he enjoys the degree of life where one feels no need for the necessities of normal human life. (Tr.)
9. The writer refers to the significant encounter and experience between Moses and Khadr that is recounted in the Qur’an, 18:60–82. (Tr.)
10. al-Bukhari, “Tafsir,” 18:4.

As babies grow up exposed to a variety of physical and mental challenges, as well as adverse social interactions, abnormalities start to present themselves in the form of physical and psychological imbalances. Music has become an effective alternative to modern medicine in the treatment of such abnormalities. Just as playing soft music calms a fussy baby, music can be at least as effective at treating the more sophisticated health problems of adults.

In this article, I will first give a brief chronology of music as a healing method. I will then focus on the specific musical techniques used by Islamic philosophers and explain the fundamentals of spiritual healing in the Mevlevi Sufi order which employs music as an integral part of their rituals. Following that, I will mention an analogy between music and the recent invention of usable wireless energy transfer. The article will conclude with a mini experiment that may potentially open up further possibilities for interdisciplinary investigation and research in the use of makams in treating physically and spiritually challenged individuals.

A brief history of music therapy

The healing aspect of music has been understood and applied by different cultures throughout human history as is evident in historical writings from civilizations as diverse as Egypt, China, India, Greece and Rome. For example, historically, shamans used music in magic-religious rituals to purge evil spirits from a sick person’s body. The patient reached a state of trance and ecstasy through music and dance, allowing for catharsis/purification and healing [2]. In Egypt, surgical patients listened to music before an operation in order to feel stronger. In Greek mythology, Apollo played the lyre to make people feel joyful. Pythagoras, Hippocrates, and Socrates also made major investigations and contributions to this field [3].

Music therapy in Islamic history started systematically about eight hundred years ago and was regularly performed in hospitals established by Seljuk and Ottoman Turks [3]. Patients were treated with musical sounds, in addition to the use of medicine. Zekeriya Er-Razi (AD 854 – 932), Farabi (AD 870 – 950) and Ibn Sina (AD 980 – 1037), all known as doctors and musicians, were important figures in Islamic history who investigated the healing effects of music. Farabi further explored the effects of makams on the human soul and on people during their most effective daily time periods [4].

Adherents to Sufism were particularly interested in music and used its ability to help stay away from spiritual infirmity and to promote spiritual balance. The zenith of music in spiritual healing was reached by the Mevlevi order through “Sema” – the well-known practice of whirling as a form of remembrance of God. By performing sema, Mevlevis intended to relieve the dervishes from a state of disharmony and re-establish a sense of unity and existence. Here I will briefly discuss how Sufis conceive the terminology of “existence” and then continue with the example of the Mevlevi ceremony of the whirling dervishes.

A Sufi’s journey to existence through music

The idea of existence in Sufism is based on the most fundamental concept of Islam, tawhid: the oneness of God, specifying that all creatures come from and return back to the same oneness. From this perspective, the whole of existence is united and in harmony with oneness. All phenomenon are just reflections of God so that God witnesses and sees himself through these manifestations. Each and every phenomenon is the immanence of God resulting in his omnipresence through his divine attributes. According to this interpretation, a human takes the central role in connecting all these divine names within him or herself, being the most superior and the most illustrative reflection of God. Humans are the only creatures with the ability to consciously interact with any object or creature in the universe, and to strive to excel so that they can live in harmony and total integrity and to perceive happenings at various levels. In Sufism, this ability is, in fact, a crucial attribute and even a prerequisite for being a human [5].

According to Sufis, an abnormality is anything that breaks this harmonious state of connection and togetherness between humans and surrounding objects, as well as between humans and the ‘real’ self. Sufis structure their rituals (ayins) with the intensive use of music in a systematic way in order to reestablish this broken connection and bring the dervishes to the desired level of self-awareness, God consciousness, and sense of existence.

The specifics of the ayin

I will now briefly discuss the musical techniques that Sufis use during ayins to achieve spiritual healing. Mevlevi lodges performed ayins typically once a week, or as many times as the master of dervishes found necessary. The ceremony in its entirety symbolizes the spiritual journey of man looking for the essence of his creation within himself. The ceremony starts with a single, deep beat from the drum symbolizing the moment that the universe was created with God’s single command: “Be”. Then, the ney (an end-blown reed flute) takes the stage to make a long taksim (improvisation) in the makam; this improvisation corresponds to the ayin. The master of the dervishes determines which ayin to be played. Each makam stimulates different feelings; therefore the selection of the makam is very crucial. The taksim awakens the dervishes and symbolizes their revival from the dead. As the taksim concludes, the dervishes stand up and walk around the hall while an instrumental piece ramps up the energy in the room. This instrumental section is always composed using a special usul called Devr-i Kebir (a 28 beat major usul). Following that, the ayin transitions into the vocal section, and the whirling begins. The vocal section consists of 4 parts, each of which is called a Selam. Each selam is structured and carefully formulated with transitions between makams and usuls. In the first selam, the usuls of Devr-i Revan (a 14 beat minor usul) or Agir Duyek, Duyek (an 8 beat usul) are usually used. The first and third selams are longer than the second and fourth selams. The second and fourth selams are performed in the usul of Evfer (a 9 beat minor usul). Most makam and usul transitions take place during the third selam, where the rhythm of the ayin also speeds up. Similar to the second selam, the fourth selam is always in Evfer and must be performed at a slower pace. The ayin concludes with two instrumental pieces in the usuls of Duyek and Yuruk Semai (combination of two 3/8 usul) [6].

Healing with makams and musical instruments

ayins can be composed in any makam. Often transitions between different makams occur within the same ayin. By definition, makam is a system of melody types used in Turkish classical music that provides a complex set of rules for composition and performance. Each makam specifies a unique intervallic structure and melodic development. Makams have been a topic of investigation within the field of Islamic musical therapy. Farabi classified the effects of the makams in detail: for example, the Rast makam brings a person happiness and comfort; the Buselik makam brings strength; and the Saba makam brings bravery and power.

Farabi also outlined the effects of makams according to the times they were most effective – e.g., the Ussak makam is effective at noon, the Neva makam in the late evening, and the Huseyni makam at dawn, etc [7].

Along with utilizing different makams, Mevlevis benefited from a variety of musical instruments, each with a unique sound and having a different effect on people. The Sema ceremony is, in a sense, a way of harvesting energy from these instruments playing in a certain makam and usul. Performing in harmony, the instruments bring dervishes to the desired state of consciousness in a slow and staged manner, starting with a single drum beat, moving on to a solo ney improvisation, and then with all instruments playing in unison to create excitement and energy across the hall. Some of these traditional instruments are listed below [6]:

Kudum: A percussion instrument consisting of two drums; used to beat the usul.

Ney: An end-blown reed flute.

Rebab: A long-necked stringed instrument played with a bow, the body of which was originally constructed of a coconut.

Tanbur: A stringed instrument, played either with a plectrum or a bow, Tanburs are made of wood with a long neck. A very important point to note is that the frets along the tanbur neck are considered to cover the entire tonal system of makam.

Santur: A hammered dulcimer, once frequently used in Turkish music, but nearly forgotten today.

Kemence: A three-stringed bowed “pear-shaped lyre” used in Turkish Classical Music, played upright, resting on the knee.

Ud: A fretless lute which has six double courses of strings and is played with a plectrum. It has a large body and a short, thick neck. Its modern shape was given by Farabi.

Kanun: A harp-like instrument played with two plectrums, it became widespread in the mid-19th century and is played in most countries of the Near East.

Detection and use of characteristic audio frequencies

Although many studies have been conducted to understand the effect of makams on people when played at different times of day, there is also hope that much more can be done with today’s technology and advancements in medicine. As mentioned briefly at the beginning, an individual is born with intuitive characteristics, perception of sound being an important one. Such inborn characteristics remain unique and specific to each individual for their entire lifetime. It is possible and can be proven with controlled experiments that every human is also finely tuned to a set or range of audio frequencies. These frequencies can be used, if detected correctly, to treat certain neurological or psychological conditions and spiritual challenges. These frequencies can easily constitute a medium where one can effectively collect energy.

A recent development in physics shows a strong analogy to this phenomenon. Physicists from MIT proved that two coils of wire tuned to the exact same frequency can efficiently exchange electrical energy enabling a transfer of power between two devices through air, wirelessly, i.e. without any cords [8]. This interaction can occur only if these two coils are within a certain distance and they are finely tuned to the exact same frequency in a way that the energy is not lost but converted into usable power. I have been working for the company, WiTricity, spun out of this idea and I designed custom coils operating at different frequencies to transfer wireless power between transmitter/receiver pairs.

Similarly, the use of audio frequencies can be a viable tuning mechanism for energy delivery and healing for humans. As an example, let me describe a mini experiment which I was able to conduct at home with my 6 month old son. I played the note E constantly from a musical instrument tuning application on my smartphone and positioned it at a distance where he could hear comfortably. He stopped crying almost immediately and fell asleep in a few minutes. Interestingly, he did not give the same response to notes C or D during my next trials. This observation made me think about the possibility that my son has an association with the note E which has an audio frequency of 660 Hz. This experiment encouraged me to make a correlation with the use of makams.

Turkish makams are usually defined with two notes: a karar note on which the course/progression of a makam resolves and a guclu (strong) note where the flavors of the trichords, tetrachords, and pentachords overlap so that it is emphasized repeatedly throughout the piece [9]. If the two most significant frequencies of a newborn are identified, it may be relatively simple to figure out the matching makam by aligning these two frequencies with the karar and guclu notes. Listening to a composition in that particular makam can make him or her feel better even at young ages, as well as when they get older. One can try to play the constant note E and soothe a baby, but it may be irritating for an adult to listen to that continual sound. However, if one introduces these frequencies in a form of instrumental or vocal composition in the associated makam, it may be more pleasant to listen to, and much needed energy at the appropriate frequency may be delivered to that person.

Conclusion

I would like to conclude by revisiting the Mevlevi lodges where the Sufi masters were successful at using makams and usuls to transmit energy to their dervishes in order to elevate them to a desired state of consciousness. Those masters must have discovered some of these frequencies, which they then utilized in their compositions. With today’s advancements in technology and medicine, one can better understand the fundamentals of the healing power of Sufi music, discover the energy hidden inside audio frequencies and hopefully help people treat their physical, psychological, and spiritual challenges.

Notes

1. Makam: A system of melody types used in Turkish Classical Music providing a complex set of rules for compositionng and performance. Each makam specifies a unique intervallic structure and melodic development.

2. Usul: Term in Turkish Classical Music, indicating “meter” or rhythmic patterns in various arrangements.

References

1. Keith Moore, T. Persaud. 1998. “The Developing Human,” Edition 6 –

2. Debbie Carroll. 2011. “Historical Roots of Music Therapy: A brief overview,” Revista do Nucleo de Estudos e Pesquisas Interdisciplinares em Musicoterapia (NEPIM), Vol.2, 171-178.

3. Enver Sengul. 2008. “Kultur Tarihi icinde muzikle tedavi ve Edirne Sultan II. Bayezid Darussifasi,” Trakya University, Turkey, July.

4. Suleyman Sirri Guner. 2007. “Muzigin Tedavideki Yeri ve Sekli,” Karadeniz Arastirmalari, Issue 12.

5. William Chittick. 1989. “Sufi Path of Knowledge”, June.

6. Mehmet Gonul. 2004. “Mevlevi matbah-i seriflerinde musiki ve sema egitimi,” Selcuk University.

7. TUMATA: Traditional Turkish Music Research and Promotion Society.

8. A.B. Kurs, A. Karalis, R. Moffatt, J.D. Joannopoulos, P.H. Fisher, and M. Soljacic. 2007. “Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances”, Science, 317, pp. 83-86.

9. Ozkan, Ismail Hakki. 2000. Turk Musikisi Nazariyati ve Usulleri. Kudum Velveleleri.

Antisocial personality disorder manifests itself in different ways, but it often means having no regard for rules, an obsession to immediately do whatever one wishes, and disregard for the wishes of others. People diagnosed with this disorder feel they have the power to do anything they like and are authorized to act as they wish. For them, it is their natural right to trouble others and they feel no remorse for their actions, which can lead them into criminal behavior. During childhood, they tend to lie, steal, skip school, and harm their peers. They show a higher level of inclination to abuse alcohol and drugs. They pay no heed to what others think about them. They are spurred on by their inner instincts and recognize no obstacles. They do not learn from punishments or painful experiences. On the contrary, they do their best to convince others that they were right in their actions. If they commit a crime, the society and their families are the usual suspects; for they are the product of the society and the family, both of which deserve to be punished. There are many instances in which such people lay all the blame on their parents, and may go so far as to even harm them.

“If I believe in something, then it should be right,” is a typical argument they frequently voice. When they are not willing to do something, they are absolutely sure it is not right to do that thing.

There are various theories as to how antisocial personality disorder comes about: genetic heritage, parents’ treatment of the child (especially in the earlier stages of development), an of parents’ absence or pathological behavior. Parents’ connection with children has an important effect on developing moral values, which will serve as checks and balances over the child’s ego. Parents’ balanced reaction to a child who harms his or her friend, or keeps lying all the time, will be a major factor that will determine the child’s personality.

Antisocial behavior could also develop from negative learning. For instance, if a child yells and cries when he is told to tidy up his room and eventually manages to force his parent to retreat, this may plant a seed in the child to adopt this attitude because it works.

Education of antisocial personality

Parents have a huge responsibility in helping their children to overcome this disorder. Parents have to work hard to ensure that their child develops healthy relations with the larger family and the social community, and that they set goals worth accomplishing. Socializing with others, visiting neighbors and the sick, attending funerals together, greeting others, teaching them to help the poor, and similar activities can be useful.

Establishing a peaceful family environment is also necessary. Growing up in such a family, children will develop a sense of responsible parenthood and lasting relationships, which will help to protect the next generation. Parents should be supportive of their children when they come of age and want to have their own families.

Helping others through charity is a significant hindrance to the development of antisocial behavior. Charity is, by definition, an altruistic act where one learns to empathize with others. The recurrent emphasis on charity in many faith traditions defines the act in a variety of forms, which enables people from every class to be a part of it. For instance, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said charity includes even a smile or one’s effort to prevent himself from harming others.

Setting higher goals in one’s life is also helpful in overcoming one’s tendencies towards violence. Goals will bring meaning and purpose to one’s life and will help the person develop constructive relations with others.

One of the difficult aspects of antisocial personality disorder is the inclination to alcohol and drug abuse. This is not easy to fight against, for alcohol and drugs give the person even more audacity and aggressiveness, albeit for a short period of time. Such rebellion against established social principles can cause even further imbalance.

Spiritual nourishment is also necessary to eliminate the reasons that lead to antisocial disorder. It is important in faith traditions to raise awareness that each and every one of us will eventually be held accountable for our behavior, that our actions are being observed and recorded accordingly by the Divine, and that it is compulsory to live a balanced life without going to extremes and violating others’ rights.

Leiden is a small picture-perfect postcard Dutch university town, full of canals, cobbled streets, windmills, high-roofed 17th century houses, cheerful blond girls whizzing by on bicycles, imposing churches, and markets full of tulips and aged cheese. If Hollywood needed a stage for a film about Holland, it would be here. Yet this is no stereotypical Dutch town: Leiden is also a city unique in Europe, for it has a longstanding relationship with the Arabic and Muslim world. If there was anywhere I could feel the potential of human endeavor among peoples, it would be here.

On a bright, sunny Saturday morning at the end of January, I visited the bustling market and crossed bridges over canals, discovering the back streets, courtyards, and narrow alleys of this romantic town. The Mayflower pilgrims set forth to America from here; Rembrandt grew up here and went on to paint the heartbreak of humanity in oils; fellow Leiden painter, Jan Steen, captured the exuberance of existence in his. I ducked into the local public library for a visit, and when I stepped out the door, I came face to face with a brick wall covered by a mural written in Arabic script. This was the “Wereldwinkel” (fair trade shop.) The mural was a poem written by Nasir Kazmi (1925-1972) in Urdu, an important South-Asian language with over 250 million speakers in India, Pakistan, and other countries, and which uses Arabic script. I soon learned that it is one of the some 100 poems written by international poets that grace walls throughout the city: Shakespeare, Neruda, Sugawara no Michizane, Verlaine, Reverdy, Sapho, and William Carlos Williams all have their words immortalized in their native languages and scripts on high for all to contemplate as they pass. As I wandered along the streets of the city, I took delight in discovering many poems surprising me in unexpected places, and I even found one in Turkish, written by Fakir Baykurt (1929-1999). Yet, I could not help but wonder why a poem in Arabic had been set in such a prominent place.

I soon learned that this was but the tip of the Oriental iceberg. For over 400 years, Leiden has been deeply involved in Arabic studies, and the Islamic world has played a significant part in the history and culture of this European city. In 1575, stadtholder William of Orange granted Leiden the first university in the Northern Netherlands. A few years later, in 1613, the gifted linguist Thomas van Erpe (1584-1624) – better known by his Latinized name, Erpenius – became the first occupant of Leiden University’s chair for Arabic. The decision to create the position was taken in 1599, when the University was just 24 years old. In our world of jet travel and instant internet globalism, it is hard for us to realize that in the days of 16th century Europe, the Oriental world was still akin to outer space: manuscripts, printed books, and savants were rare – only a few handful existed in Europe – and lexicons and grammars were unheard of, so it is impressive that the University of Leiden took this initiative. Such a daring move was all the more impressive because wars, starvation, and plague had left 1/3 of the city’s population dead. Leiden was fighting for its life, and during these difficult days they turned to a light from the east as a beacon of hope, and not as a scourge of destruction. Could our world, in January 2015, think the same way? Erpenius, after learning Arabic in Paris from an Egyptian Copt and a Spanish Muslim, dreamed of setting sail to Istanbul to study Oriental languages, but he never made it. He published an Arab grammar book, which remained in use until the 19th century and established Leiden as the center of Arabic studies in Europe: students came from all over the European continent to study here. He spent his last years translating the Qur’an into Latin, but unfortunately never completed it, as he died of the plague in 1624 at the young age of 40. More than four centuries after Erpenius was appointed, Leiden is still the center for Arabic studies in the Netherlands.

The first recorded Muslim to live in Leiden was a North African named Omar Boek, probably from Morocco, who settled here in 1596. As every good Muslim strives to be, he was charitable: it is recorded that he donated money to help the poor by rebuilding a local convent. Why he came here we do not know, but he must have cut an exotic figure as he strolled along the canals, and I often wonder if the young Rembrandt ever crossed his path.

Indeed, since the beginning of the 16th century, Leiden’s scholars, businesses, and citizens have used their knowledge of the Islamic world to make Leiden a culturally and economically richer city. The creation of the chair for Arabic was done for pragmatic reasons, motivated by the Dutch logic for commerce and trade. The teaching of Arabic would benefit the Netherland’s commercial activities, especially in Southeast Asia, where the Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602. It was not just commerce, however, that motivated this move, for the study of Arabic allowed the University to put itself on the European map of academic excellence and allowed philologists to better understand and teach others of the human achievement as witnessed by history and other cultural viewpoints. Learning Arabic allowed students to access Arab sapientia, or wisdom. The ability to read Arabic texts in the original offered a gateway to the Arab’s exceptional contributions in the fields of medicine, philosophy, mathematics, and geography, and gave insight to a civilization longer lived than that of Rome. It opened a door to a rich and extensive world; a provocative world of expanded and arresting knowledge.

In addition, printers and publishers clustered around the university scholars. The oriental collections of the University Library are some of the most impressive in Europe, but there is more in Leiden: it is the home of the international publishing house, E.J. Brill. Say the world “Brill” to an Orientalist and you will see his face light up and hear the awe of admiration in his voice. Brill is, quite simply, the most erudite publishing house in the field.

The first printer of Arabic in the Netherlands was a certain E. J. Brill of Leiden, whose business became known in the publishing world for their ability to type set and print many Oriental and uncommon languages. Brill focused on Orientalist materials in Chinese, Arabic, Sanskrit, Malay, and Japanese. The famous Encyclopedia of Islam is one of the highlights of this house, first printed from 1913-1938 in 4 volumes and supplements. In the 1960’s Brill moved its modernized printing activity away from the original building on the Oude Rijn (Old Rhine Canal), and the type-setting presses and blocks of 5,100 characters in the famous “Brill Typeface” offering a complete coverage of the Latin script with the full range of diacritic characters needed to display any language correctly were shut down – but do not fear, the typeface is now available for downloading for free on the Brill website.

In architecture, too, you can discover traces of the Islamic culture in Leiden. Walk down Leiden’s main street, the Breestraat, and you will see at the top of the V-D emporium an impressive piece of sculpture in the tympanum, known as the Guilded Turk. The carving comprises a bust wearing a turban, reigning above the house of two merchant brothers, Jan and Adriaen Le Pla, who had made their wealth primarily through trade in the Levant. The brothers even lived in Istanbul at one point. This gilded figure expresses the longstanding commercial relationship between Leiden and the Middle East. Look closely and you will discover the story of their business: Neptune, the god of the sea, is at the left, and Mercury, the god of trade, is on the right. Mercury coddles a bundle of ‘grein’ or ‘Turkish cloth’ under his arm, a fabric produced using either silk or angora wool, as hinted by the Angora goat peeping from behind his feet. Angora wool was shipped from Ankara to Smyrna (Izmir) to Leiden, where it was combined with European wool, dyed and processed in 7 different guild halls. This cloth was exported to Europe and even back to the Levant, making rich not only the merchants of Leiden, but also those of Ankara. Peasant goat herders in Anatolia made the Burghers of Leiden the richest men of Holland, all from the hair of a Turkish goat.

You can also look up to the top of the facade of Leiden’s monumental City Hall, and notice a curious embellishment on the edge of the roof: yes, you are right; those are alems, the crescent moon finials seen on every mosque in Turkey. It is believed that the crescent moons are there in reference to the Dutch Protestant protesters who rebelled against the Spanish Crown in 1574, and who held as their motto “Rather Turkish than Papist!” Led by William of Orange, these rebels affirmed that they would rather become Muslim subjects than remain subjects of the Catholic King of Spain, for they had observed that the Ottoman Turks under Selim II were more tolerant of other religions than Catholicism was at the time, an attitude perhaps not held by all the current European Common Market leaders today.

It is not just in books and commerce and architecture that Leiden formed bonds with the Middle East, but also in botany. In 1587, Leiden University decided to create a medicinal herb garden and teach botany. A botanist named Carolus Clusius (1526-1609) accepted the University’s commission to create the garden. When the Flemish diplomat Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq (1522-1592) returned from the Court of Suleiman the Magnificent with a tulip bulb in his saddlebags, it was to Clusius that he turned. In Vienna, he passed it on to Clusius, who was at the time the prefect of the Austrian imperial garden. When Clusius took up an appointment at the University of Leiden in 1593, he planted that bulb in the botanical garden of the University. His detailed planting lists have made it possible to recreate his garden, and a small, fenced-in area at the entry of the Horus Botanicus Garden honors the spot where it was planted, next to a statue of the legendary horticulturist. Thus bloomed the first tulips in Western Europe, and as the story goes, the rest is history. The tulip became much sought after by collectors, and ultimately the tulip market got completely out of hand, with tulip bulbs changing hands for astronomical prices. Tulipmania reached its peak in 1636-37, after which the market collapsed and many traders went bankrupt. Also in the Botanical Gardens of Leiden is an old observatory originally founded by Jacobus Golius (1596-1677), professor of Arabic, who traveled to Istanbul and Aleppo and collected many astronomy manuscripts for Leiden University, including one created by Ottoman Sultan Murad IV’s court astronomer.

I looked at the ordered, calm, and industrious Dutch of this city and realized not only how much we need to see, read, hear, and ask about the life and ways of thinking in the lands far beyond these canals, but also of the lives of those “different” ones now living among us. Is the legacy of Erpenius alive today in Leiden?

Yes, it is. Today, Leiden University has one of the largest and most extensive departments covering the Muslim world – from Morocco to Indonesia; from the rise of Islam to the present. Today, some 6,000 priceless manuscripts from the Middle East in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish can be found in Leiden University Library’s Middle East and Islam Collections, such as the “Ring of the Dove” by Tawq al-hamamafi’l-ulfa wa ‘l-ullaf, an 11th century Arabic book about love.

Today, you can see the Turkish Mimar Sinan Mosque, built in 1995 for the Turkish community in the precinct of a former Dutch Reformed Church, and which offered the first minaret on the skyline of Leiden.

Today, there are halal Islamic butcher shops and Turkish barbers scattered on the streets of the city and Moroccans selling olives in the market, driving taxis and tending municipal bicycle garages.

A former church building on Rembrandtstraat housed the Moroccan Al Hijra Mosque, present in Leiden for 30 years. Al-Hijra commemorates the migration of Mohammed and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622, a reference not lost on these immigrants. This building was replaced in 2012, when a brand new mosque opened in northern Leiden in a neighborhood more convenient to the Moroccan community.

Today, one can hope that Arabic is studied not to decipher ancient scientific texts, but to have an increased knowledge about the modern Middle East and Islamic culture. The sudden and pressing relevance of the events of January 7th bring all of this activity to imperative consciousness. Perhaps the goals of the University are not the same as in the 17th century, and most certainly the social structure of the Islamic world has changed since then – but what remains the same is that this city maintains a welcoming and appreciative place for that voice coming from afar – whether it manifests itself as medieval manuscripts, Arabic poems on walls, or Turkish butcher shops. This is a lesson for all of us to heed.

In the late January afternoon, a cold wind picked up and I wrapped my wool scarf more tightly around my neck as I strolled along the picturesque canals of the city. I was reminded that we must wrap our lives in optimism and beauty, or else we are doomed to live a perpetual polar winter of cultural, racial, and religious misunderstandings. Like those 17th century tulip dealers in Holland, we, too, will go bankrupt if we let our mania get out of control in the wrong way. I thought of the last lines of the poem of Nasir Kazmi that I saw on the wall opposite the public library:

If the cruel wind of the times continues to sway,
Earth will lie drained of water, the sun deceived of rays.

Spring is soon coming, and the beds of the Leiden Botanical Garden and all of Holland will be ablaze with dancing floral turbans, of many colors and varieties. I think of the mountains of freshly-cut blooms that fill the cargo holds of hundreds of planes departing from Schiphol Airport each day, bringing their splendor to the entire world. It all started here in Leiden, with one bulb from a foreign land planted in peace; with the will of one community to work together and live not as enemies, but friends; with Europeans willing to embrace the difference of the other and to learn from it. I take the inspiration gleaned on my walks along those cobblestone streets of Leiden in the suitcase of my mind as a souvenir more precious than any piece of Delft china: the hope for a world where we, too, can bloom in harmonious color with our neighbors, and where we can share our lives with Islam – not as enemies, but as blossoms in one garden of beauty.

Piri Reis started his naval life aboard his uncle’s ship; his first job was, “Voyage Journal Keeper.” This way, he had a good opportunity to practice what he learned at school and observe the construction of ships in the harbor. He also met sailors who arrived and departed from Gallipoli. He attended military raids throughout the Aegean (Islands) Sea and the Mediterranean during this time. These raids were carried out as pioneer operations before a planned Ottoman naval conquest. He also traveled through the western Aegean and Mediterranean for years, took part in many wars, and especially participated in the battles of Lepanto and Modon against the Venetians. In 1492, when King Ferdinand of Spain started atrocities against Jews through the inquisition court, the Ottoman Empire deployed Kemal Reis under the Ottoman flag to Spain. Piri Reis joined his uncle on this mission, and helped relocate Jews and Arabs to Northern African and Anatolian soils, where they would be safe.

In 1494, while the Ottomans were preparing for battle with the Venetians, Piri Reis was appointed “ship commander” by the Sultan. Between 1495 and 1510, he participated in many naval battles in the Mediterranean; he gathered the places he visited and the events he witnessed during these missions into his Book of Navigation, which is considered the first manual for world seamanship. In 1511, the shipyard near Alaiye was raided by a fleet of knights from Rhodes. Kemal Reis was assigned to avenge this raid, but during this mission, his boat was caught by a storm. Piri Reis was devastated to learn that his uncle drowned during this storm.

The solitary years in Gallipoli and a world map in 1513

Piri Reis retreated to Gallipoli for a while upon the loss of his uncle. During his stay there, he prepared his world map (1513). Today, only one piece of the colored map – which was drawn on a gazelle skin – remains. This map was not only filled with Reis’ profound knowledge, but also reflections of his intuition. The remaining pieces show the shores of Southwest Europe, Northwest Africa, and Southeast America, and were apparently part of a large scale world map. The accuracy of this map drawn in the 16th century surprises scientists; it is noted that this map looks as if it had been made through aerials, as the map conforms very well to natural structures observed on a plane over the Atlantic Ocean.

The left column of the map notes, “Piri Reis who is the son of Haci Mehmed and the nephew of Kemal Reis constructed this map in the month of Muharram of the year 919 (March/April 1513).” The signature of the mapmaker is a personal connection to the time and location of the maps. While making this map, he continued compiling notes for his other work, the Book of Navigation.

He returned to seas when he finished the world map. During the years 1516 and 1517, he took part in the Egypt campaign, in which he commanded many ships and presented the world map he finished four years before to Yavuz Sultan Selim. Even though Piri Reis mentioned in his “Book of Navigation” that the map earned respect from Yavuz Sultan Selim, the fact that two thirds of the map is missing and the remaining piece stayed on the dusty shelves of Topkapi palace until 1929 makes the statement doubtful. There are some reports that Sultan Selim was interested in the east section of the map and therefore detached this part. Soon after the declaration of the Turkish republic in 1923, a museum specialist found two maps drawn on gazelle skin with degraded edges among the documents left untouched for centuries during the conversion of Topkapi Palace to a museum on October 9, 1929. The maps were brought to the museum manager, Halil Ildem. After an investigation, it was understood that the map was drawn by Piri Reis in 1513. This groundbreaking discovery was later translated into Turkish and other languages and published by the Turkish Historical Society, causing a great sensation. The year 2013 was dedicated to Piri Reis by UNESCO worldwide due to the 500th anniversary of his map.

A book that goes beyond its age: The Book of Navigation

The Book of Navigation, considered one of the early geographical masterpieces, was finished by Piri Reis in 1521 when he was shipyard chamberlain in Gallipoli. Until the 19th century, no guide book in any Western countries described the Mediterranean Sea in such detail.

The Book of Navigation was a unique reference for captains who sailed the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas for centuries. Reis later revised The Book of Navigation by adding a longer introduction in which he wrote about different parts of the world and introduced new marine terminology, and he wrote this introduction in verse. He added more maps too.

On a whole, the book contained much information that had never been compiled elsewhere, including the names and properties of seas, notes about settlements around Indian Ocean and the American continent, detailed descriptions of European, African, and Asian coastlines and islands. This data was reinforced with large scale maps for every harbor and shore. The book also had sections dedicated to ship construction, religion, and politics. Grand vizier Ibrahim Pasha of Parga, who witnessed the good use of The Book of Navigation, during a campaign in Egypt, asked Piri Reis to reproduce and present his book to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Piri Reis presented a new copy of his book to the Sultan in 1526. Certain manuscripts produced from the original books dating to 1521 and 1525 can be found in major libraries around the world, and in museums and state libraries in Istanbul.

The making of the second world map (1528)

Piri Reis constructed a second world map in 1528, 15 years after completion of his first map. Today there is a 68×69 cm wide piece remaining from this map inscribed with his signature. This piece displays the north of the Atlantic Ocean, and the known shores of North and Central America in that time. In this map, shores were drawn more successfully compared to the first one, blank areas were filled in, but uncharted areas were still left blank. This map was composed with eight colors and a few small errors from previous maps had been corrected completely. This map is significant the history of science because Piri Reis was able to project the spherical world on a plane surface as if he copied from a planetary globe we have everywhere today. Starting with the coast of Greenland, the map continues to cover the Azores archipelago and the Labrador seafront, plus newly discovered land masses like Honduras, the Yucatan-Haiti region and Cuban islands, and finally the Florida coast. This map, like others, featured four compass-roses.

How did Piri Reis draw world maps?

How did Piri Reis picture the New World when he never visited it? The map itself contains the answer to this question. It is written that a “Columbus map” was referenced in the legend; this map described the Antilles coast and islands. Reis is believed to have obtained this map from a Spaniard who claimed to have traveled to America three times along with Columbus and was a captive of Kemal Reis.

Along with his map, Piri Reis attached a note: “No such map existed in our time; it is composed by me, becoming the main reference. It shows the settlement areas of the world. This shape is developed by method of comparison with many maps, but especially twenty maps in addition to eight world maps called ‘Jafariya’ by Arabs constructed during the times of Alexander the Great containing land masses, an Indian map in Arabic, four Portuguese maps showing the Sind(h), Indian, and Chinese countries via geometric means, and the map Columbus built of the Western region.”

Prof. Fuat Sezgin, director of Arab-Islamic Sciences Institute of Goethe University, presents a different opinion in terms of Western mapmaking. Prof. Sezgin states that the modern maritime science owes a lot to Arab scientists who lived between the 9th and 16th centuries. According to him, there are two basic principles in maritime sciences. The first is to be able to measure vast distances across massive oceans; the second is to be able to locate a specific spot in the seas. These two were developed in the first half of the 20th century in Europe, whereas Muslims could apply these principles as early as the 15th century. Islamic scholars prepared the first world map based on latitude and longitude. In fact, the Portuguese learned the maritime sciences during the 15th century when they obtained maps developed by Arabs. Like the rest of the world, Piri Reis was also influenced by the Arab-Islamic tradition. Giancarlo Casenle claims that Islamic geographical sciences were known by the Ottomans, but Arabic publications were not utilized sufficiently before the 16th century.

Why was Piri Reis executed?

Piri Reis was assigned with the Captainship of Egypt in 1547. While attending to this duty, he recaptured Aden from the Portuguese and conquered Muscat with a fleet of 31 ships. While he was in the Persian Gulf, he received news that a large Portuguese fleet was in the vicinity and left with three ships, so as not to be restrained in the gulf. On his return, one of the ships sank but two made it back. He was sentenced to death for he left 29 ships behind. He was executed in Egypt. His tomb is located in Cairo.

There is debate about the exact cause of his death. According to Portuguese author Couto and other historians referencing his work, the main reason for his execution was disobedience to the sultan. He was apparently asked to go to Basra first and then to capture the Hormuz Island. Because he didn’t follow through, the Ottomans lost the opportunity to capture Hormuz Island; this meant they couldn’t access the Indian Ocean via the Persian Gulf. The most important consequence was that the Portuguese were able to dominate both the Persian Gulf, the waters of Aden, and the Red Sea. In this case, the holy cities of Mecca and Medina were exposed to the Portuguese threat more than ever.

Despite this, Piri Reis had good reasons for leaving, but it was a time when one didn’t disobey the sultan. Whatever the circumstances of his death, Piri Reis made major contributions to maritime sciences and navigation.