Not yet knowing
as we
are known
we envision
One in all.

Embracing
letting go
justice
rolls down
gloriously.

Piri Reis started his naval life aboard his uncle’s ship; his first job was, “Voyage Journal Keeper.” This way, he had a good opportunity to practice what he learned at school and observe the construction of ships in the harbor. He also met sailors who arrived and departed from Gallipoli. He attended military raids throughout the Aegean (Islands) Sea and the Mediterranean during this time. These raids were carried out as pioneer operations before a planned Ottoman naval conquest. He also traveled through the western Aegean and Mediterranean for years, took part in many wars, and especially participated in the battles of Lepanto and Modon against the Venetians. In 1492, when King Ferdinand of Spain started atrocities against Jews through the inquisition court, the Ottoman Empire deployed Kemal Reis under the Ottoman flag to Spain. Piri Reis joined his uncle on this mission, and helped relocate Jews and Arabs to Northern African and Anatolian soils, where they would be safe.

In 1494, while the Ottomans were preparing for battle with the Venetians, Piri Reis was appointed “ship commander” by the Sultan. Between 1495 and 1510, he participated in many naval battles in the Mediterranean; he gathered the places he visited and the events he witnessed during these missions into his Book of Navigation, which is considered the first manual for world seamanship. In 1511, the shipyard near Alaiye was raided by a fleet of knights from Rhodes. Kemal Reis was assigned to avenge this raid, but during this mission, his boat was caught by a storm. Piri Reis was devastated to learn that his uncle drowned during this storm.

The solitary years in Gallipoli and a world map in 1513

Piri Reis retreated to Gallipoli for a while upon the loss of his uncle. During his stay there, he prepared his world map (1513). Today, only one piece of the colored map – which was drawn on a gazelle skin – remains. This map was not only filled with Reis’ profound knowledge, but also reflections of his intuition. The remaining pieces show the shores of Southwest Europe, Northwest Africa, and Southeast America, and were apparently part of a large scale world map. The accuracy of this map drawn in the 16th century surprises scientists; it is noted that this map looks as if it had been made through aerials, as the map conforms very well to natural structures observed on a plane over the Atlantic Ocean.

The left column of the map notes, “Piri Reis who is the son of Haci Mehmed and the nephew of Kemal Reis constructed this map in the month of Muharram of the year 919 (March/April 1513).” The signature of the mapmaker is a personal connection to the time and location of the maps. While making this map, he continued compiling notes for his other work, the Book of Navigation.

He returned to seas when he finished the world map. During the years 1516 and 1517, he took part in the Egypt campaign, in which he commanded many ships and presented the world map he finished four years before to Yavuz Sultan Selim. Even though Piri Reis mentioned in his “Book of Navigation” that the map earned respect from Yavuz Sultan Selim, the fact that two thirds of the map is missing and the remaining piece stayed on the dusty shelves of Topkapi palace until 1929 makes the statement doubtful. There are some reports that Sultan Selim was interested in the east section of the map and therefore detached this part. Soon after the declaration of the Turkish republic in 1923, a museum specialist found two maps drawn on gazelle skin with degraded edges among the documents left untouched for centuries during the conversion of Topkapi Palace to a museum on October 9, 1929. The maps were brought to the museum manager, Halil Ildem. After an investigation, it was understood that the map was drawn by Piri Reis in 1513. This groundbreaking discovery was later translated into Turkish and other languages and published by the Turkish Historical Society, causing a great sensation. The year 2013 was dedicated to Piri Reis by UNESCO worldwide due to the 500th anniversary of his map.

A book that goes beyond its age: The Book of Navigation

The Book of Navigation, considered one of the early geographical masterpieces, was finished by Piri Reis in 1521 when he was shipyard chamberlain in Gallipoli. Until the 19th century, no guide book in any Western countries described the Mediterranean Sea in such detail.

The Book of Navigation was a unique reference for captains who sailed the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas for centuries. Reis later revised The Book of Navigation by adding a longer introduction in which he wrote about different parts of the world and introduced new marine terminology, and he wrote this introduction in verse. He added more maps too.

On a whole, the book contained much information that had never been compiled elsewhere, including the names and properties of seas, notes about settlements around Indian Ocean and the American continent, detailed descriptions of European, African, and Asian coastlines and islands. This data was reinforced with large scale maps for every harbor and shore. The book also had sections dedicated to ship construction, religion, and politics. Grand vizier Ibrahim Pasha of Parga, who witnessed the good use of The Book of Navigation, during a campaign in Egypt, asked Piri Reis to reproduce and present his book to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Piri Reis presented a new copy of his book to the Sultan in 1526. Certain manuscripts produced from the original books dating to 1521 and 1525 can be found in major libraries around the world, and in museums and state libraries in Istanbul.

The making of the second world map (1528)

Piri Reis constructed a second world map in 1528, 15 years after completion of his first map. Today there is a 68×69 cm wide piece remaining from this map inscribed with his signature. This piece displays the north of the Atlantic Ocean, and the known shores of North and Central America in that time. In this map, shores were drawn more successfully compared to the first one, blank areas were filled in, but uncharted areas were still left blank. This map was composed with eight colors and a few small errors from previous maps had been corrected completely. This map is significant the history of science because Piri Reis was able to project the spherical world on a plane surface as if he copied from a planetary globe we have everywhere today. Starting with the coast of Greenland, the map continues to cover the Azores archipelago and the Labrador seafront, plus newly discovered land masses like Honduras, the Yucatan-Haiti region and Cuban islands, and finally the Florida coast. This map, like others, featured four compass-roses.

How did Piri Reis draw world maps?

How did Piri Reis picture the New World when he never visited it? The map itself contains the answer to this question. It is written that a “Columbus map” was referenced in the legend; this map described the Antilles coast and islands. Reis is believed to have obtained this map from a Spaniard who claimed to have traveled to America three times along with Columbus and was a captive of Kemal Reis.

Along with his map, Piri Reis attached a note: “No such map existed in our time; it is composed by me, becoming the main reference. It shows the settlement areas of the world. This shape is developed by method of comparison with many maps, but especially twenty maps in addition to eight world maps called ‘Jafariya’ by Arabs constructed during the times of Alexander the Great containing land masses, an Indian map in Arabic, four Portuguese maps showing the Sind(h), Indian, and Chinese countries via geometric means, and the map Columbus built of the Western region.”

Prof. Fuat Sezgin, director of Arab-Islamic Sciences Institute of Goethe University, presents a different opinion in terms of Western mapmaking. Prof. Sezgin states that the modern maritime science owes a lot to Arab scientists who lived between the 9th and 16th centuries. According to him, there are two basic principles in maritime sciences. The first is to be able to measure vast distances across massive oceans; the second is to be able to locate a specific spot in the seas. These two were developed in the first half of the 20th century in Europe, whereas Muslims could apply these principles as early as the 15th century. Islamic scholars prepared the first world map based on latitude and longitude. In fact, the Portuguese learned the maritime sciences during the 15th century when they obtained maps developed by Arabs. Like the rest of the world, Piri Reis was also influenced by the Arab-Islamic tradition. Giancarlo Casenle claims that Islamic geographical sciences were known by the Ottomans, but Arabic publications were not utilized sufficiently before the 16th century.

Why was Piri Reis executed?

Piri Reis was assigned with the Captainship of Egypt in 1547. While attending to this duty, he recaptured Aden from the Portuguese and conquered Muscat with a fleet of 31 ships. While he was in the Persian Gulf, he received news that a large Portuguese fleet was in the vicinity and left with three ships, so as not to be restrained in the gulf. On his return, one of the ships sank but two made it back. He was sentenced to death for he left 29 ships behind. He was executed in Egypt. His tomb is located in Cairo.

There is debate about the exact cause of his death. According to Portuguese author Couto and other historians referencing his work, the main reason for his execution was disobedience to the sultan. He was apparently asked to go to Basra first and then to capture the Hormuz Island. Because he didn’t follow through, the Ottomans lost the opportunity to capture Hormuz Island; this meant they couldn’t access the Indian Ocean via the Persian Gulf. The most important consequence was that the Portuguese were able to dominate both the Persian Gulf, the waters of Aden, and the Red Sea. In this case, the holy cities of Mecca and Medina were exposed to the Portuguese threat more than ever.

Despite this, Piri Reis had good reasons for leaving, but it was a time when one didn’t disobey the sultan. Whatever the circumstances of his death, Piri Reis made major contributions to maritime sciences and navigation.

We’ve always tried to look towards the future here at The Fountain. It’s why in every issue you’ll find articles about some of the most important scientific developments, like in our Science Square section. But we’re not just satisfied with looking ahead; we want to look ahead responsibly.

One of the ways we can do that is through the practice of compassion. In his article, “A Symphony of Compassion,” Anthony J. Ciorra invites us to study the roots of compassion in the three Abrahamic faiths, as well as in Buddhism. Almost every faith is built around the concept of love. By looking at the past, Ciorra shows that the very building block of human society has been the ability to love and empathize with our fellow humans. To build a better future, we all need to practice the daily compassion different faith leaders, like the Prophet Muhammad, Jesus, and the Dalai Lama, have exemplified.

Sometimes, you have to look backwards to find out how to move forward. Finding answers in the past is a pattern in this issue, and Alparslan Zora’s “How Fair Are We When Looking Into The Past?” asks us to reconsider the actions of historical peoples by examining the context in which they lived. Some of their actions might seem incomprehensible, or even condemnable, to us now, but it’s valuable to understand that societies develop at different speeds. Trying to understand their mistakes, which were common in their societies, is another form of compassion.

In Katharine Branning’s “Leiden: Living the Poems of Tolerance,” the author shows that compassion isn’t just a feeling; it’s an action. While traveling through a picturesque Dutch town, Branning is amazed by the poems painted on the walls of local buildings. Closer study reveals a rich history of diversity, dialogue, and cultural exchange between Europe and the Muslim world. Through mutual respect, Leiden was able to cultivate a fertile multiculturalism. The relationships that began centuries ago – based around commerce, art, and education – still benefit the town, and its people, today. Such an example of coexistence can be a guide for future generations.

Dr. Gonullu’s article “The Uncertainties of Energy Supply” is a stark reminder of why it’s so important to look ahead responsibly. Not only are the planet’s fossil fuels beginning to run out, but they’re also causing serious disruptions to the earth’s climate. Just as Pope Francis’ recent treatise on the environment highlights, we need to realize that protecting our planet isn’t the realm of certain political or religious groups; it’s a responsibility that falls upon all of us. Without working towards the future with compassion and thoughtfulness, we run the risk of leaving future generations a planet that isn’t just devoid of natural resources, but that is barely habitable. Our planet is a gift that has been entrusted to us, and both scientific and religious leaders are calling for us to live and work responsibly so that our future is bright.

There are even more questions, and many of the answers pose more questions themselves. Not only is it getting harder to obtain clean, cheap, abundant, and practical energy, but the pursuit of energy leads to environmental problems.

In the past, the term “energy” did not mean what it does today. The kinds of “energy” we think of today weren’t feasible in the past. When we think in terms of construction, transportation, travel, communication, defense, or heating, human capabilities were much lower.

For example, the high temperature required to melt iron ore for canon casting was once obtained via wood burning. Ships moved by wind – and if the wind died, they used oars. Grains were ground by water and wind mills; water was pulled from rivers to upper terraces via Archimedean screws, mills, or directly by human power. Soil was plowed by animals and clothes were dried by sunlight.

For the last 150 years, coal, petroleum, and natural gas have been major sources of energy; uranium has been used for the last 60 years. Recently, wind, solar, and geothermal energy – the earliest energy sources – have been making a comeback, albeit in new, faster forms.

The future and costs of energy sources

Today, coal and lignite deposits are predicted to last for centuries; petroleum and natural gas reserves are estimated to last for another 50-60 years. Petroleum is used in the transportation industry, despite being an environmental pollutant and harmful to human health. In electricity production, while thermal power plants based on nuclear energy, geothermal fluids, and solar energy are common, fossil fuel (coal and natural gas) thermal plants are prioritized. For instance, in 2010, half of the total electricity generated in the USA was from coal-burning power plants. There are also countries which starve for energy and spend an overwhelming portion of their national income to import petroleum and natural gas.

There is no alternative, clean, common, and practical fuel on the horizon that can replace petroleum in the transportation industry in the short run. Hydrogen as a synthetic fuel is still in its initial stages. Its production from clean sources, like water, and use for transportation is technically possible, yet still not economical. Plants such as canola, sugar cane, beets, corn, and sunflowers can be used in bio-fuel production and are increasingly becoming part of energy generation. This not only negatively affects the food supply in a world experiencing droughts, food shortages, and hunger problems, but also drives prices higher.

Hydroelectric plants are increasingly opposed worldwide, though this opposition is oftentimes driven by the petrol lobby. Some of the opposition is also due to the fact that hydroelectric dams destroy vegetation and animal habitats, and also cause the relocation of human populations.

Due to the increase in energy consumption, ash, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur oxides pollute air, water, and soil. The damage could take hundreds of years to undo. Acid rains lower the quality of soil and water. Ash, generated from burning coal, harms vegetation and the atmosphere. The accidents occurring at petroleum rigs, transmission lines, and among transportation vehicles also lead to pollution.

Despite this, energy is still a necessity. Our current sources have been deposited on the earth – and many are derivative of solar energy (fossil fuel, wind, and sun energy). Unfortunately, today it is becoming harder and harder to meet global energy demands without disrupting human and environmental health.

The most important alternative seems to be global-scale, cheaper production of synthetic fuels, such as hydrogen, from renewable clean sources like solar and wind sources. In the long run, the development of hydrogen energy systems as a replacement for the petrol economy is quite possible. It will take a while because the petrol industry already has a well-established foothold within the global economy. It is a huge network. Our petroleum economy is not expected to change in the short run and change is not currently possible technologically, economically, or politically.

Energy waste, efficiency, and saving

While searching for solutions to the growing energy demands, the efficient use of energy and consuming it without waste are the two significant goals. So, it is important to know a bit more about what we call “waste.” There are two kinds of waste: objective and subjective.

Objective waste can be divided into three subcategories: excessive use, negligence, and irresponsible use. Excessive use is when you need to use electricity in a dark place, but you use more light bulbs than necessary. Negligence is when you do not switch off lights when you leave your office. And irresponsible use is when you turn on lights when there is already enough daylight.

Subjective waste can be defined as organizing entertainment activities, in addition to the illumination, advertisement, and material consumption of these events without presenting them to public debate. Today, almost all production sectors (food, electronics, automotive, industrial, communication, transportation, tourism, and service) contribute to the entertainment and media sector. All forms of entertainment and media, targeting both individuals and masses, are perceived to be among the most important needs worldwide.

With the uncontrolled spread of things that have become an unnecessary need, the waste of electricity and sources like water, food, and fuel is ever increasing. Eliminating bad habits will not be easy. Excessive abuse of the planet’s energy sources leave millions of people without clean water, food, and electricity. The volume of technology that is dependent on fossil fuel (especially petroleum) and electricity is also getting larger – and spreading.

Many would say that in free market anyone or any institution can organize such activities. However, in the near future, it is quite possible that the world will be in a situation in which the consumption of water, basic food, primary fuel, and electricity will all be regulated. Also, if we envision humanity as a big family, in a world in which hundreds of millions of people live without clean water, and enough food, fuel, and electricity, nobody should have the right to consume vital resources for arbitrary habits.

Energy efficiency is sought in the hopes of preserving more energy for populations that do not have access to them. Such preservation can be achieved both by eliminating waste and by developing new devices (economic light bulbs that can provide the same luminescence with lesser electricity use), machinery, and buildings (where solar heat and illumination are better employed in lighting, heating, and ventilation).

Maybe humanity needs to ask some hard questions: How much is our share of the earth? How can we know the fairest way to benefit from nature without abusing this God-given trust?

We should think about these questions. We should also think about future generations before we consume energy that we do not need to consume. We need to help design a better future for the generations yet to come.

Only through such a social contract can a society be balanced and promising, and can its members live in dignity and respect. A society of this caliber can offer the most convenient opportunities for the young to learn, and for the learned to share with others their innermost inspirations. In this kind of society, libraries will be packed with knowledge-seekers and learning will be the nature of its individuals; thoughts will reflect on prayers and prayers. Then the land will be a land of virtue, and its residents will overflow with felicity.

An individual whose society is under siege by antagonism all around and in a constant state of decay cannot live with dignity and honor. In such a society, knowledge cannot be taught or learned; the faithful cannot fulfill their duties towards the Creator. Individuals cannot flourish in this society, especially if these individuals live side by side with enemies they are not even aware of. They grow in the same cradle with these enemies, and their heart beats in their rhythm, but they cannot detect the difference.

Yes, our biggest concern is that the adversaries are already streaming through the veins of society, as if they were cancer cells, deteriorating society day by day. We fear that the members of this society are so numbed that they are being devoured slowly and they don’t feel anything. If a society’s foresight is tied and blinded, and if its enemies are sneaky and relentless, then the Trojan Horse is already inside; the castle is in great danger.

The invaders market and sell banal and cheap old thoughts as diamonds; clowns impersonate celebrities; and some narrow minded, miserable creatures are respected, as if they were apostles. In the meantime, the altruistic national spirit erodes and is washed away by the floods of northern icebergs.

If you would investigate all segments of that society, and all the institutions of the country, you would not find any sign of that spirit which belongs to you. You would not see the hunger for knowledge, the love for truth; you would not find sincerity and pureness, nor morality and ethical values. The body of the nation is vermiculated; knowledge is the work of jugglers, and educational institutions are circuses. There are methods in which (as if they search for truth) unbelief and immorality are taught to the next generations. Hearts are merciless; emotions are vulgar and inhumane; and eyes are without foresight and substance. It’s as if the crowds are suffering from depression, ignoring all the spiritual and moral foundations that could maintain a society; carnal pleasures are promoted.

In our day and age, the commodity (goods, love of goods) – which is a bulldozer that crushes the thoughts and emotions of the youth and obstructs them everywhere – has claimed to be the idol of the crowds. Technology which has not been tamed and aligned with the true essence of being human has become a plague. This plague has occupied our lives at the expense of selfless living for the community. It has obstructed lofty aims from flourishing.

For all these reasons, people need to pay more attention to their engulfed heart and ossified spirit, while the restoration of their physical body goes on.

Those whose vision is in the future, and who promise to raise that future on their shoulders, need to feel the responsibility of their work within their souls in every step they take. Only then will they show a real sincerity in their duties. The cause and thoughts of these sincere ones will not be tied up with circumstances and the reality of life; in contrast, circumstances will take form according to their convictions. They will prove their presence by revolting against a life that is spent for only worldly enjoyments, on the deprivation of real love and irresponsibility.

A society that evolves to this point with the guidance of masters and teachers is ready to renew itself and go into a renaissance. If we look hopeful, it is because this kind of new existence has shown its signs on our horizons, due only to our strong trust and confidence in the pure essence of being human and the grace of God.

The human body is built from the elements found on earth. There are approximately 44 kg of oxygen, 14 kg of carbon, 7 kg of hydrogen, 2.1 kg of nitrogen, 1 kg of calcium, and lesser amount of other elements existing in a 70 kg human body. In fact, many of the 92 naturally occurring elements can be found in the human body, which resembles a small universe. Surely, these elements cannot act chaotically and only fulfill their duties in the organs that are assigned to them in the great mechanism of the human body.

Oxygen is one of these natural elements; under normal natural conditions, it exists in gas and molecular form (O2 and O3). It is abundant throughout the world: nearly 65% of the human body, 88% of the waters on earth, and 46.7% of the earth’s crust are made from oxygen atoms (in terms of their mass). Since it is an active element, which makes compounds with many other elements, it is found generally in compound form.

When we say oxygen, the first thing that comes to mind is the oxygen we breathe in the air. The volumetric ratio of atmospheric gases are 78% nitrogen (N2), 20.9% oxygen (O2), 0.93% argon (Ar), 0.04% carbon dioxide (CO2), and lesser amounts of water vapor and other gases.

Oxygen is the most vital requirement for organisms that carry out aerobic respiration. To sustain life, nutrients must be converted into energy in our cells. Therefore, oxygen obtained via respiration must be carried to the cells. The amount of oxygen intake and tolerance time without oxygen varies among living things. Studies have shown that humans can live around 3 to 4 minutes without oxygen; the brain begins to shut down after 5 minutes without oxygen.

The jobs of gases during respiration

Respiration is a wonderful mechanism which is dependent on the nervous system; it is autonomous and usually takes place with ease. The respiration rate for adults is 10-15 times per minute; for children, 20-30; and for infants, 30-40. Respiration can simply be defined as the replacement of carbon dioxide gas in the blood with oxygen. Approximately 400 million alveoli in the lungs are where the oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange takes place. The oxygen that passes into the blood here is transported to cells when it binds to the hemoglobin of the red blood cells. The oxygen, which is captured by the iron (Fe) in the hemoglobin (Hb), is then released for the cells.

Roughly 4/5th of the air inhaled during respiration is nitrogen; 1/5th is oxygen. If we only need oxygen, why do we inhale other gases? It is because the integrity of air plays a critical role in breathing (the oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange). The gas ratio of air before and after respiration is given below.

As seen, while nitrogen and other gases remain constant, oxygen levels decrease, whereas carbon dioxide increases. Only 5% of the inhaled air, or oxygen, is consumed. For our cells to receive the sufficient amount of oxygen they need, the total gas pressure, composition, and oxygen concentration in the air must fit these variables. In addition, water vapor that mixes into gases inside the respiratory track assists with the regulation of gas pressure in our lungs.

The rate of gases in the air is finely tuned. If there is less oxygen in the atmosphere, aside from its many negative effects in nature, it would be insufficient for respiration; the amount of oxygen that passes into the blood to bind with hemoglobin would not be enough for our cells, and the excessive oxygen would also be toxic. For example, mountain climbers use oxygen tanks; as elevation increases, air pressure and oxygen decrease. Excessive oxygen, however, may cause loss of consciousness (coma), nausea, cramps, and visual impairment. Concentrated oxygen can be fatal for cells. According to Australian biologist Michael Denton, each extra 1% above the current 21% ratio of oxygen in the atmosphere would increase the possibility of a lighting based forest fire up to 70%.

The vital role of nitrogen

Under normal conditions, nitrogen is found in nature in its gas form as an inert element. In other words, it is created so that it only reacts under rare and special circumstances. It does not react with many substances, such as water, air, acids, and bases. Is there any function for nitrogen gas in our respiratory system?

When nitrogen gas enters our body via the air passage, it is exhaled back without getting into any reactions in our lungs, blood, or with oxygen. It does not affect the oxygen we breathe in; however, it plays a role for adjusting oxygen’s rate. Its presence is necessary for the respiration of oxygen under certain concentrations, flows, and pressure.

What would happen if any of the inert gases – like helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), or krypton (Kr) – replaced nitrogen? Not only could these gases not substitute for nitrogen with their physical and chemical features, but they could also not carry out its other functions. For instance, their solubility in blood under pressure is different. Therefore, vital problems such as decompression sickness because of different air and water pressure conditions would be seen more often, especially for pilots and divers. Also, because of different absorption and reflection rates in sunlight, our climate and other species would be affected. Furthermore, the nitrogen cycle takes part in terms of the maintenance of life on earth as outlined by natural laws.

It’s plain to see that the balance of elements and gases on our planet, and in the whole universe, have been perfectly balanced to sustain life. It seems remarkable that our planet could be created in such a way as to support so many creatures, who require such a specific balance to survive.

In physics, there are certain physical quantities that play a central role in the science, such as the mass of an electron or the speed of light, also known as the gravitational constant.

“We do know the values of these fundamental quantities very well,” said astrophysicist Prof. Brian Koberlein in an article published recently on his website. “The mass and charge of an electron are known to about one part in a billion. The gravitational constant, perhaps the least well measured, is known to about one part in ten thousand,” he added. Prof. Max Tegmark, who is a world famous physicist from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, said that most of the parameters affecting low-energy physics appear fine-tuned at some level in the sense that changing them by modest amounts would result in a qualitatively different universe.

“If the electromagnetic force were weakened by a mere 4%, then the Sun would immediately explode. If it were stronger, there would be fewer stable atoms,” noted Tegmark in the book Science and Ultimate Reality: From Quantum to Cosmos, published by Cambridge University Press. Tegmark continued, “If the weak interaction (which is one of the fundamental forces in physics) were substantially weaker, there would be no hydrogen around, since it would have been converted to helium shortly after the Big Bang. If it were either much stronger or much weaker, the neutrinos from a supernova explosion would fail to blow away the outer parts of the star, and it is doubtful whether life supporting heavy elements would ever be able to leave the stars where they were produced. (The heavier elements, such as carbon, oxygen, and iron, were made in the nuclear furnace of high mass stars. Upon the death of stars, these elements, along with even more massive nuclei created during the supernova, were thrown out into space.)

Prof. Tegmark gave some more fascinating examples: “If the protons were 0.2% heavier, they would decay into neutrons unable to hold onto electrons, so there would be no stable atoms around. If the proton-to-electron mass ratio were much smaller, there could be no stable stars, and if it were much larger, there could be no ordered structures like crystals and DNA molecules.”

And here are some examples of “fine tuning” mentioned by Dr. Luke Barnes from the Sydney Institute for Astronomy, in his article, “The Fine-Tuning of the Universe for Intelligent Life”:

“If gravity were repulsive rather than attractive, then matter wouldn’t clump into complex structures. If the strong force (the force that binds protons and neutrons together to form the nucleus of an atom) were a long rather than short-range force, then there would be no atoms. Any structures that formed would be uniform, spherical, undifferentiated lumps of arbitrary size and incapable of complexity. If in electromagnetism, like charges attracted and opposites repelled, then there would be no atoms. As above, we would just have undifferentiated lumps of matter.”

Another example of fine tuning is the fine structure constant, which is also known as alpha. It’s the measure of the strength of the electromagnetic force that governs how electrically charged particles interact. Its value is nearly equal to 1/137 (or to 0.007297). Richard Feynman, who is one of the top physicists of the 20th century and a Nobel laureate, called the fine structure constant “a magic number.”

“If alpha were >0.1, stellar fusion would be impossible,” stated University of Cambridge theoretical physicist Prof. John Barrow.

Physicist Gerald Schroeder from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology quoted the words of Prof. Michael Turner, an astrophysicist at the University of Chicago and Fermilab: “The precision (in the universe) is as if one could throw a dart across the entire universe and hit a bull’s-eye one millimeter in diameter on the other side.”

Reactionary movements have never been beneficial to the larger society, nor have the perpetrators of such movements been able to achieve their goals. Whether these movements have been Islamic or non-Islamic, they have only achieved minimal success.

With respect to Islam and reactionary movements in the Muslim world, it is important for Muslims to remember that their first duty is to represent Islamic thought in the best possible way, which can be realized only through long term investments in education. If this course have been taken instead of reacting with hatred and revenge against those who harmed Islamic values, the Muslim world would have flourished.

More than half a century has passed since the 1950s, when such reactionary movements emerged in some Muslim countries. If the youth of the time, who were involved in those movements, had been encouraged to enroll in schools and colleges, they might today be ministers, or even the leaders of their countries as prime ministers or presidents. Yet, with the exception of a few, those involved in such reactionary movements were always displeased and vanished without making any lasting achievements.

I want to make a second point: whatever objective may be sought, it should never be on the account of destruction – and it should never harm the unity of a nation. That is, while trying to “build” something, we should not cause destructions which may have lasting consequences for future generations. Otherwise, not only will our objectives fail, but we will be severely condemned by future generations; worst of all, our hopes for a serene afterlife will also perish.

Believers may, of course, pursue some worldly aspirations. Yet, even if such aspirations are within the permissible domain of faith, they cannot be the essential purpose or an ideal of believers. In the case of Islam, for instance, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, did not utter a word referring to such aspirations, especially during the Meccan period of his teaching.

On the contrary, the verses that were revealed during that period and the hadith always emphasize the truths of faith. His Companions suffered under desperate oppression along with the Prophet, yet they never had any worldly expectation that could blur their pure intentions. Believers of today should follow their example and intensify their efforts in the service of faith, which is the true message of the scriptures, and thus attain God’s good pleasure. Pursuing worldly expectations is no different than bargaining with God, which is an absolutely improper behavior, and is exactly the opposite of what is expected from God’s servants. Such expectations result in a vicious cycle at each turn of which saving oneself becomes even more difficult. I wholeheartedly believe that those who seek worldly gains in return for their good work and make these gains their ultimate goal lose God’s endorsement. They fail and they will always fail, even if they sacrifice their lives and all their possessions for such a goal. The ultimate goal should be nothing else but God and His good pleasure. For seekers of His good pleasure, God will eventually deliver them to their destination and will not condemn them to devastation.

Worldly assets are claimed by many people. Among these, those who are stronger will oppress others to attain these assets, or to not lose them. Oppressing others by crude force is quite natural for them, for they do not have a hereafter to invest in. So, they never want to lose their material prosperity which they want to secure even for their grandchildren.

Many instances have proved that the powerful oppress the weak when both are after the same worldly aspirations. So, instead of reactionary movements which do not yield any positive result, believers should be involved in teaching others about themselves and seeking God’s good pleasure.

To understand the unfairness, consider the values of today or our actions that future generations may criticize. This can be very difficult, as we have already likely convinced ourselves that our actions and our standards are correct. If we did not think that our values were correct, we would not believe in them. Of the possibilities, the most obvious possibility is climate change. If our current actions lead to some of the calamities forecasted by some scientists, then future generations could criticize our lack of action and our unwillingness to give up our standard of living. For them the calamities would be free of the fog of the unknown, and they would not be able to understand why we ignored such grave warnings. Just as we can look back at history and claim that racial inequality, gender inequality, and religious inequality were wrong, future generations will likely look back on us and easily find our mistakes.

The fact that each new generation can identify the mistakes of the former – and rectify these mistakes – is a sign of humanity’s progress. It is evidence that each new generation is taking a step forward, solving social issues, and learning new ways to live together more peacefully. Of course, this is not always the case, as every so often humanity takes a step back, as exemplified by the horrors of World War II, the enslavement of Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries, and other such tragedies. The hope for humanity rests on moving forward; our steps forward must outnumber the steps backward.

Learning from the past in order to take the next step forward is each generation’s responsibility. However, in the process of looking back, my fourth grade self could not help but criticize the people of the past and be shocked by their actions. I did not realize that George Washington was a man of his time, just like the rest of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He lived in a world where slavery was not only rampant, but routine. In this context, one would have to possess a strong moral compass to thrift through the wrongs of his time.

And Washington, as a Virginia plantation owner, demonstrated his moral compass and vision for the future by freeing all of his slaves in his will. Other Founders also opposed slavery: Benjamin Franklin, once a slave owner, later freed his slaves and became president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society; Thomas Jefferson considered slavery a violation of individual rights (though he, too, owned slaves). Faced with the realities of deep-seated racial prejudice, the economic and political implications of the abolition in the South, and the need for a unified nation after the American Revolution, the Founders did not abolish slavery (1). Indeed, slavery and racial inequality proved difficult to overcome, and even now, more than two hundred years later, social issues originating from slavery remain.

Ignoring the effect of the time period George Washington lived in on his actions would be a big mistake. Of course, norms of one’s society cannot be an excuse for crimes and immoral actions, but it is also unfair to single out the individual, when society as a whole is to blame. It is the responsibility of all members of society to identify their shortcomings and attempt to remedy them. For example, as racism, religious feuds, and hatred of the “other” grip current societies, community members and visionaries have mobilized through intercultural and interfaith dialog in the hopes of uniting through familiarity and shared humanity. Additionally, there are hundreds of charities and non-profit groups based in the U.S. alone attempting to remedy issues ranging from animal rights to world hunger. As issues arise it is the responsibility of the members of society to provide answers, but singling out one individual from the whole society and criticizing them is unfair.

Additionally, the reason I can look back at the past with my current values and morals is because of the progress of humanity through the efforts of people of the past, the important figures in history. They contributed to the development of the current value systems. I did not develop my values; I merely adopted them. Thus, what right do I have to judge the people of the past who did not have the same opportunity?

To conclude, it is important not to forget that society as a whole is responsible. Understanding why the person acted in a certain way by examining the society allows us to draw lessons that we can apply to our society today. Too much focus on the individual distracts from the remedial function of reflection on the past.

Reference

1. “The Founding Fathers and Slavery.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 16 Mar. 2013.

Engineers have developed a new tool which can test for both past and current viral infections by analyzing a single drop of a patient’s blood. The new method, known as VirScan (Systematic Viral Epitope Scanning), is superior to existing technologies, which are only able to search for a single virus at a time. When we are infected by a virus, our immune system starts fighting it by producing antibodies that neutralize the foreign object that is carrying disease. VirScan simply screens those antibodies that are produced against any of the 1000 strains of the total 206 virus species known to infect humans. Since our immune system continues to produce these antibodies even long after the virus disappears, VirScan is able to detect both current and past infections. As a pilot study, scientists have used VirScan to screen the blood of 569 people in the US, South Africa, Peru, and Thailand. The findings showed that each patient, on average, had antibodies for around 10 different species of virus. They also found that blood samples from patients with HIV showed a larger number of antibodies for different viruses than those without HIV. The test is relatively simple and will only cost $25. VirScan will be particularly useful in underdeveloped regions of the world, where it can be used to track disease patterns among various global populations and to develop targeted therapeutic approaches.

New Computers Run on Water Droplets

After a decade of hard work, scientists have finally created a working computer based on the physical movement of water droplets. They devised a system in which water droplets are trapped in a magnetic field. When the field is rotated or flipped, droplets move in precise directions and distances, resulting in a synchronous computer based entirely on the physics of water. Researchers applied the physics of moving droplets to the operating clock, an essential component of any computer or computer-driven devices such as smartphones, airplanes, and even the internet. Almost every computer program runs several simultaneous operations and a clock ensures that the information is synchronized. In theory, the new line of computers can perform the very same operations as common computers, although a computer based on the physical movement of water will clearly run much slower than a conventional computer based on the movement of electrons. But scientists do not aim to compete with super-fast liquid CPU computers anyway; their goal is to build a completely new class of computers that can manipulate physical matters instead of bits of information. The current chips of new computers are about half the size of a postage stamp, and the droplets are smaller than poppy seeds. The fact that the magnetic field can control millions of droplets simultaneously makes the system exceptionally scalable. Scientists foresee that this technology can potentially turn computers into high-throughput chemistry and biology laboratories. Instead of running reactions in test tubes, each droplet can carry some chemicals and become its own test tube, and the droplet computer offers extraordinary control over these interactions.

Cosmic Dance at the Far End of Our Solar System

Astronomers find that 4.5 billion miles away, the Pluto system is more peculiar and complicated than anyone predicted. Hubble Space Telescope images revealed that Pluto, with its largest moon, Charon, and smaller moons Styx, Nix, Hydra, and Kerberos, shows unconventional rhythmic gyrations unlike anything in our solar system. Scientists suggest that this unpredictable lunar behavior stems from the gravitational pull exerted by Charon. Since Pluto and Charon are close in size, instead of one orbiting the other, they jointly orbit around a common center of gravity. It is like two unequal weights at the ends of a dumbbell, and the dumbbell is rotating. Astronomers called this phenomenon a “binary planet.” While Pluto and Charon perform their movements, the four little moons circle them, wobbling a bit when they go closer to either Pluto or Charon, being pushed and pulled by the two bigger objects. Since the small moons don’t have enough mass for their internal gravity to keep them in a round shape, they look more like American footballs than spheres. With the small moons wobbling and flipping around in unpredictable ways, if you lived on Nix ,for example, the sun would come up in different parts of the sky on different days. After a 9.5-year journey through the solar system, NASA’s $700 million New Horizon spacecraft will arrive at the Pluto system in July. The New Horizon is expected to take extremely high resolution images of Pluto and its moons, and astronomers hope to better understand how big Pluto system is and what it is made of.