Human beings are endowed with special abilities such as feeling, anticipating, introspection, imagination, and the ability to synthesize. These abilities are essential, because as a consequence of perennial change, we are living in a complex world. This complex lifestyle consists of wide communication networks, larger amount of transactions, intense mechanisms of influence, and the use of advanced technologies.

The massive changes in recent human history could make one’s life quite difficult if we, as human beings, did not possess “adaptability.” Adaptability is one of the most amazing capabilities humans possess, as it mediates the way human beings interact with their environment. Thanks to adaptability, a smart phone has become a great “toy” for today’s toddlers and the same kid can speak multiple languages equally well when sufficiently exposed.

Despite our adaptability, and despite many alluring aspects, this new lifestyle has its problems, including anxiety, stress, obesity, and more complicated health problems such as cancer. We’re also confronted with relatively new problems. For instance, though we have more types and sizes of transportation vehicles, cities suffer from worsened traffic. We should humble ourselves when we think about the troubles we have created here on earth. The massacre of the masses with advanced weapons, the use of technology at the expense of environmental safety, as well as ignorance, racism, and hatred, are all unique to human beings. We can observe what is happening in the human body for the diagnosis of health problems, but some of these monitoring tools themselves lead to serious health problems. Our new life style requires a more creative and complex thinking to solve the deep problems we are facing.

How can we fully utilize what we are given for the best of human kind? Can we be more creative for good rather than bad? How can we be more effective at resolving these complicated problems? What does it take to tackle unprecedented challenges?

I want to look at the literature on the process of creative thinking and underline two essential components. The first one is the active stage of preparation, hard work, persistent effort, active elaboration, data gathering, and solution generation; and the second is the period of passive longing, deliberate interruption, and incubation.

The active stage

Scientific studies of problem solving and creativity, as well as anecdotal evidence from stories of innovation, provide useful insights about effective problem solving strategies. An easy practice to test or develop problem solving skills is about generating ideas for an open-ended problem. For example, take a few minutes and try to generate at least 12 ideas for different uses of a chair. You could list ideas such as “sit on,” “use to eat dinner,” “stepping on to reach the ceiling,” or “for protection when playing with kids.” Then, split the idea list into two parts. If you ask a number of other people to generate ideas for the same problem, and check which ideas they also generated, this will enable you to see the ideas that were generated by only one person.

These are the unique ideas based on the small group experience. If you count the number of unique ideas that were generated in the first and second part of your list and compare them, you are more likely to see a higher number of unique or original ideas in the second half than the first half. Research results have consistently reported such findings over the years (Milgram & Rabkin, 1980). Original, uncommon, infrequent, surprising, unusual, and even smart ideas tend to come later as opposed to earlier. What would happen if you stopped generating after only six ideas instead of twelve? What you lose would be the original and uncommon ideas rather than the ordinary ones. Originality is the backbone of creativity (Stein, 1953) and original ideas do not come very easily. It takes more effort than the simple, regular, and traditional way of thinking. This is called the extended effort principle (Parnes, 1961; Basadur & Thompson, 1986). Smart solutions to the complex problems of the world require a lot of extended effort.

These empirical findings would be no surprise to Graham Wallas (1926), who proposed his classic theory on the cognitive processes of creative thinking. Wallas argues that the creative process consists of four stages. The first stage is called preparation, in which tremendous amounts of time and energy are dedicated to deep thinking, problem finding, research, and developing new knowledge. This phase often involves the exploration of all possible options or directions with full attention. According to some research, the development of an expertise requires approximately 10 years of preparation through which one can be immersed in specific areas of thought, thus allowing them to make a contribution to this area (Simonton, 1997).

Another 10 year-period may be necessary for greatness (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2007). As seen in the research, preparation can take a really long time depending on the area of investigation and magnitude of potential contribution. The importance of this phase has been underlined by Loiuse Pasteur, who said that “chance only favors the prepared mind.” It could also be possible to interpret the following assertion from the holy scriptures: “And there is not for man except that [good] for which he strives. And that his effort is going to be seen (Qur’an 39:40).”

The passive stage

Preparation, knowledge, and expertise may not be sufficient to develop great solutions. According to Wallas (1926), preparation is followed by a period in which one is disengaged from the active working phase and switches to a resting, free-minded, unconscious mode, in which the problem solver does not actively work on the problem but unwittingly lets his unconscious work on it. In a way, deliberate interruptions and ceasing to work on the problem can let brilliant solutions mysteriously emerge. Interestingly enough, the problem solver is at a passive position during this step, employing defocused attention. This so-called “black box” phase of problem-solving is also known as the “incubation” period.

The incubation period may (or may not) result in “illumination,” which refers to a flash of insight. This fascinating moment is considered a product of a series of connections or associations made in the human mind during the incubation period. Following years of research and thinking on a mathematical problem (the active stage), Poincare found the solution to his problem while dreaming (Miller, 1992). The moments of inspiration for many Sufis can be regarded as an example of illumination. Some Sufis practice 40 days (or longer, depending on the characteristics of the Sufi) of seclusion with limited or no interaction with other people, while also limiting their food intake and time spent sleeping. They often experience a greater level of openness to inspiration and share their inspirations as they “come to the heart” (Eris, 2006).

The lives of the great historical and spiritual figures prove the significance of the incubation period. Moses had an forty-day seclusion on the Mountain. Jesus went into a self-imposed seclusion to fight against Satan. Disappointed by the troubles he faced in his time, the Prophet Muhammad would go into seclusion in the cave of Hira, after which he received the first revelations (peace be upon them).

The power of a pause or interruption has shown its impact quite often in recent history. Nelson Mandela spent 26 years in prison, where he contemplated and refined his thoughts, which led to the success of his movement. Despite years of great reputation and closeness to power circles, Said Nursi, a prominent Muslim scholar, ultimately praised the time he was in exile, where he would dictate his “letters,” which were the seeds for one of today’s most influential and peaceful social movements. Clearly, these great people greatly benefited from their passive, paused, and incubated period.

Creativity and tawakkul

The active and passive stages of creativity underline the importance of hard work, diligence, and persistence followed by moments of patience, pause, and longing. The necessity of the latter entails humility and modesty, because we have no control over the incubation period. One can never know when “the chance comes to the prepared mind” – or if it will come at all. Our skills, abilities, talents, time, and energy are involved in the active stage of creativity, but these do not guarantee the desired outcome.

This reminds us of the limitations of human beings. From this spiritual perspective, creative thinking can be seen as a process of “tawakkul.” Tawakkul is translated as “reliance in God” in English, and refers to “doing all that is necessary to obtain a desired or intended result, and then waiting in expectation for the Eternally-Powerful One to bring about His Will” (Gulen, 2001, p. 67).

The idea of incubation makes the process of inspiration unclear. The moment of inspiration can be best described as a “black box.” Tawakkul, however, views the Divine Knowledge as the source of inspiration. Persistent hard work in the active phase is seen as the operational prayer to God, and the second phase, if it occurs, is the acceptance of that prayer. When the parallel between creative thinking and tawakkul is recognized, creativity is viewed as a spiritual process – and, therefore, creative individuals need to practice tawakkul.

References

• Basadur, M., & Thompson, R. (1986). Usefulness of the ideation principle of extended effort in real world professional and managerial creative problem solving. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 20, 23-34.
• Eris, S. (2006). A religiological comparison of the Sufi thought of Said Nursi and Fethullah Gulen. Unpublished thesis, University of Georgia.
• Gulen, M. F. (2006). Key concepts in the practice of Sufism: Emerald hills of the heart (Vol 1.). Somerset, NJ: Light.
• Gulen, M. F. (2009).Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart. : Tughra.
• Kaufman, J. C., & Kaufman, S. B. (2007). Ten years to expertise, many more to greatness: An investigation of modern writers. Journal of Creative Behavior, 41, 114-124.
• Milgram, R. M., & Rabkin, L. (1980). Developmental test of Mednick’s associative hierarchies of original thinking. Developmental Psychology, 16,157-158.
• Miller, A. I. (1992). Scientific creativity: A comparative study of Henri Poincare and Albert Einstein. Creativity Research Journal,5, 385-414.
• Parnes, S. J. (1961). Effects of extended effort in creative problem solving. Journal of Educational psychology,52, 117-122.
• Simonton, D. K. (1997). Creative productivity: A predictive and explanatory model of career trajectories and landmarks. Psychological Review, 104, 66-89.
• Stein, M. I. (1953). Creativity and culture. Journal of Psychology, 36, 311-322.
• Vinge, V. (2004). Technological Singularity. The Transhumanist Reader: Classical and Contemporary Essays on the Science, Technology, and Philosophy of the Human Future, 365-375.
• Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. New York, NY: Harcourt-Brace.

With this multilingual welcome I hope to get you in the mood for the subject of my essay: the first documented globetrotters in human history. But before we hurl ourselves into this adventure and follow the trails of Messere Marco Polo and Seyyid Ibn Battuta, I would like to share an observation with you. As for myself, it prompted me to write this article and so I hope that it will arouse your curiosity in these explorers, too.

With the flood of new information offered by social media and the internet, the portrait of the world and its people is constantly changing. The light of cultures that stood in the shadow yesterday may shine brighter tomorrow. The respect and the admiration of certain nations wane or grow strong, dependent on the source that describes these nations. What conventional historical sources have in common is that they represent the everyday life of people and their interactions with one another in a rather dry manner.

In this respect, travelogues, diaries, and the like are much more intimate and personal, but in turn also more subjective in their perceptions. As an example, we might cite here the description of the city of Shiraz (in present-day Iran) and its inhabitants: While Ibn Battuta focused on the boldness and courage of the local population, Marco Polo talked about the beauty of the women. So when we read their reports, there emerges an interesting landscape, which allows us to meet certain cultures and nations and learn to know them.

But what makes such reports even more attractive is the fact that they send us on an adventure. We are not only told about different cultures, but also take an active part in the experiences of these travelers. However, be prepared; everything is to be savored with a pinch of salt!

In this way, history appears as sunlight being refracted through a prism: it reveals nuances that you could not perceive before. And that’s exactly what sparks the enthusiasm for the works of the globetrotters: Thanks to them, history is going through a metamorphosis, transforming itself from a wasteland into a Garden of Eden.

But enough for the advocacy: let’s turn to our two globetrotters now.

Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta were no ordinary travelers. Their travels lasted 30 years and led them from the West to the Far East. They met not only the most diverse languages ​​and cultures, but also occasionally took employment and settled in some places for longer periods of time.

First, I would like to introduce you to Messere Marco Polo, who was born into a merchant family in Venice in 1254. At the time of Marco’s birth his parents were already highly respected figures in Venetian society. Originally coming from Dalmatia, they quickly achieved success in Venice and it didn’t take long until they were included in the “Homo Nobilis”-register. The Polos, in fact, were noblemen. When Marco was five years old, his father Nicolo set out with his brother Maffeo on a journey from which they were to return 10 years later. In the meantime, Marco befriended the port children and even spent some time in prison. Luckily for him, his father and uncle returned just in time to save him and convert his death penalty into banishment from Venice.

Under these circumstances, his father decided to take Marco with him on his next trip to the east, as far as Khanbalik (today’s Beijing), the capital of the Mongol Empire of the Yuan, to visit Kublai Khan, the Khan of all Khans. This is how Marco Polo’s world tour began, and it would take him about 28 years before he saw Venice again.

In his travelogues, he shared interesting facts about the city of Venice. For example, he mentioned the feast of Sensa, the annual marriage of Venice with the sea. On this occasion, the Venetians celebrated with a ceremonial ring toss into the lagoon in the port of San Nicolo, which was understood as a seal between the lagoon and the city.

Marco Polo also described the Venetian law stating that all fish caught during the day must be thrown on the ground in the evening:

They [the harbor children] lived almost exclusively on fish; because if they couldn’t manage to steal other things, they could rush to the fish market at the end of each day, since the Venetian law had the fishmongers at a certain hour throwing all their goods on the ground; this should prevent them from selling fish not really fresh.

Marco Polo has provided us with many interesting insights into the world of his time. We learn that the lingua franca, or Sabir as Marco Polo called it, was the trade language of Europe, up to the Levant. From the Levant to Central Asia, the traders spoke Farsi, and even further east it was Mongolian or the Han language.

The most impressive passages of Marco Polo’s travelogues are definitely his detailed descriptions of towns and places of interest. The bazaar of Baghdad took Polo nearly three pages to describe. What follows is only a brief excerpt:

The cloth merchants proudly stood under reels of thread and rolls of silk and wool and goat hair angora, of cotton and linen, fine camel hair and rough camlet. There were also more exotic fabrics such as muslin from the city of Mosul in Mesopotamia, calico from India, Buckram from Bukhara, and damask from Damascus. The booksellers offered cheap volumes of fine vellum, parchment and paper, delightfully written and decorated with gold leaf…

Marco Polo’s travel reports teem with descriptions, impressions, and experiences, and are thus truly a pleasure to read – if you are ready to overlook the occasional digressions in anti-Semitism, Islamophobia, and arrogance towards other cultures and religions.

About a year after Marco Polo’s death, in 1324, Ibn Battuta embarked upon a similar trip to China at the age of 21. But Ibn Battuta’s route was presumably the most chaotic of any traveler at that time. It took him back and forth across the whole world map.

Not much can be said about Ibn Battuta’s life before his departure, because the only source is his own work. His story began with a pilgrimage to Mecca. He mentioned that he was born in 1304 in Tangier, Morocco, and that his parents were still alive when he left, but that’s it. What we know beyond this is that he was not specialized in a certain contemporary science, but well-versed in many areas.

Thus, Ibn Battuta headed out for Mecca at the young age of 21. On his way, he crossed almost the entire Islamic world, but his curiosity was far from satisfied.

Ibn Battuta’s travel reports are characterized by a very precise description of places, traditions, and cultures. What is striking is the fact that he sometimes presented towns or attractions using poems. If possible, he let several poets come to the fore and used them to speak about the same city. This method can be very amusing at times, as one poet often praises what the other accurses.

Ibn Battuta opened doors to cultures that had remained closed for Marco Polo, in particular doors to the Islamic world, which the globetrotter from Venice had shunned. From today’s perspective, the two globetrotters are close in time, but covered very different routes.

Ibn Battuta described one impressive experience in Damascus as follows:

One day, walking the streets of Damascus I saw a young slave. He carried a porcelain plate in his hands specified by the local people as “Sahan” and dropped it accidentally, and it broke. People gathered around the child and a man said to him, “Brother! Collect the broken pieces and bring it to the principal of the foundation that deals with this work!” The slave gathered the shards up and accompanied the man to the principal. When the principal saw the broken pieces, he estimated the value of the plate and gave the slave a sum of money that compensated for it. What a praiseworthy behavior! Otherwise the owner of the slave boy would have either beaten him or had his heart broken because of the broken plate. […] This foundation has made it its mission to please people and to protect them from blame. May Allah reward those who donate money to such noble purposes!

He also mentioned the funeral rituals of certain groups:

The burial rites of the Indians are also very strange. After the Indians have buried the corpse, on the third morning after the burial they cover the ground around the grave with expensive fabrics. […] In addition, they bring lemon or orange trees and put them on the grave, even if they do not bear any more fruit. They build tents, so that visitors can relax in the shade. Then, one after the other the emirs and the high-ranking officials come […] and sit down. Opposite of them the Huffaz¹ take place followed by the Cüz²-castes. Then the Koran is read by the Huffaz, and prayers are spoken for the soul of the deceased.

Ibn Battuta’s travelogues are full of many such insights, and it is extremely amusing to learn about a rich variety of practices and traditions of the peoples he encountered. On the other hand, he also described very trivial details. Once, for example, he noticed numerous grammatical errors in a Friday prayer’s Hutbe³. So he asked a judge called Hüccetüddin about it and received the following reply:

“In this city (Basra) all the institutions that dealt with linguistics in the past have been shut down, so there’s nobody left now who cares for it or let alone knows how these words are to be read.”

Ibn Battuta commented with regret, “What a pity that here of all places grammar experiences such decline. In this city, foundations of linguistics were once laid!”

On another occasion, Ibn Battuta was astonished about the Turks owning so many horses:

“What with us are the sheep, here are the horses.”

But more than anything else, the situation of Turkish women left him in amazement:

“A strange behavior here is that the men pay their deepest respect to their women. In this country the woman is higher regarded than the man.”

Later on he added another observation:

“Sometimes it turns out that the women accompany their husbands and you catch yourself saying, ‘That man must be a subordinate of this woman!’, because a sheepskin coat and his Küla hat is all he is wearing!”

But now I’d like to leave it to you, dear reader, to discover the worlds of these wonderful globetrotters. I certainly don’t want to reveal too much. Messere Marco Polo and Seyyid Ibn Battuta are eager to tell you their stories and sharpen your view of the people of the Middle Ages!

Thus, it’s my turn now to dismiss you in my mother tongue.

Auf Wiedersehen!

Notes

1. Used here in its general sense: a scholar who knows to recite the Qur’an by heart is called Hafiz. Huffaz is the plural form.
2. A Cüz is a booklet with a 20-page section of the Qur’an, which makes it possible to divide the Qur’an reading between several people.
3. A Hutbe is a lecture given by the imam during Friday prayers with mostly or exclusively religious content.

The Qur’an verses refer to prostration as a sign of being free of arrogance: “Only they (truly) believe in Our signs and Revelations who, when they are mentioned of them (by way of advice and instruction), fall down in prostration, and glorify their Lord with His praise, and they do not behave with haughtiness. (32:15).

Prostration (sajda) is the way to show respect to the Creator – not only for human beings, but also for angels and other creatures: “Before God prostrates itself whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth of living creatures, and the angels (likewise, for) they are not arrogant.” (16:49).

Prostration has been practiced in Judaism and Christianity as well, sometimes with one’s knees and face on the ground, and sometimes as a full-body prostration: lying flat on the ground with the face down and the arms open. Even today in Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican churches, and amongst Ashkenazi Jews, these practices continue. This makes sense, for the Qur’an talks about a promise that God took from the Children of Israel to establish the prayer (2:83).

In summary, putting one’s face on the ground as a sign of respect or as a part of worship has been one of the central practices in all Abrahamic religions. The Almighty God wants His servants to make it a frequently observed practice that we bow down and put our foreheads on the ground in worship of Him. The spiritual and psychological impact of a prayer of this form can be immense, particularly in the long term, and should be discussed at length in another essay. Here we would like only to point out the neurological aspect of prostration and its connections.

Another The Fountain article discussed the function of the frontal brain lobe (“The Sinning Forelock,” Issue 51, 2005) and its importance in forming ethical and moral values:

“Frontal lobotomy is the term used for the surgical removal of the frontal lobe in patients with emotional disorders (1). It may be difficult today to imagine that an invasive procedure like destroying a large portion of the brain can be employed as a therapeutic approach. Yet, in 1949 the Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded to Dr. Egas Moniz for his development of the frontal lobotomy technique. (Strange enough, Moniz himself was shot in the spine and partially paralyzed by a lobotomized patient.) Tens of thousands of people were lobotomized following World War II . Although frontal lobotomy did not significantly alter the patient’s IQ or memory functions, some other profound side effects emerged.”

The negative impacts of this surgical procedure on the personality of these patients were so serious that frontal lobotomies had to be abandoned after some years. Instances of local injury to the frontal lobes have clearly demonstrated that after losing parts of the forebrain, a human loses much of their moral values, ethics, and many of the general traits that make them human.

We can see this by looking at the case of Phineas Gage (2). According his doctor, who followed Gage for 12 years after the accident (until his death), “He is fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom), manifesting but little deference for his fellows, impatient of restraint or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at times pertinaciously obstinate, yet capricious and vacillating … His mind was radically changed, so decidedly that his friends and acquaintances said he was no longer Gage” (2).

It is interesting to note here that it is the forehead (forelock) that is mentioned in the Qur’an as the sinning part of the head: “No indeed! If he does not desist, We will certainly seize and drag him by the forelock; a lying, sinful forelock!” (Alaq 96:15-16).

On a different note, the benefit of exercise and physical therapy has been well established in neural disorders. The main rehabilitative effect of physiotherapy in stroke patients and other neurological disorders is the elevation of neural activity in the spinal cord and the brain, which in turn encourages the neurons to rewire, i.e. form new connections and replace the networks that have been lost due to injury.

If we look at the Hebbian theory of learning, or neural plasticity (3) – which can be summarized as, “neurons that fire together wire together” – we can understand that when a subset of nerve cells in the central nervous system are somehow made to fire almost simultaneously, through exercise or other means, they begin to form connections. As a result, in injured patients, these new connections form a neural network that replaces or substitutes for the functions that are lost after injury.

Recent neuroscience research also shows that the rehabilitative effect is highly correlated with an increase in the blood flow to the brain area that is affected by the injury (4, 5). Contrarily, the blood circulation increases in an area of the brain within a few seconds as a response to increased neural activity because of a heightened demand for oxygen and glucose. Indeed, one of the most successful imaging techniques, the BOLD (Blood Oxygen Level Dependent) fMRI technique, completely depends on this phenomenon. These basic findings in neuroscience teach us that there is a close relationship between the local blood flow in the brain and the neural functioning, and this is a part of the process of eventually forming new networks.

Going back to the concept of prostration, lowering one’s head and putting the forehead on ground can elevate the blood flow to the frontal brain areas simply by the hydrostatic effect. We all know how blood rushes to the head when the legs are raised when lying down in the supine position. The neurological outcomes of hydrostatic blood pressures may not have been studied so far, as suggested by the lack of publications on this topic. However, in light of all the other evidence above, it would not be surprising to find out that the new neural networks form faster under higher blood flows and pressure to a local brain area.

Let us now recall the topics discussed above: prostration in Abrahamic religions, the role of the frontal lobe in forming ethical values, and the effect of blood circulation in forming new neural connections. All of this points us in one obvious direction. Prostration, or sajda, can increase the neural activity and promote new connections in the frontal lobe, a center that is instrumental in forming moral values. And this could be the neural basis of becoming more religious as one practices prostration as a part of his or her prayers. It also makes complete sense that The Creator asks His servants to worship Him with prostration that would make them better human beings, not only because of the spiritual experience, but also by endowing them with brain connections through prostration which will then function as receiving ears to future inspirations.

References

1. Bear, M., F., Connors, B., W., Paradiso, M., A., “Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain,” second edition, Lippincott Williams& Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland: 2001.
2. Harlow, J.,M., “Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head,” Publication of Massachusetts Medical Society, (1868) 2:329-347.
3. Zhang P, Yu H, Zhou N, Zhang J, Wu Y, Zhang Y, Bai Y, Jia J, Zhang Q, Tian S, Wu J, Hu Y.’ Early exercise improves cerebral blood flow through increased angiogenesis in experimental stroke rat model.,” J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2013 Apr 26;10:43.
4. Zheng Q, Zhu D, Bai Y, Wu Y, Jia J, Hu Y., “Exercise improves recovery after ischemic brain injury by inducing the expression of angiopoietin-1 and Tie-2 in rats.,” Tohoku J Exp Med. 2011;224(3):221-8.
5. Hebb, D.O.(1949). The Organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley & Sons.

Another significant contribution to this issue comes from Professor Suat Yildirim, who lays down a comprehensive analysis of two major Islamic concepts, jihad and qital, which are often confused, leading to common misjudgments about Islam. The author briefly mentions the historical context in which Islam has flourished, summarizing how believers suffered oppression, torture, the usurpation of their property, and even death. After years of patient and peaceful resistance to survive, they were compelled to leave their homeland until it became unbearable and the rights of “the oppressed, helpless men, women, and children” (Qur’an 4:75) had to be protected. Yildirim argues that this is not the same thing as the concept of “Holy War,” which does not exist in Islamic terminology. He explains in detail all the possible aspects jihad stands for, and he makes clear that qital, or fighting, has many parameters that ontologically tend towards peace; such fighting is conducted not to impose religion on others but to set people free to choose their faith. Observing fairness, forgiveness of the enemy, accepting peace offers, etc., are also listed in the article as other obligations during qital. Fitnah is another major concept dealt with in the article: when the concept is falsely defined, it may easily provoke violence.

Aydogan Vatandas adds a third contribution on the same theme, wondering “Does Islam Promote Violence?” Looking at scholars from Jessica Stern to John Horgan, and Ahmet Kurucan to Richard Bulliet and Zeki Saritoprak, Vatandas offers evidence from a wide spectrum of thinkers that “religion is essentially irrelevant as a causal force.” He argues that jihadist actors are not actually religious during the course of their radicalization; that terrorist attacks have no justification in the authentic sources of Islam, nor do they protect the honor of Islam; and that ISIS and other terrorist groups are far from the Prophetic methodology and Islam does not need a state or caliphate to flourish.

So, what is the way toward a solution? The Fountain believes in the power of knowledge and dialogue for global peace. Barbara Anderson and Zeliha Celiker explain how they were able to set up a group dialogue with Christian and Muslim women, and how their friendship helped them overcome bias. The story of the Church of Mary, or Kathisma Church, in Bethlehem, Jerusalem, is told by Elif Guler, who argues that the recently discovered ruins show this place of worship was used simultaneously by both Christians and Muslims, exemplifying the tolerance of both religious communities and the peaceful rule of Umar, the second Caliph. In history, we can find examples of hope for the future.

In the early years of Islam, the faith was taught with a focus on common sense with spiritual counsels, arguments in the belief of God’s existence, and the Afterlife. When some Muslims who faced insults and persecution tended to react against adversaries, the Prophet calmed them down and asked them to show patience. When pressures increased, the Prophet recommended a group of Muslims immigrate to Abyssinia to evade persecution, but the Meccan chieftains made the issue into an international scandal and sent envoys so the Muslim refugees could be handed over to them.

Unable to prevent the spread of Islam, they increased their violence. The leaders of the Quraysh tribe, except for the Hashimi clan which the Prophet belonged to, decided to implement a severe embargo. They forced Muslims to live in a field known as Shib al-Abu Talib and cut off all relations with them. Even selling something to them was banned. This embargo meant a wholesale condemnation to famine, meaning even women, children, and the elderly suffered. One memory from Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas can give us an idea about how horrible their situation was: one night, after he relieved himself in a remote corner, he found a piece of animal skin on the ground. He first cleaned it, then held it out to fire, and then tried to appease his feeling of hunger by gnawing at it.

Meanwhile, a growing number of people in Medina were accepting Islam. In the end, 73 people who came to pledge allegiance to the Prophet invited the Muslims to Medina. The Prophet encouraged Muslims to immigrate there in small numbers. When the Prophet was one of the few Muslims who remained in Mecca, the chieftains assembled and decided to assassinate him, but he set forth in the night and the would-be killers returned empty handed.

Although some Muslims were inclined to retaliate against the Meccan enmity, the Prophet did not seek revenge but set about putting things right in Medina. The noble Prophet was a mild person with a distinguished compassion and a magnanimous character. Many different verses of the Qur’an refer to this quality of his, such as the following two:

“There has come to you (O people) a Messenger from among yourselves; extremely grievous to him is your suffering, full of concern for you is he, and for the believers full of pity and compassion” (Tawbah 9:128); and, “Had you been harsh and hard-hearted, they would surely have scattered away from about you. Then pardon them, pray for their forgiveness, and take counsel with them in the affairs (of public concern)…” (Al Imran 3:159).

We know that the Meccan chieftains were not indifferent to this migration; they threatened the Medinans and prepared to take vengeance.¹ On the other hand, although almost all Muslims had left, the previously sowed seeds of faith began to germinate and people kept embracing Islam in Mecca. The following verse refers to those new believers and those who remained oppressed:

“Why, then, should you not fight in the cause of God and of the oppressed, helpless men, women, and children, who cry out: ‘O Lord! Bring us out of this land whose people are oppressors, and appoint for us from Your Presence a protector, and appoint for us from Your Presence a helper!'” (Nisa 4:75).

The Muslims who emigrated from Mecca had left behind their homes, businesses, trade, relatives, and everything else. Since the polytheists usurped their properties, it was perfectly lawful for the Muslims who emigrated from Mecca to reclaim their rights from them. After a long period of patience that lasted some fifteen years, God gave them permission to fight back:

“The believers against whom war is waged are given permission to fight in response, for they have been wronged. Surely God has full power to help them to victory – those who have been driven from their homeland against all rights, for no other reason than that they say, ‘Our Lord is God'” (Hajj 22:39-40).

The prevalent opinion in the West is that, Muslims have the right to use weapons to make others accept their religion or to destroy those who do not accept it – and are even obliged to do so. Accordingly, this notion is known as the “Holy War,” and some have tried to present the word “jihad” as the Qur’anic term for it. In reality, this word – which literally means “striving” – does not mean fighting, and there is no concept of “Holy War” in the Qur’an.² “Guerre sainte” or “holy war” belongs to European terminology.

The concept of jihad is very extensive. Certain Qur’anic verses state that jihad can sometimes be in the form of war, such as the following example:

“Those who were left behind in opposition to God’s Messenger rejoiced at staying at home, and abhorred striving with their wealth and persons in God’s cause. And they said: ‘Do not go forth to war in this heat'” (Tawbah 81).³

According to a classification by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya,⁴ the levels of jihad can be categorized as follows:

1) Jihad against the carnal soul:

1. Through learning about Islam.
2. Conveying the Divine message to others.
3. Putting up with troubles while conveying the message.

2) Jihad against Satan:

1. Eliminating the doubts he casts.
2. Resisting his temptations.

3) Jihad against adversaries of Islam:

1. In the heart – having an aversion to their attacks, if you cannot do anything else.
2. Through the tongue – speak up against their attacks.
3. By spending from one’s wealth
4. By physical struggle (when no other option is left for defense).

4) Jihad against hypocrites:

1. In the heart.
2. Through the tongue.
3. By persuasion.

The Qur’anic chapters revealed in Mecca either use the word jihad in the sense of making efforts to be of guidance to others or bringing reasonable arguments for belief from the Qur’an, but in a peaceful fashion:

“(So pay no heed to (the desires of) the unbelievers, but engage in a mighty striving against them by means of it [the Qur’an]” Furqan 25:52).

It also means making a personal spiritual struggle:

“Those (on the other hand) who strive hard for Our sake, We will most certainly guide them to Our ways (that We have established to lead them to salvation). Most assuredly, God is with those devoted to doing good, aware that God is seeing them” (Ankabut 29:69).⁵

When referring to war, the Qur’an uses the word “qital” in multiple different verses. The following verses establish under which conditions it is to be done:

“Fight in God’s cause (in order to exalt His Name) against those who fight against you, but do not exceed the bounds (set by God), for surely God loves not those who exceed the bounds” (Baqarah 2:190).

“Then if they desist (from fighting), surely God is All-Forgiving, All-Compassionate” (Baqarah 2:192).

“If they withdraw from you and do not fight against you, and offer you peace, then God allows you no way (to war) against them” (Nisa 4:90).

Another verse makes the same distinction:

“God does not forbid you, as regards those who do not make war against you on account of your Religion, nor drive you away from your homes, to be kindly to them, and act towards them with equity. God surely loves the scrupulously equitable. God only forbids you, as regards those who make war against you on account of your Religion and drive you away from your homes, or support others to drive you away, to take them for friends and guardians. Whoever takes them for friends and guardians, those are the wrongdoers” (Mumtahanah 60:8-9).

Even in chapter Tawbah, which begins with a severe ultimatum against unbelievers, hypocrites, and believers who elude fighting, and which informs Muslims that all relations with polytheists are to be cut, the Qur’an holds the polytheists who do not break their treaties with Muslims as exceptions. The following is stated in the 4th verse of this chapter:

“Excepting those among the people who associate partners with God with whom you made a treaty, and who have not thereafter failed to fulfill their obligations towards you (required by the treaty), nor have backed anyone against you. Observe, then, your treaty with them until the end of the term (that you agreed with them). Surely God loves the God-revering, pious (who keep their duties to Him).”

No text in the Qur’an justifies practicing undue violence. The issue can be summarized as resisting the enemy in a proper fashion and acting justly. The Qur’an even commands granting asylum to polytheists who have no treaty with Muslims but make such a demand:

“And if any of those who associate partners with God seeks asylum of you (O Messenger), grant him asylum, so that he may hear the Word of God, and then convey him to his place of security” (Tawbah 9:6).

In another verse of the same chapter, the purpose of the war the believers are asking for is stated as follows:

“Will you not fight against the people who have broken their pledges and have done all they could to drive the Messenger (from where he chooses to dwell), and initiated hostilities against you?” (Tawbah 9:13).

From these verses, we understand that those who first initiate hostilities will be responsible for the war. And only those who personally fight are to be punished. Within this frame, people like women, children, the elderly and disabled, workers in their fields, and especially people of religion in their places of worship, will be safe from any kind of violence. The last group mentioned is particularly noteworthy: had Islam endorsed religious bigotry, it would command practicing violence to people of religion first.

The noble Prophet, who practiced the command of forgiving those enemies that give up fighting, even banned chasing any escaping enemies. The purpose of this regulation is eliminating danger. War is not made for the sake of coercing people to accept Islam, but for preventing coercion and torments about people’s religious preferences. War in Islam is made for the sake of letting people be free in choosing their faith. Eliminating any obstacles to religious freedom has been the sole motive for those who properly fought in the cause of Islam.⁶

A remaining question is what the word fitnah means, as in the following verse:

“And (if they still persist in unbelief and hostilities), fight against them until there is no fitnah, and the whole of religion for God exclusively…” (Anfal 8:39).

Here, fitnah is mostly interpreted as “associating partners with God.” On the other hand, scholars⁷ of Qur’anic exegesis explain “fitnah” in the 191th verse of chapter Baqarah as “torture with the aim of making one forsake his or her faith.” It is stated that while explaining “fitnah” in this verse, and its similar use in Baqarah 193, scholars of Qur’anic exegesis⁸ relate in their books that prominent scholars⁹ of the early period understood the word fitnah in Baqarah 193 to mean torments, and namely persecution. By also taking into consideration the comments in more recent works by M. Abduh, Qasimi, Muhammad Draz, and Maraghi for this verse, we can say that this sense of fitnah refers to pressure and torture in the hopes of making somebody forsake their faith. On this front, the Qur’an explicitly states that there is no place for coercion in religion:

“There is no compulsion in the Religion. The right way stands there clearly distinguished from the false. Hence, he who rejects the false deities and believes in God has indeed taken hold of the firm, unbreakable handle; and God is All-Hearing, All-Knowing” (Baqarah 2:256).

“If your Lord had so willed (and, denying them free will, compelled mankind to believe), all who are on the earth would surely have believed, all of them. Would you, then, force people until they become believers?” (Yunus 10:99).

Like these verses state, different beliefs will exist since God allows it:

“If your Lord had so willed (and withheld from humankind free will), He would have made all humankind one single community (with the same faith, worldview, and life-pattern). But (having free choice) they never cease to differ (and follow diverse paths, diverging from the Straight Path), save those on whom your Lord has mercy (and guides to the Straight Path because of the merits they have)” (Hud 11:118-119).

Such a question may arise in one’s mind at this point: “Does the Qur’an not assign Muslims with the duty of conveying the truth they believe to other people? Is it not the point of Islam to bless people with happiness in both worlds? Is it not necessary to convey this message to those unaware of this guidance?” The answer is surely yes, and many verses of the Qur’an make it clear.¹⁰ Muslims are supposed to convey the message to those who are uninformed about it. The Qur’an clearly expresses that this should be done with wisdom and fairness:

“Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and fair exhortation, and argue with them in the best way possible. Your Lord surely knows best who has gone astray from His way, and He knows best who are the rightly guided” (Nahl 16:125).

This verse reveals the essential method of conveying the message. From a perspective of Qur’anic exegesis, it is understood that the verse alludes to three general groups of addressees: the first group is those who have a good sense of reasoning and the message is to be conveyed to them with erudite proofs and wisdom. The second group is the wider mass who will not quite understand erudite explanations but need to be addressed with “fair exhortation” – namely, by giving them sound advice in more easily understandable formats. It is necessary to elucidate for them what they will gain by following good guidance or the loss they will suffer otherwise. As for the unbelievers with an adversarial stance who are not likely to be addressed in these two ways, it is necessary to argue them in the best way possible.

Here, the person addressed and invited to religion is completely free at accepting the Islamic message or not. However, as the Islamic teaching gives people freedom to accept the message or not, it requires the same freedom to convey the message. Every human, including Muslims, has the birthright of practicing and instructing their faith, and when this right is forsaken, they should claim it by pursuing legitimate means of struggle to ensure freedom of conscience for everyone.

Notes

1 Muhammed Hamidullah, Islam’a Giris (introduction to Islam), translated into Turkish by Cemal Aydin, Ankara: 2005, p.19

2 Muhammad Draz, Toward Understanding the Qur’an, p. 60.

3 Likewise, the 41th and 86th verses of the same chapter also use the word jihad in this sense.

4 Zadu’l-Mead, Beyrut, 1985, 3/9-11, Terc. 3/1011-1012, Cantas yayinlari

5 For example, see Baqarah 190, 192, 193, 216; Nisa 75, 90; Anfal 39; Tawbah 29; Hajj 39; Saf 4; Muzzammil 20.

6 Muhammad Draz, Toward Understanding the Qur’an, p. 64.

7 Zamakhshari, Ibn Atiyya, Fakhruddin Razi, Baydawi, Ibn Juzay, Sealibi, Hatib Shirbini, Abu’s Suud, Shawkani, Qasimi, M. Rashid Rida, and Maraghi are among them.

8 Ibn Atiyya, Razi, Hazin, Shirbini, M.S. Hasan Han

9 e.g. Ibn Ishaq, Urwah ibn Zubayr, Ibn Abbas (according to one report), Ar-Rabi, and Hasan Basri.

10 For particular examples, see: Al Imran 3:110; Asr 103:1-4; Zukhruf 43:5; Nahl 16:125.

It isn’t fair to blame Islam for the atrocities of violent radicals. But when terrorists claim the Muslim mantle, then they bear this identity, if only nominally. Thus members of the faith must do whatever possible to prevent this cancer from metastasizing in our communities. If we don’t, we’ll be partly responsible for the smeared image of our faith.

First, we must denounce violence and not fall prey to victimhood. Having suffered oppression is no excuse for causing it or for failing to condemn terrorism. That the terrorists are committing grave sins in the name of Islam is not merely my opinion; it is the inevitable conclusion of an honest reading of primary sources: the Quran and the accounts of the life of Prophet Muhammad. The core principles of these sources—relayed over the centuries by scholars who devoted themselves to studying the Prophet’s sayings and practices, and to the “author’s intent” in the Holy Book—dispels any claims terrorists make of religious justification.

Second, it is important to promote a holistic understanding of Islam, as the flexibility to accommodate the diverse backgrounds of its adherents can sometimes be abused. Islam’s core ethics, however, are not left to interpretation. One such principle is that taking the life of a single innocent is a crime against all humanity (Quran 5:32). Even in an act of defense in war, violence against any noncombatants, especially women, children and clergy, is specifically prohibited by the Prophet’s teachings.

We must demonstrate these values by showing solidarity with people who seek peace around the world. Given the nature of human psychology and the dynamics of the news, it’s obvious that mainstream voices are less likely to capture headlines than extremist ones. But instead of blaming the media, we should find innovative ways to ensure our voices are heard.

Third, Muslims must publicly promote human rights—dignity, life and liberty. These are the most basic of Islamic values and no individual, nor any political or religious leader, has the authority to snatch them away.

Living the essence of our faith means respecting diversity—cultural, social, religious and political. God identifies learning from one another as the primary goal of diversity (Quran 49:13). Respecting each human being as a creation of God (17:70) is respecting God.

Fourth, Muslims must provide educational opportunities to every member of their communities, where the study of sciences, humanities and arts is embedded in a culture of respect for every living being. Governments in the Muslim world must design school curricula that nurture democratic values. Civil society has a role in promoting respect and acceptance. This is the reason participants of the Hizmet movement have set up more than 1,000 schools, tutoring centers and dialogue institutions in more than 150 countries.

Fifth, providing religious education to Muslims is critical to depriving extremists of a tool that they use to spread their twisted ideologies. When religious freedom is denied, as it has been for decades in parts of the Muslim world, faith grows in the shadows, leaving it to be interpreted by unqualified and radical figures.

Finally, it is imperative that Muslims support equal rights for women and men. Women should be given opportunity and be free from social pressures that deny their equality. Muslims have a great example in Prophet Muhammad’s wife Aisha, a highly educated scholar, teacher and prominent community leader of her time.

Terrorism is a multifaceted problem, so the solutions should address the political, economic, social and religious layers. Approaches that reduce the problem to religion do a disservice to at-risk youth and the world at large. The international community would do well to realize that Muslims are the primary victims of terrorism—both literally and symbolically—and they can help marginalize terrorists and prevent recruitment. That’s why governments should avoid statements and actions that result in the alienation of Muslims.

Violent extremism has no religion; there will always be people who manipulate faith texts. Just as Christians do not endorse Quran burnings or the actions of the Ku Klux Klan, and Buddhists do not endorse atrocities against Rohingya Muslims, mainstream Muslims do not endorse violence.

Muslims have historically added much to the flourishing of human civilization. Our greatest contributions were made in eras when the faith cherished mutual respect, freedom and justice. It may be immensely difficult to restore the blotted image of Islam, but Muslims can be beacons of peace and tranquility in their societies.

Originally published in The Wall Street Journal, Aug 27, 2015.

Part of me was screaming “No!!” However, the other part was a little hesitant. I was struggling with many questions. Finally, I realized th at I was experiencing all of this because I actually did not know the “God” I thought I loved. I had some knowledge of God, but that was not enough for me. I was a Muslim just because I was born into a Muslim family. Therefore, I decided to get to know “God.” And I started to read, read, and read, as the first revelation to the beloved Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, states: “Read, in the name of God” (Quran, 96:1).

While reading, the doors opened wide in front of me. As I began to get to know Who I believe in, I started to love more. As I loved more, I started to practice more. I wanted to say “thank you,” to my atheist friend who contributed to this result. This is a wonderful memory which taught me that love comes after knowing.

I believe the following is a rule that holds true in all cases.

Would you like to love God? Get to know God better!

Would you like to love people around you? Get to know them better!

I think this is the key to maintaining a peaceful world: getting to know others, and loving and respecting others. As is mentioned in the Holy Qur’an, Chapter 49:13:

“O mankind! We created you from a single pair of a male and a female and made you into nations and tribes, so that you may know each other (not that you may despise each other).”

Believing this with my whole heart, I was at the Turkish American Society of Ohio enjoying the friendship of the wonderful people I had previously met, who assisted me whenever I needed help. I was standing next to one of these wonderful friends, looking into her eyes in amazement while she was telling me the story of an admirable group of women that called themselves the “Women of Religious Diversity” – or “WORD.” My friend suggested that I join them.

Frankly, I hesitated at the beginning, even though I was theoretically fine with it. Yes, I had had friends from different faith traditions before, but I had never joined a discussion group of people from different religious backgrounds. I wasn’t sure how it would feel in practice. Although I heard some other Muslim friends had joined the group before, and that they had had a great time, it still required some courage for me to attend. And so there I was, parking my car in the parking lot of the Dublin Community Church, praying to God that it would be a good day both for me and for them. Excited, curious, and a little nervous, I opened the doors of the church. My nervousness was gone soon after I was with the wonderful ladies of WORD. It was such a welcoming and comforting environment that I just enjoyed every second of my time spent with them.

After a few meetings, the study came to a point of discussing the lives of the Prophets Abraham, Isaac, and Ishmael in a book and video called “The Patriarchs”. I had enjoyed and learned much in the previous chapters. However, prior to discussing more details about the Prophets, I received a very thoughtful e-mail from the facilitator of our group. She indicated that she had some concerns about the content of the upcoming video and she asked me if I’d be willing to share my perspective on the topic as a Muslim. I agreed.

I was not fully aware of how disrespectful the video was towards Islam. The video started, and I was shocked by what I was hearing. I started to shiver, my heart was beating faster, and I was sad, so sad, to hear someone talking about Islam so unreasonably but enthusiastically. Our group facilitator was extremely thoughtful in stopping the video to allow me to respond to what was being said. It was so hurtful to hear the speaker trying to convince her audience that Islam is hostile toward Christianity and that the root of this hostility was from the Prophet Ishmael being jealous of his brother Prophet Isaac. I tried to explain with my whole heart that Islam does not prescribe hatred – especially of Christians. Moreover, it is one of the six pillars of the Islamic faith to believe in all the books and the prophets that were sent by God, and to hold all of them in high regard. Therefore, a person cannot be called a Muslim if he does not accept and keep holy all the books and the prophets. I am sure I was trembling as I tried to explain how much we love all the prophets, including Isaac, and that I had never heard such things in my whole life as a Muslim.

The facilitator continued to stop the video periodically to allow me to respond. At one point, the speaker in the video claimed that the one whom Muslims call “Allah” is not the same as the one whom Christians call “God” and that Muslims have no relationship with God. I was about to cry. Those words were so hurtful to hear, as we believe all the books and the prophets were sent by the same exact God, whose name is “Allah” in Arabic and “God” in English. And so, because of that, Christian Arabs call their God “Allah” in the Arabic language. It was also hurtful to be accused that I, as a Muslim, have no relationship with God, even though I pray five times a day at specified time frames to remember God and maintain my relationship with God.

Before I said anything, the awesome ladies of WORD intervened and stopped the video, saying, “We no longer want to continue watching this hateful video.” They apologized to me for having to watch it, and repeated many times that they do not agree with the speaker’s views. They decided to discontinue the book and video and not to study any of the books by the same person again. They couldn’t have been more comforting. I was touched by how they reacted and consoled me in a time of disappointment.

I feel so lucky to be in a group where we all respectfully share ideas and can grow spiritually. Even though I was sad to see that there are books and opinions like that, I also felt fortunate to be among the very polite women of WORD who believe in interfaith dialogue as much as I do. This particular event showed me, and I believe the other women of WORD as well, that getting to know each other, and having dialogue with each other, is necessary to love each other. And “love” is the essence of the universe.

When you are trying to please God with your actions, then you can work together for the benefit of others, just as our groups have done – Muslims and Christians, hand in hand to make a more peaceful world.

In an Ohio town, a group of extraordinary women started a Christian study group. One day, they were surprised by some unexpected guests. They weren’t prepared for how much they were about to learn.

It is essential to listen to this language and to pay attention to these signals in order to take measures to prevent diseases. One must get warm when one feels cold, calm down when one is angry and sleep when one is tired.

Yawning is one of the body’s most significant signals. It starts in the mother’s womb and is seen throughout one’s lifetime. It stems from causes like tiredness, lack of motion, boredom, listening to monotonous talk or music, being in an oxygen poor environment, observing another yawning person, sleep deprivation, or lack of healthy sleep – in addition to pathological reasons such as epilepsy, brain infection, vascular diseases of the brain, and backside brain tumors.

While certain substances are responsible for transmitting the neural signals in the brain trigger yawning, some also act to prevent it. For instance, when endorphin levels increase, yawning decreases; but yawning increases when levels of dopamine or serotonin are elevated. Certain drugs can also lead to yawning. Continuous yawning or failing to yawn, or chronic incomplete yawning, is considered a symptom of disease.

It is well known that people who are trying to be awake are seen to yawn more than a person who is sleepy. Since the heart rate is accelerated during yawning, the amount of blood sent to the lungs and brain is improved. Because of the increased energy output, sleep is delayed, to a certain extent. The oxygen demand of the body varies throughout the day depending on the conditions. The most oxygen dependent organ is the brain. As the result of a lowered oxygen ratio in the blood, yawning occurs and the brain’s demand for oxygen is satisfied.

While sleeping, people recover from stress and anxiety. Yawning is a reminder to the body that the time for sleep has arrived. If a person cannot get enough sleep, they may struggle to focus, become nervous, or frequently yawn. Furthermore, synthetic clothing and rubber footwear are also listed among causes that lead to yawning, since these materials can cause increased levels of static electricity to accumulate in the body. The accumulated charge results in stress and exhaustion, therefore triggering yawning.

In a study, it was shown that 75% of people yawn in the morning, 50% at the end of the day, 30% after meals, and 47% while stretching. Scientists also discovered a relationship between yawning and brain temperature. Yawning was observed to stop during breathing through the nose, which cools the forehead. In this sense the brain resembles a computer; it works better when cooled. Yawning also cools the brain and therefore makes it function more efficiently. In other terms, yawning works like a fan on a computer. Exhaustion and insomnia trigger yawning because these increase brain temperature.

There are other factors that cause yawning. The over consumption of coffee and tea means more stimulants in the body. Caffeine stimulates the brain for more energy consumption. Thus, if sleep is postponed, due to the increased temperature, yawning is observed. If people grow dehydrated, they may also yawn. Therefore, experts recommend drinking water regularly. Talking on the phone for a long time tires the brain, and can cause yawning. Taking a shower with water warmer than the body temperature also leads to yawning because it stimulates an excessive secretion of hormones that cause sleepiness. Thus, it is better to take showers with very warm water in the evening and with less warm water in the morning.

Yawning becomes frequent when acidic beverages are excessively ingested, when exposed to noise for extended periods, during extreme exhaustion, or prolonged exposure to fluorescent lighting.

As in the case of acidic drinks, some individuals may display sensitivity and intolerance towards different foods. For example, celiac patients have a hard time digesting starch. They suffer from yawning, headaches, and exhaustion when they ingest starch. In young people and among individuals who consume salty foods, due to the increased accumulation of static electricity, yawning is more common. In addition, yawning also is witnessed during psychological stress. For instance, parachuters before they jump off the plane, athletes before starting a race, students before entering an exam, passengers before departure, and musicians preparing for a concert … all were observed to yawn frequently.

Hypothalamus and yawning

The hypothalamus, which forms the small portion at the front of the brain and maintains communications between the brain and the endocrine system with the pituitary gland, is assigned very important tasks, such as controlling excitement, hunger and thirst, sleep, blood pressure, and body temperature. The body responds to problems regarding these controls by yawning. For example, in cases when a high oxygen demand movement is made, the hypothalamus stimulates the lungs for more air and causes a person to yawn. From this point of view, the center responsible for yawning is believed to be located at hypothalamus.

Is yawning contagious?

Yawning is contagious, just like laughing. It is known that yawning is observed in people who witness somebody else yawning, hear somebody yawn – and even in people who think about yawning or read an article about it. A psychologist determined that yawning is contagious after making students watch people yawn, discovering that around 50% of the people who see a yawning person also yawn within a short amount of time. Experts note that the imitation of other people yawning can be an empathic reflex.

The facial expressions of yawning individuals are predicted to have an effect on other people – and that these expressions promote yawning! Mirror neurons in the brain are activated; therefore yawning takes place by feeling what the other person is experiencing.

Mirror neurons are cells that are affected by the observation of certain behaviors, especially among vertebrates watching members of their own species. It has been discovered that kids who are under the age of five are not affected by watching others yawn since their empathy and mirror neuron connections are not fully developed. The regions of the brain activated during contagious yawning and empathic behavior are the same. However, for non-contagious yawning people, these regions were found to be inactive. Therefore, yawning is more frequently observed in people who have improved emphatic skills. For instance, it has been determined that individuals suffering from heavy hearing loss do not display contagious yawning.

Do animals also yawn?

Yawning is not unique to humans; it can also be observed in some animals. When animals like lions, tigers, cats, dogs, hippopotamus, and even iguanas yawn, they open their mouths and extend their tongues, which can be frightening. Animals like horses, rabbits, penguins, and goats yawn with their eyes half closed, giving them a placid, funny look. A majority of animals yawn when they encounter a situation requiring attention, though it is also considered a possible form of communication for animals living in congregations. As in humans, it’s believed that yawning helps to regulate body temperature. The brain temperatures of yawning mice were reported to become normal.

Yawning and washing

There is a static electric balance in the human body. Maintaining this balance is necessary for our health. Yawning serves as a symptom of some psychosomatic diseases that disrupt this balance. Contact with water and soil is one way our body regulates its static electricity when warned of an imbalance through yawning. This is why washing our body with a shower or with practices like ablution refreshes the skin and nervous system by helping achieve this balance. But washing the head, hands, and feet as in ablutions, the farthest parts of the body where blood vessels branch out, is especially useful. If the water is warm, vessels expand; if the water is cold, they contract, which provides elasticity and fitness.

Further reading

1. Iacobani M. 2009. “Imitation, empathy and mirror neurons,” Annual Review Psychology.
2. Walusinski O. 2009. Yawning in diseases, European Neurology.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), the cancer agency of the World Health Organization, has investigated nearly 1,000 things that increase the risk of cancer. Based on a report from 22 experts from 10 countries, IARC recently announced that the consumption of red meat is probably carcinogenic to humans; processed meat products including sausages, hot dogs, and salamis are among the highest-risk carcinogens for humans. Researchers found that daily consumption of 50 grams of processed meat has been found to increase the risk of colorectal cancer by 18%. Carcinogens in processed meat are thought to come from chemicals generated during the processing of the meat by smoking or curing. Scientific evidence from 800 studies show a strong association between processed meat and cancer, particularly colorectal cancer, but also pancreatic and prostate cancer. Although the risk of developing cancer from red meat is relatively low, high consumption significantly escalates the cancer risk. These findings further support the public health recommendation to lower the intake of red and processed meats. It is noteworthy that the cancer risk from smoking is still multiple orders greater; as smoking causes about 1,000,000 cancer deaths a year worldwide, while processed meat cause about 34,000 cancer deaths.

Bacteria communicate like brains

Bacteria are often dismissed as simple and solitary creatures but a new study shows that they use complex electrical signaling and communication mechanisms, which resemble neurons in a brain. Researchers investigated the long-distance communications of bacteria on biofilms, where millions of them are packed. The bacterial cells who live on the outer edge of the biofilm grow to a specific size and stop so that nutrients such as glutamate can continue flowing to the protected center, thus ensuring the whole bacterial population’s survival and overall resistance to chemical attacks, such as antibiotics. Researchers demonstrated that metabolic coordination among distant cells within biofilms is facilitated by electrical signals. Ion channels trigger oscillations in bacterial membrane potentials which conduct long-range electrical signals by propagating waves of charged potassium ions. Scientists suggested that bacterial behavior within biofilms function like a “microbial brain.” Interestingly, both migraines and the electrical signaling in bacteria appear to be triggered by metabolic stress. This suggests that neurological disorders like epilepsy and migraines have possibly been caused by bacterial metabolic activities. Perhaps new treatments for neurological disorders may be developed using a bacterial perspective.

Scientists made the blackest material ever

Scientists have developed the blackest material ever made – one that absorbs 99% of light coming from all angles and polarizations. The new super-black material is 26% darker than its predecessor, carbon nanotubes. The inspiration came from the white cyphochilus beetle, whose shell is capable of reflecting substantial amounts of light due to its crystalline structured scales. Scientists examined the beetle’s shell and then tried to invert its crystalline structure to absorb as much light as possible. Super-black material is created using nanoparticle rods sitting on a tiny 30 nanometer nanoparticle sphere. The super-black surface can absorb 99% of the light that ranges between 400 and 1,400 nanometer wavelengths. The resulting color is so dark that the human eye cannot comprehend it; instead, it feels as looking deep into an endless abyss or a black hole. Conveniently, the material can also be diluted into a liquid form and utilized readily in a variety of applications, such as in global desalination projects. Since blacker material absorbs more light or energy, the super-black material technology is expected to dramatically improve the efficiency of existing solar panels and optical interconnects, where fiberoptic data is relayed.