I carry the winds of the Eastern Fables. They cover each and all. But I write from the City of Angels, where all ends and thus begins. It is not a surprise that I want to be a kind of Arabian fable teller, who touches everything and yearns to tell as much as I can. Bear with me, will you?

Life is a journey, not a destination, Emerson said. I will add that life teaches one to be on the road. Prayers keep one on the road. The pilgrimage is a place where you find more of your soul. It is a journey on this Earth that reminds us that there is a destination to reach: the last stop, where one becomes the ultimate and total human.

To be a human is a destination, and we are cloaked in human attire in the most auspicious ways. Yet the attire does not prove the residents of human bodies to be humans. Yes, life is a journey, and the last breath is exhaled when the destination of being a full human is achieved. Or maybe life begins only after we fill the outfit in which we are dressed. Then the true journey starts.

Today, I decided to pray. I learned that everything prays in this city: flowers, sun, water, my cells, and the city’s sounds. Their functioning is a prayer. They set off their journey anew each day. What about me? What about me?

The pilgrims in many religious traditions undertake a long journey to expiate their sins. The journey itself is a means to cleanse their minds from the sediments of everyday life. Daily prayers are here with us on the journey. As the sun rises, and gravity continues to fulfill its duty, I join the harmony, trying to be my best as a human. How can I be a better human today? What does “being a human” mean for me today?

We are pilgrims every day. We travel from day to morrow, from good to the best, from the love of having to the love of sharing – and even giving. Through each step we, the pilgrims, have taken, we break free from the intrinsic lure of the city, of the lights and their illuminations. A person who lives to reach out to the luminous horizons of being alive – to the site of the pilgrimage – will find their existence on Earth expanded, made larger. It will turn from dross to gold; from ephemeral to ebullient timelessness.

At a downtown coffee shop, I sat and began thinking about the prayers. Since I have to observe my daily prayers one after the other in a constrained time during these short winter days, I oscillate each time about whether to go or not to a coffee shop, to study. I did go this Saturday.

With me, I have the small rug I use as a prayer mat. I have all types of stories about my prayer rug. I have a personal connection with it since it reminds me of the extent of humanity’s potential to occupy a space on the Earth. When we stand, we can claim a space as big as two feet. When we ensconce ourselves in a chair, or are outstretched on a piece of rug, we have only a space as big as our body. We cannot have more than that, even if we have it all. I do not. Yet I feel the whole city is mine, when I try to find a place to pray on the streets or in the parks. I familiarize myself with a certain tree, and talk to that tree, thinking that it will one day remember my prayer, and me. I tell the streets that I follow their paths; they offer me a verdant beauty, and I offer my prayers, just as they did. Their green is how they pray.

Los Angeles is a different city of prayer in each season. But whatever the season, I can pray outside. There is no snow, and very little rain. The cafés always have chairs outside, and I have my prayer rug under my arm. I do not need a building to pray. This also makes the city more of an open-air prayer hall to me. This green and blue city is constantly praying, and thus its prayers are reflected as an open-air museum, honoring the Names of God as well as the humans who want to recite the name of the God, following the city’s lead.

I used to say a house is not a home to me unless I clean each and every corner by myself. I have developed a new motto: a city is not mine unless I have been to its various coffee houses, and prayed in many streets and parks. In that sense, this city is not terra incognita to me anymore. It could not be: it is, as I said, an open-air prayer hall. In a city where everything and everyone is in constant prayer, I see all as a distant relative of mine. To have One in our lives, connects me to the all unknown faces and places. How do I know that everyone prays? Well, people are working hard in this city, and that makes the city a prayer hall, I say. People are doing their best to fulfill the requirements of their professions in this city. They may not know it, but that is also a prayer. There is literal prayer, through sacred texts and rituals. And then there is another type of prayer, through diligent labor and dedication.

So now, I should pray. I leave my belongings in the coffee house with my friend and walk to the adjacent street, to find a tree under which I can pray. One side is trees, and the other side is parked cars. I lay my prayer rug down and take off my shoes. I stand still to begin my prayer. If you’ve ever seen a Muslim praying, you would better understand what I am doing.

The light in the city always reminds me of the sheer, unfading innocence, and thus incessant happiness, that one can catch a little glimpse of only during childhood imaginations. On the freshly cut grass, I cannot find myself at peace; yet, I have one more chance when I change my movements. Each prayer unit is a reminder to wake up from a dream in which I forget myself. I am trying to wake my inner self with each movement. First, I move my hands up and open my palms towards the point where I face all my attention during the prayer. The hope is to carry one’s attention to one focal point. I put my left hand on my heart and the right on my left hand. I can neither feel palpitations nor dedicated concentration.

It is good to pray on the streets. It is both distracting, and yet the sound of the passing cars, and even walking people, is a call to awake. I look to my prayer rug and hear the voices on the street. I wish to silence them, but cannot. They follow me until the end. I pray the prayer, but it cannot arrest the meaning inside.

I sit on my rug, open my palms towards the skies, and wish that I knew one of the soliloquy prayers by heart. In those lines the shards of broken souls are replaced with new excitement. Tilted heads and open hands open each and every part of the heart to new possibilities and hopes. All living beings are alive again, and they are all sentient. The dissident darkness of the heart declares the honor of being servile. The air fills your palms, and the moment you take your hands to your face, that sensuous new life fills your being, from your eyes to your toes. I understand why men begin the prayer by touching their ears: the ears are the nexus of where all begins and where all ends. Life and the prayer begin with a call to prayer, and life ends with the last call to prayer. I think of the call to prayer as an archaic sound, reminding us of the origins of any kind of language. Thus, the call to prayer talks to anyone, from any place or religion. And the ears carry and reveal that primordial duty.

How, I asked my scientist friends at the coffee shop, can you understand and explain this? Are the stones on the road, the grasshoppers at night, the wind that carries the leaves, and the leaves that submit to the wind… are all and each praying? Are they also pilgrims, joining this journey of prayer and seeking their Mecca?

There are patterns that make science feasible, my friend responded. Whatever fits within the pattern has life; whatever has no reason, follows another pattern that we call non-existence. We name the physically measurable scientific patterns.

But how about naming human feelings? Is sadness another pattern that we concoct? What about prayer? Is it gravity, or is it the concomitance of a series of physical facts that coincide at one moment and place, many times, again and again? It is easier to name it for the sake of scientific research, and not to repeat the detailed explanation, each and every time. Prayers are such a pattern. The apples falls down because the apple responds to what the earlier generations did. This is the tradition of nature. We are wired with feelings; this is also a pattern, a tradition. Prayers are the call of living beings to their very nature. Nature is in line with its own nature; however, how much are we humans in line with our nature? Prayer keeps us in line with our nature.

The one who prays every day will remember there is One who sees and hears, even though nobody else is around. The one who prays will remember that there is a Sustainer. They will know that humanity will be sustained as long as humans remember that there is a larger order and that there is One who organizes this beautiful, intricate, yet easy to unravel picture.

Yes, my dear friend. We wake to a new life every day. Each and every creation is on a journey. We all are seeking our destination: the pilgrimage sites in this world, and maybe in the hereafter. Maybe the ones who prepare each and every day anew will end up in the most beautiful pilgrimage site upon their departure from this world’s stop. We are travelers, after all.

There is a parable about two twins in their mother’s womb. They are discussing whether there is a life after being inside their mother. One twin asserted that it will be a birth, and not a death, and this birth presages the beginning of the real life. That new life will be a new world, with new patterns.

The other twin said there is no life after this one. “We will live and die within this turbid water, drinking this red blood as the only source of nourishment. We cannot adjust to a different food. There cannot be something better than this. Besides, there is no mother, because we do not see her. We will perish after all this ends.”

There is certainly new life after that little, tiny place they called home. They were at a station on their journey.

I smiled as I told the story to my friend at the coffee shop. I took a sip from my coffee, and said, “What can be better than this latte and how can I possibly taste it?” But there must be things better than these. I am sure there will be, because I want something more, something better. This feeling in itself foretells what is to come, or exist.

I come to the coffee houses to share stories like this with interesting people. Anyone can strike up a conversation with you in such a place, and many people have their own stories to tell. On their quest for enlightenment, the residents of Los Angeles illuminate the city with their hearts and pens. The lights of the city do not come from the Department of Power and Gas, but from a motley group of praying hearts’ efforts. While the trees prostrate themselves and praise the beauty of the Creator of the Blue and Green in this golden state, the Divine Brush cleanses the city with extraordinary rains.

Today, my prayer is this story, put down on paper with a pen. I hope these words will testify to my few hours of examination, and that they will become an infinite seed, to blossom in many colors in a lot of cities. I write from Los Angeles for you, my friend. I send my city’s blessings and greetings. I would love to hear your journey, to your inner self, in your city. I hope we can set off on a pilgrimage together, from each city: from the good to the best, from the love of having to the love of sharing, and even giving. I repeat what the lights of the city that fell on my prayer rug told me: when all pray to One and the Same, then nowhere is terra incognita, and no journey is different.

The word “obesity” originates from the Latin obesus, which literally means, “having eaten until fat.” Obesity is a disorder involving excessive body fat that damages our well-being and increases the risk of health problems. For example, an obese individual is ten times more likely to have heart disease and five times more likely to have diabetes as opposed to a person of normal weight. Some other symptoms of obesity are high blood lipids (e.g. triglycerides), high blood pressure, and low good cholesterol, which helps remove bad cholesterol from your arteries. Besides leading to a number of diseases, the large waistline formed due to the fat buildup also triggers our immune system, which plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of obesity-associated diseases. Before going into the details of the altered immune response due the increased storage of fat, let’s first explore the perfect order in our immune system, especially in a subset of immune cells called macrophages.

The amazing immune system

Our astounding immune system is in charge of defending our body by clearing out thousands of germs that can make us sick. Our immune cells serve in the context of cleansing the human body from invading germs. The immune system has two branches: the innate and adaptive branches, as defined with respect to the characteristics of their responses. The cross-talk and mutual communication between the two arms constitutes the integral immune response.
The adaptive immune system operates slowly, by developing for specific pathogens. In addition, it has a memory of previous exposures. The innate immune system provides a first line of defense against the invasion of disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens). It has three defense layers: anatomical barriers, humoral barriers, and cellular barriers. The skin is an example of the physical barriers, which prevent pathogens from getting access to our body. The chemicals found in tears, saliva, and mucus impair bacterial growth, and they represent the humoral barriers. Once an invading bacterium somehow evades these barriers, or a tissue injury occurs, various types of immune cells are recruited to the site of infection for the protection of the host. These cells constitute the third barrier of the innate immune system. As an initial defense system, innate immune cells and their components exhibit a fast, non-specific response with minimal memory of past exposures.

Macrophages: the big eaters

Macrophages, a subgroup of such innate immune cells, form a front-line component of our bodies’ defense. The term “macrophage” is derived from a combination of two Greek words – “macro,” meaning big, and “phage,” meaning eater. As the early combatants of our immune system, they are armored with perfectly-tuned ingestion capabilities. Macrophages function like the policemen of our body because they are charged with patrolling nearly all of our body’s tissues, except the heart. They are intensely positioned in tissues where infections are likely to arise, such as the gut and lungs.

There are approximately 200 cell types in our splendid body. Each specialized type of cell is charged to operate like a government or an army. Macrophages are organized to be combative and to secure the body. They possess flawless intelligence, coordination, communication, and movement traits. They are created from differentiating monocytes. Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow and then released into blood circulation. In case of an infection or dangerous threat, they migrate into tissues as early combatants.
To collect intelligence, macrophages are equipped with a large repertoire of sensors or receptors, which are positioned in the cellular membrane and intracellular part of the cellular architecture. These receptors are called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), whose function is to detect certain structural patterns of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. Such specific patterns are named pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). On the other hand, molecules generated by host cells under extraordinary stress are called danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) which are detected by other specific PRRs. Additionally, macrophages are ornamented with other types of receptors that help recognize and eat extracellular material, including pathogenic microorganisms by a membrane-bound vesicle. This process is phagocytosis, where the pathogen-containing vesicle is ultimately fused with the degradation machinery of the cell (i.e. lysosomes) to eliminate the pathogen.

Once the intelligence is collected by sensors, macrophages become “activated,” meaning that they are mobilized by transmitting and processing the information into the interior of the cell via – from a biologist’s perspective – downstream signaling pathways that initiate the program in the cell nucleus to secrete “alarm” molecules. Such molecules are named cytokines, whose duty is to adjust immune response by aiding cell-to-cell communication and stimulating the movement of macrophages towards the combat zone – in other words, the sites of inflammation.

Metaflammation: a chronic disease caused by obesity

The areas possessing redness, heat, pain, and swelling represent the combat zones of classical inflammation. Such wars are usually short-term and area-specific, with respect to infection and injury; they end with the elimination of the infection and the repair of the damaged tissue, respectively. Unfortunately, chronic inflammation is a different type of prolonged and disorganized immune response. Such a chronic state manifests, a) a low grade increase in immune system markers (inflammation-inducing cytokines); b) a persistent stress response; c) inflammatory effects covering the whole body rather than localized symptoms; and d) a sustained state of the disease. In other words, chronic inflammation corresponds to a lasting state of low-level war all over our body that gradually escalates and leads to various chronic diseases. Interestingly, intense research on the obesity epidemic demonstrated the presence of such low-grade chronic inflammation as the main driver of obesity-associated diseases such as insulin resistance, diabetes, atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, and chronic liver disease. Such an inflammatory state is also termed metabolic inflammation or metaflammation.

The molecular details underlying metaflammation are increasingly better understood. From a scientific standpoint, obesity is characterized by the increased storage of lipid molecules in an expanded fat tissue mass. The macrophages residing in such fat tissues of obese individuals are likely the major source of inflammation-inducing (pro-inflammatory) cytokines, as they seem mobilized mainly due to two reasons. First, the excessive presence of lipid molecules accumulated by overeating are sensed as danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) by various macrophage sensors. Second, macrophages residing in fat tissues have significantly higher level of threat sensors, leading to their easy mobilization. Therefore, the level of such sensors in obese individuals was found to be directly correlated with the severity of obesity-related diseases, such as diabetes and insulin resistance. Moreover, fat tissue macrophage populations are directly associated with the accumulation of fatty tissues in different experimental mouse models. The studies performed in obese and diabetic mice models and patients demonstrated high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in blood circulation and fat tissues, contributing to metaflammation.
To simplify metaflammation, excessive fat buildup is sensed as a threat by the big-eating patrollers of our amazing immune system, leading to their abrupt mobilization and continuous secretion of cytokines as “alarm” molecules. The intensity and locality of cytokines simply determines the state of war (i.e. the category of inflammation). In obese individuals, the low concentration of cytokines in blood circulation and fat tissues represents an ongoing low-level war found all over the body, which is metaflammation. Paradoxically, the degree of the war escalates by the enhanced sensitivity of macrophages to cytokines and the gradual increase of cytokines as a result of additional fat accumulation, hence throwing the body out of order and making it vulnerable to numerous diseases.

Apart from excessive food intake, there are other nutritional, environmental, and behavioral factors that give rise to similar chronic inflammation in our bodies. Things such as processed food, traffic-related air pollution, inactivity, inadequate sleep, and stress, can have similar effects as obesity. To protect our splendid bodies from the harmful effects of chronic inflammation resulting from overeating and other factors, we need to carefully think about our external and internal responsibilities. We may need to make intensive, external lifestyle changes, including restricted energy intake, more exercise/physical activity, and a diet high in healthy, unprocessed foods.
As for the internal responsibilities, the most essential part is strengthening our self-control. By doing so, we may improve our willpower, which is needed to resist the temptation to overeat. Otherwise, disrupting the balance of our wonderful body by overeating is an offense and disrespect to its perfect order. Such an imbalanced state pushes our body further toward a biological cliff, to such an extent that the delicately and perfectly organized immune system declares war against the harmful lipid molecules and leads to the emergence of various inflammation-associated diseases. Therefore, to eliminate the risk of imbalances in our superbly designed bodies, we have many internal and external responsibilities to fulfill.

This has always been the case, although few knew it because world travelers were rare in the past. But Ibn Battuta, the famous 14th century Muslim jurist and world traveler, who visited many Muslim countries and observed many local customs, relates a good example of local custom: “Each of these Khanqahs is set apart for a separate school of Darwishes, mostly Persians, who are men of good education and adepts in mystical doctrines.

“They have many special customs, one of which has to do with their food. The steward of the house comes in the morning to the Darwishes, each of whom indicates what food he desires, and when they assemble for meals, each person is given his bread and soup in a separate dish, none sharing with another.”

This custom mentioned by Ibn Battuta is a local custom meaning that it was, and still might be, practiced in one local area, and/or by one select group of men.

Immigrant Jews also have been surprised to learn that many customs that had great religious significance in the “old country” are not practiced in the “new country” by other Jews from other lands.

In Israel, the differences between Orthodox Jews from Christian Europe and Orthodox Jews from Muslim North Africa and the Middle East, are great, although Jewish law and prayer are basically the same for both groups.

In both Islam and Judaism local folk customs, and even folk beliefs, are often examples of the common people’s desire to be better Muslims or Jews. But sometimes these beliefs and customs are the result of local superstitions and are rejected by the Ulama or the rabbis.

Sometimes local religious leaders support modest innovations in practice or belief that are not deemed unIslamic or unJewish, and sometimes religious scholars oppose them as unsupported by scripture.

For example, in both Islam and Judaism, a folk belief grew up in the Middle East, unsupported by religious scholars, that if it were not for a small number of very righteous people, the whole corrupt society we live in would collapse.

Neither the Torah nor the Qur’an support such a belief, but the concept does support the ideal that a few people who continue to live in righteous purity when everyone else has become corrupt, can really make a big difference.

After all, even today the whole earth seems to be filled with violence, cruelty, oppression and injustice. This is made worse by the corrupt and oppressive behavior of many high and low government officials; as well as the immoral activities many economic, intellectual, political, and even religious leaders, which are constantly being exposed.

Of course, our generation is not the first to suffer from these universal social, political, cultural and national maladies; and religious people know that God is merciful and compassionate as well as just.

God’s patience and forbearance with widespread human inequity and sin can be understood in many ways.

One explanation, that developed within some parts of both the Jewish and Muslim communities, is that in every generation there are a small number of very special hidden saints (60 or 40 Abdal in Islam and 36 or 30 Tsadikim in Judaism), whose souls are so kind, honest, trusting and righteous, that for their sake alone, the rest of the society of sinful human beings avoids collapse.

Thus, the idea of the hidden saints emphasizes the importance God gives to a small number of very kind and righteous people who serve as the supporting foundations of the civilized world, and in some way known only to God, support human civilization against total collapse.

Thus, Abu Darda’ said: “When Prophethood ended – and they were the supports (Awtad) of the world – Allah substituted their places with 40 men from the nation of Muhammad called “Abdal” (Substitutes). Not one of them dies except that Allah replaces him with another one, and they are now the supports of this world. The hearts of 30 of them contain the same firm certainty (yaqin) which Prophet Ibrahim had.”

“They did not succeed or rise above other people due to much fasting or prayer … but rather through being honest, having noble intentions, having sound wholesome hearts … They do not curse anyone, or harm anyone, nor do they see themselves as being higher or nobler than anyone under them, or envy those above them. They do not fake their humility… nor are they ostentatiously impressed with themselves.”

Most Islamic scholars think the ahadith relating to the Abdal are weak. And since acquiring religious knowledge is highly valued in both Islam and Judaism, most Jewish and Muslim scholars have rejected this elevation of religiously ignorant yet pious individuals.

However, I am a Reform Rabbi who thinks of himself as a Muslim Jew, because I faithfully submit to the one and only God of Abraham; and I am faithful to the Torah of Prophet Musa which I study continually, and to the covenant that God made with the people of Israel at Mount Sinai.

Yet in my heart, I see the need for religious scholars to increase the respect people in general, and the religious and educated elite in particular, should have for the many simple, poor, good hearted, righteous believers within their own community. This is especially true in our generation.

I also see many parallels between this Islamic and Jewish revolutionary concept that society is supported and sustained, not by the high and mighty, not by the rich and famous, and surely not by the media celebrities of sports and entertainment, but rather by a small number of poor, hidden and rarely acknowledged saints.

As Abu Hurayra said: “I entered the mosque, and the Prophet said to me, ‘Abu Hurayra, in this hour, a man will walk through this door, who is one of the seven people of the world through whom Allah diverts punishment from the Earth’s inhabitants.”

“Just then an Ethiopian entered through that door. He was bald, maimed, and carrying a container of water on his head. So he said, ‘O Abu Hurayra, that’s him,’ and then said to the man three times, ‘Welcome.’ This man used to sweep and clean the Mosque.”

Perhaps a weak Hadith, but certainly one with a strong message to respect every human being regardless of class, status or appearance.

Even more revolutionary, is that within the Muslim tradition some people explicitly included Christians and Jews within the Abdal: Hudhayfa ibn Yaman said: “The Abdal in my community in Syria include 30 men on the path of Ibrahim (Jews)… And the group (of righteous Awliya’) in Iraq are 40 men… 20 of them are on the path of ‘Isa (Christians) and 20 of them have been given some of the instruments which Khalifa Da’ud (King David) was given.”

According to Jewish folklore the hidden saints number at least 36 in each generation. Called in Yiddish lamedvovniks (36ers), they are responsible for sustaining and supporting the civilized world. At times of great peril, a 36ercould make a dramatic appearance to defeat the enemies of Israel, and then return to humble obscurity.

The 36+ people are unnoticed by other people because of their humble nature, status, education and vocation. The 36+figured in Kabbalistic folk legends of the 16–17th centuries, and in Hassidic folklore from the end of the 18th century.

Yiddish proletarian writers in the 19th and 20th centuries expanded the folk tradition of the 36+ righteous people whose simple role in life justifies the value of all mankind in God’s eyes; by adding that if even one of them was missing from the minimum 36, society would come to a bad end.

For the sake of these 36+ hidden saints, God preserves our world even if the rest of humanity degenerates to the level of total barbarism. This idea is based on the story of Sodom and Gomorra in the Torah, where God told Abraham that he would spare the town of Sodom if there were at least 10 righteous people in it.

Since nobody knows who the 36+ are, not even they themselves, every Jew should honor and respect all the simple, honest, unselfish, hard working and long suffering people around us, for one of them may be one of the 36+. I think this lesson rings true for all religions.

Unlike the rich, the famous, the pious, the scholars, the powerful, the beautiful or the successful, who everyone else thinks are very important, according to this concept, the 36+ are the really important people, because without a few of them society could destroy itself.

The tradition of the 36ers, others say 30, is found in the Talmud where RabbiAbbaye says: “There are not less than 36 righteous people in the world who receive the Sakina – Divine Presence” (Sanhedrin 97b and Sukkot 45b). “Not less” is not a fixed number, and there may be many more than 36 (40 or 60) in some generations.

These righteous people are usually and incorrectly called men because in Hebrew grammar a mixed group of males and females always uses a male noun and verb. It is much more likely that the 36ers are 18 men and 18 women, since in Hebrew the number 18 is the numerical equivalent of the letters in the word life.

Ibn ‘Asakir (1105–1175) and Ibn Abi Khaythama narrate that Uthman ibn ‘Ata was having a conversation with his father, who told him, “The Abdal are forty Insan (humans).” So Uthman ibn ‘Ata said to his father, “Forty men?” and his father replied, “Do not say men, but rather say humans, for there could be women among them.”

The number 36 is not the only number offered in this connection. Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai believed, “the world never lacks 30 righteous people” (Genesis Rabbah 35:2) while Rabbi Simeon ibn Yehozadak says (Ḥullin 92a. and Midrash Psalms 5:5) “the world exists by the merit of 45 righteous people”; perhaps 30 in the land of Israel and 15 in Iraq/Babylonia where Rabbi Simeon ibn Yehozadak lived.

According to Rav Judah, the number 30 represents the number of “righteous gentiles among the nations of the world” (Ḥullin 92a). Thus, some Rabbis felt that women and non-Jews should be counted among the hidden saints, just as some Islamic sages have taught.

All of these statements about the 30 or 36+ Tsadekim (saints) are the views of individual rabbis. Their views did not become part of Jewish law or general belief, just as the Abdal did not become part of general Muslim belief.

The power of the prayers and the tears of a 36er to bring rain from God was rarely mentioned in accounts from Europe about the 36+, because droughts are very rare in Europe. But both the 36+ Tsadekim and the Abdal 40 (or 60) share this trait.

As ‘Ali said: “The Abdal are in Syria, and they are 40 men. Whenever one of them dies, Allah substitutes another in his place. By means of them, Allah brings down the rain, gives victory over enemies, and diverts punishment from the people of Syria.”

A Jewish folktale from Syria illustrates the theme of the power of a pure hearted simple man’s righteous plea. Once, in the land of Syria, there was a great drought. A rabbi called all the Jews of his village to the synagogue. They prayed day and night, but still no rain fell. Then the rabbi declared a fast, and asked God to answer their prayers.

That night he heard a voice from heaven, saying, “God will send rain only if Rahamim, who always sits in the back corner of the synagogue, prays for it.” “But he’s an ignoramus,” protested the rabbi. “And I am not sure how kosher his home is.” Silence was the response.

When Rahamim came to the synagogue the rabbi said, “Tomorrow you will lead the congregation in prayers for rain,” “But I do not know how to pray,” said Rahamim. “There are so many others who know more than I.” “Nevertheless,” said the rabbi, “it is you who must lead the prayers.”

The next day the rabbi called all the people together to pray. The synagogue was filled to bursting. All eyes were on the placewhere everyone expected to see the rabbi leading them in prayer. How great was their amazement to see poor Rahamim standing up there before the Holy Ark, holding a clay jar with two spouts in his hands. “Now I ask that you pray with all your heart,” he told the congregation.

So they opened the Ark, where the Torah scroll was kept, and the people poured out their hearts to heaven, wailing bitterly and beating their breasts. Then Rahamim lifted up his jar, first placing one spout to his eye and then the other to his ear. Instantly there was a rumble of thunder and then the sky opened up, drenching the earth with rain.

The rabbi later asked Rahamim, “Why did you bring that jar to the synagogue? What did you do with it?” “Rabbi, I’m a poor, ignorant man,” Rahamim replied. “What I earn as a shoemaker barely feeds my many children. Every day they cry for bread and I have little to give them. When I hear their cries my heart breaks, and I too cry. So I collect my tears in this jar.

“When you asked me to come here to pray, I looked into the jar and said, ‘Master of the Universe, if you do not send rain, I will break this jar in front of the whole congregation.’

“Then I heard a voice that said, “Ask again when you stand before the congregation. So I did and I heard a voice say: ‘Do not break the jar’.” And then it began to rain.

Answer: A real believer is a resolute person whose faith in God is doubt-free. A believer does not lose hope even in the face of the most daunting circumstances. For this reason, such a person never gives in to hopelessness but always stands firm, even when all roads are blocked, and keeps walking toward his ideals; he knows that God Almighty has never left those who walk on His path with no ways to reach their goals.

When it was not possible to live in Mecca, God opened the way of miraculous Ascension of the Prophet to the heavens, along which every one of the greatest Prophets saluted him. The Messenger of God reached such a point that even Gabriel the Trustworthy said, “I will be perished if I take one more step.”

Seeking perfection

God Almighty never let down those who walked on His path; He held their hands even at the most unexpected moments, delivering them safe and sound. You may fall down a well, but when you least expect it, a strong rope will be dropped down. There may be times when you are mistreated by a few jealous brothers. However, after a term of spiritual journeying, you just see that God sets thrones in hearts for you. In this respect, no matter what hardships are faced, believers who always feel the Divine help and support behind them will seek out great achievements, and try to give their willpower its due in terms of fulfilling those accomplishments in accordance with their worth. They will thus try to produce the most perfect works, because the Prophet commanded believers to be equipped with the morality of God.

The Divine morality of this issue is related to us by statements like, “He who makes excellent everything that He creates,” (as-Sajdah 32:7) and, “This is the pattern of God who has perfected everything” (an-Naml 27:88). Thus it is pointed out that He brings everything into existence in the best, most beautiful, soundest, and perfect fashion. If He created something out of nothing, built it up, and breathed life to it, those who witnessed His works could not help but say, “There could not be anything better.”

Bediüzzaman relates the following remark of Imam al-Ghazali about this: “There is no possibility of anything more wondrous than what exists in this universe.” A person who beholds this universe with a comprehensive perspective, and moves his shuttle of wisdom between the cause and effect, will have to make the following confession: “God created the universe so beautifully that, had I been given a life of thousand years long and assigned to build a little piece of existence, I could never do it.”

Thus Divine morality shows us this: while striving on the path of God, believers should do their best and try to carry out their tasks in the best and soundest fashion.

As if presenting your work to God’s supervision

Concerning the fact that a believer should seek the perfect for the sake of gaining God’s good pleasure, we can ponder over the following verse: “Say: ‘Work, and God will see your work, and so will His Messenger and the true believers; and you will be brought back to the Knower of the Unseen (of all that lies beyond sense-perception) and the witnessed (the sensed realm), and He will make you understand all that you were doing (and call you to account for it)’” (at-Tawbah 9:105). God Almighty does not command as “if’alu” (do), but as “i’malu,” which means to “fulfill a certain deed.” The Qur’an frequently refers to deeds by putting emphasis on “righteous deeds,” so we understand that the term “deed” refers to fulfilling a certain task positively and flawlessly, within a certain plan, and by considering the results.

The verse also commands fulfilling deeds with the consciousness that God, His Messenger, and all true believers will see these deeds. Namely, a believer should fulfill their deeds so that God Almighty will approve, the Prophet will express appreciation, and believers will wish to have fulfilled their own deeds in such a way. However, the purpose of a believer who seeks perfection in his deeds is not to cause envy in others. On the contrary, they try to gain God’s good pleasure by giving the task its proper due. It is good to aspire to do the same good deeds another person has done, but this issue should not be approached with a feeling of jealousy or rivalry.

Angels as examples

Concerning the angels, the Qur’an states: “(They) do not disobey God in whatever He commands them, and carry out what they are commanded (to carry out)” (at-Tahrim 66:6). That is, they fulfill every command scrupulously and do not disobey His orders in the least bit. They are important examples for us in this respect. Believers should fulfill their tasks comparably to the archangel Gabriel and seek Divine appreciation. They should feel a pulsing in their temples, as if their brains would come out through their noses. It is said that whoever does his best for the sake of accomplishing a certain task, God will grant that person what he seeks.

The heavy trial entailed by success

A person who exerts himself or herself in this degree may attain very good accomplishments, by God’s permission and grace. Thousands, or hundred thousands, of people may gather around them and shower them with thanks and praises. The greatest trial starts at this very point: will they lay claim to the good results or give them to their rightful Owner? Will the achievements trigger feelings of thanksgiving or cause dizziness and blurring of vision? Those who pass this heavy trial successfully and keep their ego in check in order to tame their carnal soul are the heroes of the heart who are fixed on the consideration of humbleness and modesty. They know to keep their place at this critical point, while other people might become addicted to success or winning. Just as they give their willpower its due at the beginning, here as well they give their conscience its due and appropriately determine the correct place they are supposed to stand. They never credit themselves but say, “It was Him that made these things happen,” and run like the plague from vices such as pride and self-satisfaction. Let alone indulging self-satisfaction, from their horizons of self-criticism they see the failures of their work, regret these, and suffer over not having performed even better.

Individuals who serve in different areas of life may make different achievements in the fields of their responsibility. They may put stamps of excellence on every task they fulfill, in a way that evokes admiration in dwellers in the high assembly of the heavens. Individuals may perform perfectly—some with speeches they deliver, some with the articles they write, some with their abilities of teaching and administration, and some with their artistic talents. However, a genuine believer should say, “had there been some sensible person with an immense conscience, he would have probably performed much more perfectly and efficiently.” Considering the impossible—if an act of this person’s parted the moon in two, changed the sun’s course, united all people in the world for a lofty truth, or made an accomplishment comparable to that of Gabriel, the sound of the conscience would still say: “Had there been someone else in my place, who knows how much better he would have done this work! To tell the truth, since this work came out of my foul hands, it remained much lower than where it should have been; it remained derelict, poor, and undeveloped.”

The Apocalypse and the Self-accusing soul

Why is it so important for a believer to revile himself in this degree? Because, there is the risk of experiencing the greatest loss in a zone of winning. After swearing on the Day of Judgment, God Almighty swears on the self-accusing human soul (al-Qiyamah 75:1). As it is known, valuable things of significance are sworn upon. The Day of Judgment is important, for on that day all of those galaxies, constellations, and solar systems that look so impressive to people will be in utter chaos before God’s all-comprehensive Knowledge, overwhelming Will, and supreme acts. That day, everything will be thrown to the air like pieces of straw. By swearing on the Day of Judgment, it is brought to attention that this glorified act of God is a great happening.

Right after this, there is a swear upon the self-accusing soul (an-nafs lawwamah), which refers to one that never likes his own works, but constantly questions and criticizes himself. In this respect, it is the first step of progress on one’s spiritual journey. It is not possible for a person who does not ascend this first step to progress to the level of the soul receiving inspiration (an-nafs al-mulhimah); or from there to its two wings—the soul with which God is pleased and the soul pleased with God; and particularly from there to the soul perfected or pure (safiyah or zakiyyah). The Self-accusing soul can be compared to a ladder, stairway, or an elevator to help a person reach these soul levels on their spiritual journey. It is for this reason that it is very important for a person to constantly confront himself, attribute the negative outcomes to himself, and always criticize himself.

The safest way to purification from sins

Bediuzzaman’s approach on how to avoid the pitfalls of arrogance that can come about after victories and accomplishments is noteworthy. At the end of his Twenty-sixth Word, he virtually addresses his soul like speaking to another person and says:

“O my ostentatious carnal soul! Do not be proud of your services to God’s religion. As stated in a Prophetic Tradition,[1] God may strengthen this religion by means of a dissolute person. You are not pure, so regard yourself as that dissolute person.”

As a spiritual discipline he suggests, “We should never hold ourselves pure; instead, we should regard ourselves as fallible and susceptible to error.”

Accordingly, a person who does not see his own soul as impure does not feel any need to purify it. Thus, he will not purify his soul and cannot be pure. As the carnal soul is not pure in essence, a person should ascribe all negative things to himself.

What happens if a person holds himself responsible for defects and faults? Such a person genuinely turns to God Almighty and asks guidance from Him. Also, God Almighty takes such considerations as remorse and repentance, and paves the ways leading to forgiveness for that person. If a person does not have such considerations at all, he commits various kinds of mistakes unawares and still attaches importance to himself; just like the way people do in our time in spite of their being nothing.

Consider that Umar ibn al-Khattab was a person who successfully dealt with the superpowers of his time, who spent his days and nights in obedience to God and had nothing to do with sins. During a time of draught, he placed his head on the ground by prostrating himself and cried in sobs, praying, “O God, please do not ruin Muslims because of my sins!”

On another day, when they asked him to lead a prayer for rain, he probably said to himself, “How can a sinful person like me pray for rain?” With such a consideration, he held the hand of the Prophet’s uncle Abbas and climbed a hill with him. Then he made his wish by utterly humbling himself, raising the latter’s hand as an intercessor and saying, “O God, this is the hand of your beloved servant’s uncle. Grant us rain for its sake!” Sources relate that a heavy rain began afterwards.

This should be the attitude of an ideal believer. Along with fulfilling every task perfectly, and always seeking to achieve the best at everything and using his willpower to the ultimate degree, one must see various defects in those works in his own sight and constantly criticize himself. As it is expressed in a saying attributed to Umar ibn al-Khattab, a person must continuously call himself to account before the Day of Reckoning comes.

To conclude, if a person performs perfectly in a way that does not bring him shame when presented to God Almighty; if he still sees faults in himself by saying, “Had someone else realized these works, they would have done it better, but I have messed it up;” then by God’s permission and grace, this will render that person impeccably pure.

Note

1. Sahih al-Bukhari, Jihad, 182; Abdurrazzaq, Al-Musannaf, 5/270.

1-Hayashi R. et al. Co-ordinated ocular development from human iPS cells and recovery of corneal function. Nature, January 2016.
2-Lin H. et al. Lens regeneration using endogenous stem cells with gain of visual function. Nature, January 2016.

Two exciting new studies demonstrated that cataracts could be cured by using stem-cell-based treatments. In the first study, researchers developed a method to convert induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells into the discs of multiple eye tissues. Then, they isolated corneal cells from the cultured discs and transplanted them into a rabbit with corneal blindness. This successfully restored the rabbit’s sight. In the second study, instead of the transplantation of new cells, researchers used human patients’ own stem cells to cure their blindness. This study focused on 37 infants born with cataracts. The standard treatment for cataracts has involved cutting a 6-millimetre slit in the center of the lens capsule, which allows the surgeon to replace the diseased lens with an artificial one. Researchers have developed a new, minimally invasive technique. Surgeons now only open a 1.5-millimetre incision on the side of the lens capsule. Though they remove the diseased lens, they preserve the lens’ epithelial stem cells (LECs) and their natural environment. This promotes dormant LECs to regrow an entirely new lens – one that is capable of vision – in about 3 months. 12 infants went through this surgery and all of them successfully grew new, functional lenses. These children healed much faster compared to the 25 infants who underwent the standard procedure – and most importantly, the former group all ended up with clear, natural lenses. The first infant treated with this method two years ago is reported to still have good vision, and scientists anticipate that the regenerated lenses will grow as the child grows. The immediate success of this study represents a new approach in human-tissue regeneration and in how human diseases can be treated. Even though this kind of approach may not be applicable to adult human patients in the near future (due to the reduced regenerative capacity of LECs in older people), it still holds big promises for the future of eye disorders.

Renewable Plastic From Carbon Dioxide and Plants

1-Banarjee A. et al. Carbon dioxide utilization via carbonate-promoted C–H carboxylation. Nature, January 2016.

Researchers found a novel way to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and inedible plant material into a low-carbon alternative to petroleum-based plastics. Plastics are typically made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and about 50 million tons of PET is produced each year for items such as fabrics, electronics, recyclable beverage containers, and personal-care products. The manufacturing of PET produces substantial amounts of CO2 (four tons of CO2 generated for each ton of PET produced), which contributes to global warming. The more environmentally efficient alternative to PET is polyethylene furandicarboxylate (PEF), which is produced from the combination of ethylene glycol and a compound called 2-5-Furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA). PEF is superior to PET for two reasons: First, FDCA can be sourced from biomasses instead of petroleum. Second, PEF seals out oxygen much more efficiently, which can be useful for bottling applications. Despite the obvious advantages of PEF, the plastics industry has not been able to find a low-cost way to manufacture FDCA, the raw material needed for PEF, at scale. Researchers finally solved this problem by developing an efficient and reliable method to produce FDCA. They simply combined carbonate with CO2 and furoic acid, a derivative of furfural (a compound made from agricultural waste), and then heated the mixture to 200 0C, forming a liquefied salt. After five hours, 89% of the salt mixture had been converted to FDCA. This approach has great potential to reduce greenhouse emissions, because the CO2 required to make PEF could be obtained from fossil-fuel power plant emissions or other industrial sites. In addition, PEF products are completely recyclable, as they can be burned into CO2 that will be utilized by plants, which can then be used to make more PEF.

Magnetic Chips: Computing With One Million Times Less Energy

1-Hong J. et al. Experimental test of Landauer’s principle in single-bit operations on nanomagnetic memory bits. Science Advances, March 2016.

For the first time, engineers have proved that magnetic chips can function at the lowest fundamental energy dissipation possible under the laws of thermodynamics.
This breakthrough could dramatically reduce the power consumed by modern computers. The research team used an innovative approach to measure the infinitesimal energy dissipation when a nanomagnetic bit was flipped. They used a laser probe to trace the direction of the magnetic field as it was flipped from “up” to “down,” or vice versa, when driven by an external magnetic field. They found that only 15 millielectron volts (3 zeptojoules) of energy were sufficient to flip the magnetic bit at room temperature, revealing the minimal amount of energy required for computer operations. This finding raised the possibility of reducing power consumption to as little as one-millionth the amount used per operation by standard transistors in modern computers. Power reduction is important for mobile devices, which require powerful processors with long-lasting and light-weight batteries. It is also a serious problem at the industrial scale. The increase in cloud-computing demands greater electricity for the increasing number of giant cloud data hubs, which have already started to take a toll on the world’s electrical grid. The computer technology industry is looking forward to the industrial application of magnetic computer chips in the near future.

The words emunah in Hebrew and iman in Arabic originate from the same Semitic roots, meaning trust. Trustworthiness and security are among the basic features of Prophethood. The Prophets’ mission was to carry across God’s message, a treasure of knowledge that could have only been entrusted to reliable individuals. “Amin” was the title of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, even before his Prophethood. He was the trustworthy one with whom everyone felt safe and secure. In one of his well-known traditions, the Prophet said, “A day will come when a woman will travel, riding in a litter, from Hira to Mecca and fear nothing except God and wolves.” This is why we practice faith – for peace in the heart and at large.

Today, we are starving for peace. Public places, terminals, parks … none of them feel safe. From Brussels to Ankara, from Damascus to Lahore, violence is the plague of our age. All of us have a growing responsibility to go beyond our routines and to begin healing our world. With this goal in mind, “Countering Violent Extremism: Mujahada and Muslims’ Responsibility” was the theme of an international symposium that took place on March 15-16 in Brussels, only days before the atrocious terrorist attacks. Hundreds of Muslim and non-Muslim scholars, from over fifty countries, participated in the event. Aiming to reach a scholarly consensus, they made the following declaration:

“The overwhelming consensus of Muslims throughout the centuries is that the primary objectives of Islam are: the promotion of peace, justice, the sanctity of all life and the natural world, the safety of all people and their rightful property, and an unqualified commitment to the principle of human dignity. Positions contrary to these primary objectives—especially efforts at stirring up conflict and discord based on deviant interpretations of the sacred texts—directly contradict the spirit of Islam.”

Here are some of the highlighted comments from the participants. Read this month’s issue with them in mind:

• “We should not give terrorists the legitimacy by calling them jihadists. They should only be called terrorists.” – Asma Afsaruddin, Indiana University
• “We Muslims cannot only condemn terrorism; we also need to understand its root causes.” – Prof. Achrag Abdulhamid, Dar al-Hadith al-Hassaniya, Morocco
• “The Gülen movement is much more than just protecting life from terror and bloodshed. It is a dignity rooted in the conviction that all humans are entitled to live freely, prosperously, and happily.” – Prof. Bart Kerremans, KU Leuven, Belgium
• “Certain aspects of religious teaching are used to motivate terrorism. This is abuse of Islam.” – Prof. M. Din Syamsuddin, Indonesian Council of Ulema

Faith is deficient, and sometimes dangerous, without sufficient, accurate knowledge. The Path of the Prophet Foundation is organizing a reading contest to deal with this deficiency. The reading contest, entitled “Who Is Muhammad (pbuh)?”, will take place online on two separate dates: April 16 and April 20. This year, the contest is only for North American residents. Awards include 33 umrah trips, 33 tablets, and 33 gift cards. Check out www.whoismuhammad.us for more information.

It is easy to proclaim a certain identity in the abstract with words and symbols. The sincerity of such claims, however, can only be measured by comparing our actions with the core values of our self-proclaimed identities. The true test of belief is not slogans or dressing up in a certain way; the true test of our beliefs is in living up to core principles shared by all major world faiths such as upholding the sanctity of life and respecting the dignity of all humans.

We must categorically condemn the ideology propagated by terrorists and instead promote a pluralistic mindset with clarity and confidence. After all, before our ethnic, national or religious identity comes our common humanity, which suffers a setback each time a barbaric act is committed. French citizens who lost their lives in Paris, Shiite Muslim Lebanese citizens who lost their lives in Beirut a day earlier and scores of Sunni Muslims in Iraq who lost their lives at the hands of the same terrorists are first and foremost human beings. Our civilization will not progress until we treat the suffering of humans regardless of their religious or ethnic identity as equally tragic in our empathy and respond with the same determination.

Muslims must also reject and avoid conspiracy theories, which have so far only helped us avoid facing our social problems. Instead, we must tackle the real questions: Do our communities provide recruitment grounds for groups with totalitarian mindsets due to unrecognized authoritarianism within ourselves, domestic physical abuse, neglect of youth and lack of balanced education? Did our failure to establish basic human rights and freedoms, supremacy of the rule of law and pluralist mindsets in our communities lead those who are struggling to seek alternative paths?

The recent tragedy in Paris is yet another reminder for both theologians and ordinary Muslims to strongly reject and condemn barbaric acts perpetrated in the name of our religion. However, at this juncture, rejection and condemnation are not enough; terrorist recruitment within Muslim communities must be fought and countered by an effective collaboration of state authorities, religious leaders and civil society actors. We must organize community-wide efforts to address all factors that aid terrorist recruitment.

Ways of expressing support and dissent within democratic means

We need to work with our community to set up the necessary framework for identifying at-risk youth, preventing them from seeking self-destructive paths, assisting families with counseling and other support services. We must promote a proactive, positive government engagement so that engaged Muslim citizens can sit at the table where counterterrorism measures are planned and share their ideas. Our youth should be taught ways of expressing support and dissent within democratic means. Incorporating democratic values into school curricula early on is crucial for inculcating a culture of democracy in young minds.

In the aftermath of such tragedies, historically strong reactions have surfaced. Anti-Muslim and anti-religious sentiment as well as security-driven treatment of Muslim citizens by governments would be counter-productive. The Muslim citizens of Europe want to live in peace and tranquility. Despite the negative climate, they should strive to engage more with their local and national governments to help work toward more inclusive policies that better integrate their community into the larger society.

It is also important for us Muslims to critically review our understanding and practice of Islam in light of the conditions and requirements of our age and the clarifications provided by our collective historic experiences. This does not mean a rupture from the cumulative Islamic tradition but rather, an intelligent questioning so we can confirm the true teachings of the Quran and the Prophetic tradition that our Muslim predecessors attempted to reveal.

We must proactively marginalize decontextualized reading of our religious sources that have been employed in the service of perverted ideologies. Muslim thinkers and intellectuals should encourage a holistic approach and reconsider jurisprudential verdicts of the Middle Ages that were issued under perpetual conflict where religious affiliation often coincided with political affiliation. Having core beliefs should be distinguished from dogmatism. It is possible, indeed absolutely necessary, to revive the spirit of freedom of thought that gave birth to a renaissance of Islam while staying true to the ethos of the religion. Only in such an atmosphere can Muslims effectively combat incivility and violent extremism.

In the aftermath of the recent events I am witnessing, with chagrin, the revival of the thesis of the clash of civilizations. I do not know whether those who first put out such a hypothesis did so out of vision or desire. What is certain is that today, the revival of this rhetoric simply serves the recruitment efforts of the terrorist networks. I want to state clearly that what we are witnessing is not a clash of civilizations but rather the clash of humanity with barbarity in our common civilization.

Our responsibility as Muslim citizens is to be part of the solution despite our grievances. If we want to defend the life and civil liberties of Muslims around the world and the peace and tranquility of every human regardless of their faith, we must act now to tackle the violent extremism problem in all its dimensions: political, economic, social and religious. By setting virtuous examples through our lives, by discrediting and marginalizing the extremist interpretations of religious sources, by staying vigilant toward their impact on our youth, and by incorporating democratic values early in education, we can counter violence and terrorism as well as totalitarian ideologies that lead to them.

* This article by Turkish Islamic scholar Fethullah Gülen was first published in Le Monde on Dec. 17, 2015.

Positioning is a branch of geodesy which deals with the figure and gravity field of Earth, as well as the accurate positing of an object on the surface of the Earth. In geodesy, two different reference systems are used: the terrestrial reference system (TRS) and the celestial reference system (CRS). TRS uses the center of the Earth as the origin, rotation axis, and latitudes/ longitudes. TRS rotates with the Earth, so the position of a point changes over time.

The celestial reference system uses the barycenter (center of the solar system) as the origin. The axis of the celestial reference frame is defined by the north celestial pole (the direction of the Earth’s rotational axis) and the intersection of the equator with the ecliptic (vernal equinox). CRS is the ultimate reference frame used to define the position of any location on the surface of the Earth. By its definition, CRS is an inertial reference system, and has no depth parameter (i.e., all objects in the sky are considered on a single sphere called the celestial sphere). Eventually, all points in TRS have to be tied to CRS. In order to make the transition from TRS to CRS, the dynamics of the Earth’s motion, including precession, nutation, and polar motion, must be determined very accurately. Such determinations are within the scope of modern geodesy.

Each reference system uses certain benchmarks. For TRS, before the era of satellites, certain locations on the surface of the Earth were used as benchmarks, and they had to be assumed stationary. Until 1983, the benchmark in the US was located in Kansas. Not surprisingly, modern geodesy has experienced a boost with the use of satellites. Today, the center of the Earth can be pinpointed due to the motions of satellites.

The realization of CRS has historically been made by stars. For this purpose, star catalogs (a collection of references for the positions of the stars), which were initially compiled by Hipparchus (135 BC) and later revisited by Ptolemy (and later by Al-Biruni), are used. Historically, astrolabes were used to define the positions of stars. Thanks to such research, it has been long known that stars in our galaxy have motions along a certain direction, called “proper motion.” The magnitude of this motion is in the order of hundreds of mili-arc-seconds (mas), which is about a millionth of a degree per second. If stars are used as reference points, these proper motions have to be corrected for accurate positioning.

Astronomers use the principle of redshift to estimate the distance of faraway objects, including stars. In the 1950s, quasars attracted the attention of scientists due to their huge redshifts, indicating that they come from very far-off parts of the universe. Despite being billions of light years away, their incredible luminosity (brightness) allows their light to reach Earth. Quasars are the brightest objects in space. They form around massive black holes at the centers of galaxies. These black holes cause an “accretion” disc around the quasars; this accreted matter is diverted at both ends of the black hole, like jets of matter. It is this matter that we observe here on Earth.

Despite the great amount of matter being produced, how can quasars be seen from backyard telescopes? One quasar is a trillion times brighter than our sun. Quasars are so big, in fact, they can be the size of our entire solar system. This is why their light reaches us, even though some quasars are 10-15 billion light years away (“closer” quasars are “only” 2 billion light years away). To imagine this distance, think that light from sun comes to us in only 8 minutes!

Why are quasars so effective for determining location? Well, stars within our galaxy move relatively quickly. Determining our location using these stars would be like trying to locate your ship in the sea using other ships. Instead, you must use a fixed point on the shoreline. Quasars are like these stationary objects on shore – and, thankfully, they’re scattered in all directions of the celestial sphere.

With developments in astronomy, scientists have discovered quasars that do not have any detectable proper motion. As a result of this, since 1993, quasars have been used as the ultimate reference frame (Celestial Reference Frame) for positioning on Earth. Their proper motion is 0.01 mas/a, which is limited by the Hubble’s constant.

Our position with respect to quasars is made by continuously observing them from the surface of the Earth, using a network of radio satellite dishes. These satellite dishes are scattered around the planet and they use a method called “very long baseline interferometry” (VLBI). VLBI satellites are eyes with very long baselines, and use triangulation (just as our eyes do) to locate a point in the sky with exceptional accuracy. Using these points, scientists can determine changes in the Earth’s orientation.

It might seem strange that stars billions of light years away enable scientists to properly position any point on Earth. But this is just another example of the universe’s perfect order, and the fact that everything has a purpose.

Reference

• M. Feissel & F. Mignard, The adoption of ICRS on 1 Januray 1998: meaning and consequences, Astronomy and Astrophysics, 331, L33-36 (1998).

Self-education is an all-inclusive term for an individual’s efforts to refine his or her whole being. This struggle is a part of human nature and it has always been emphasized in ancient texts and holy scriptures. The essence of this “being” is related to a Biblical concept, neshamah, or the “breath of life” God breathed to Adam. Thus Adam was made a living soul, a nefesh. Nefesh is the seat of emotions such as greed, desire, or passion; or even destructive emotions, such as revenge. The Islamic counterpart of this term is nafs, which also means soul, heart, flesh, body, desire, greed, drive or control, or the influential center of the devil within us. According to the classical Islamic works, the nafs is where emotions such as anger, rage, revenge, hatred, aggression, and desire originate.

Nafs in Islam or nefesh in Judaism are both used to refer to the negative side of our being. Materialist psychology points to such a center within people, too. Sigmund Freud’s “Id” also represents humanity’s basic drives – for example, the self-preservation or reproductive instincts.

The vernaculars of both religion and psychology, then, speak of the so-called weaker self: a creature that lies dormant in all of us, and basically wants nothing else than to chase our most base instincts, such as eating, drinking, sleeping, and reproducing.

A powerful enemy lurks in all of us. This enemy – the Nafs, Nefesh, or Id – can be compared to a naughty child who needs to be reined in.

The nafs strikes when we are least attentive, like when Prophet Adam forgot about the prohibited fruit. We also tend to forgetfulness. Don’t the worst things happen during inattentive moments? In moments of weakness, forgetfulness, or recklessness? All it takes is a single pull of a trigger, and our life – and the lives of others – can be ruined. A weak moment and our marriage can be damaged forever.

But the dangers of the nafs are also much more banal: instead of studying for an important test, we may spend an evening chilling on Facebook or playing a video game. Then, the exam is ruined – and perhaps our academic career. In whatever way our nafs overwhelms us, it can do it again and again; we live with it, and it will not die before us.

A major part of self-education, then, is the struggle against one’s own ego, which is part of the nafs. In Islam, the struggle with yourself, against your own baser instincts, is called the great jihad. This shows what Islam’s priority is: not fighting with sword and shield, but self-education. The focus is directed inward, to one’s own errors to produce conscientious, moral people.

In Islamic mysticism the nafs is usually divided into seven stages. Carnal, Evil-Commanding Soul; the Self-Condemning or Self-Accusing Soul; the Soul Receiving Inspiration; the Soul at Rest; the Soul Well-Pleased (with God, with however God treats it); the Soul Pleasing (to God); and the Perfected Soul, or the Purified or Innocent Soul.

Carnal, Evil-Commanding Soul (nafs ammara) is the one which always gives in, at any time, to its urges. It does what it wants and is thus completely satisfied, just like an animal. The Self-Condemning Soul (nafs lawwama). While this soul still acts like an animal and is not really under control, it has at least developed an ability to see where it fails. The Soul Receiving Inspiration (nafs mulhima) is potentially able to turn away from its urges to the good.

One step higher is the soul is the soul at rest (nafs mutmainna). It has come to trust its owner, and its owner trusts it. It is as quiet and peaceful as the calm sea. A soul that has reached this level has a good character and a good personality.

But it can go even higher: the Soul Well-Pleased (nafs radiyya) is fully satisfied with what it receives from its Creator. It is a magnificent specimen of satisfaction and inner gratitude. And the Soul Pleasing (nafs mardiya) is a soul with which God is fully satisfied. A soul at this level has passed its test in this world.

The highest level is the seventh stage: the Purified Soul (nafs kamila). This soul is, from head to toe, thoroughly trained, mature, and grown up.

Self-education is climbing up these levels as one purifies his or her soul. The goal in this struggle is to master one’s soul and one good way of an exercise is to face one’s own self every night before sleep about how the day was spent. Umar, the third Caliph, has been reported to have said, “Settle up your accounts before you are called to account for them.”

This is not an easy struggle, for the soul will strongly resist being mastered. Thus, it’s best to start slowly, with an accounting of wrong deeds. But over time, we should step up our efforts. We will probably have to win several battles until we get used to this kind bedtime. But the battle will be worth it.

At the beginning, be prepared for heated discussions. But it is possible to always be one step ahead of the soul; it can be unmasked with rational and moral arguments. On the other hand, it will not be easily dissuaded from its primitive justifications, which can disturb our peace of mind, over and over again. The soul behaves like a child, and children can sometimes be very annoying. We just have to be very patient and cannot get worked up. Then, we will notice how it fades after a few weeks. But beware: it will continue to lie in wait for a favorable moment in which we think we are safe, and then it will strike with a redoubled force. It never gives up.

One of the best ways to defeat the carnal soul is to not give it any time. We are the masters of our body, and thus can determine our daily schedule. In other words, consider planning the day in advance – with objects and things that need to get done, and with the necessary breaks and rest periods; nothing is more tempting and constructive for the soul than haphazard time, boredom, and aimless wandering. The best way to combat the soul is by keeping it busy.

Another part of controlling the soul is a good diet. Modern nutritionists can argue about fasting, which is prescribed in many faith traditions, but one thing is certain: no one recommends an unhealthy diet. It does no good for the soul or body. The carnal soul may like unhealthiest food the best. Moreover, it also loves to eat too much. But overweight people are living unhealthy lives and have a higher risk of falling ill earlier, and faster. Obesity is a disease, and if the body is not healthy and fit, we can’t expect our soul to be healthy, either. To educate the soul, we must change and rein in our eating habits.

A healthy and balanced diet is preferable, and it is best to cook with fresh ingredients. A healthy diet means eating vegetables and legumes, drinking plenty of water, and avoiding sweets or fast food. If you always eat only when you feel hungry, and stop eating before you are completely sated, you’ll be amazed how much easier life is when your body finds its balance.

A good school for our soul is ultimately life itself, despite all its difficulties and trials. When we fall short, we must not be too depressed. We must try to recognize the blessing in it. As an example, briefly imagine a millionaire who went bankrupt, and was thus forced to lead a simple life. He may think his life is ending. But when he looks at it more closely, he might finally find more time for his family, eat less, and lose his ego. It’s best if we can self-educate. But if we cannot educate ourselves, life will do it for us.

References

• Eren, Sadi; Olaylar ve Örneklerle Nefis Teribiyesi, Istanbul 2011
• Schöpflin, Karin; „Seele II Altes Testament“, in: Theologische Realenzyklopädie, Bd. 30, Berlin 1999
• Wolff, Hans Walter; Anthropologie des Alten Testaments, 4. Auflage, München 1984
• Gülen, M. Fethullah; Sufismus 3, Mörfelden-Walldorf 2005.

Translated from German by Jennifer Sengun

The human immune system responds to viral infections in two ways. The first is the innate immune system. It is the first line of defense in our body and the only one that exists in many multi-cellular organisms. It involves certain kinds of immune cells that recognize pathogens. These cells immediately attack and ultimately destroy the infection-causing microbes. One may find the classical video showing a macrophage engulfing a bacterial cell interesting (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnlULOjUhSQ). However, the innate immune system is not specific and does not form a memory against infections.

The second and more specific type of immune system is called the adaptive immune system. As the name suggests, it is specific and can build immunity against certain kinds of infection. Compared to the innate immune system, it is slower, but its high specificity makes it a powerful defense mechanism. The adaptive immune system is present only in jawed vertebrates, as it requires several macromolecular systems, which are found only in more complex organisms.

One of the main parts of these complex molecular systems forming the adaptive immunity is called the antigen processing. This refers to the presence of small particles on the cell surface. This process requires the transportation of these antigens from the inside to the outside surface of the cell. The plasma membrane of the cell is semi-permeable to chemicals and small molecules. Only small, uncharged, hydrophobic molecules can diffuse through these membranes. However, antigens are usually small pieces of proteins that are charged. Therefore, the transport of antigens through the plasma membrane is not an easy task. This difficult task is done by a special transporter, called the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP).

In order to transport antigens across the membrane, TAP uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as its energy source. For almost a half century, scientists tried to understand how these molecules transport their substrates across membranes [1]. Although biochemical studies have taught us a lot, there is still more to be discovered. Years of research resulted in different models that explain how TAP works and why it needs energy. A recent finding helped to shape the working model to its current form, while also explaining that very important question: why does TAP need energy?

The working model of membrane transport assumes that TAP has two main conformations [2]. In one of the conformations, the antigen binding site is open to one side of the membrane. In the other conformation, the binding site is open to the other side of the membrane. This allows the antigen to be transported from one side of the membrane to the other. However, one major question this model raises is why TAP doesn’t allow the antigen to leak back.

This would be a deadly issue if it was the case for the cell. We know that this does not happen, but we don’t know why it doesn’t happen. Scientists have been trying to tweak their models to fit a one-way transport mechanism.

The recent study mentioned above showed that TAP works in one direction only, confirming the predictions. The study also addressed why TAP needs energy, i.e., ATP hydrolysis. Energy is needed to ensure that the antigens do not leak back. This finding also makes sense when other transporters that do not need energy are considered, simply because they can work in both directions. In short, TAP uses energy only when it “swallows” the antigens to the other side of the membrane while making sure they don’t leak back.

The proper functioning of TAP is critical for human health. Genes encoding TAP have been shown to have nearly 100 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the variations in the human genome. Some of these SNPs cause immune deficiencies in certain individuals or populations. These SNP studies further highlight the importance of TAP.

The story told above is taking place in our cells all the time. Even when we fall ill and rest in bed, the adaptive immune system and TAP fulfill their roles and help our body recover.

References

1. Jardetzky, O., Simple allosteric model for membrane pumps. Nature, 1966. 211(5052): p. 969-70.
2. Grossmann, N., et al., Mechanistic determinants of the directionality and energetics of active export by a heterodimeric ABC transporter. Nat Commun, 2014. 5: p. 5419.