Many respected thinkers claim that a new era based on artificial intelligence (AI) will follow and ultimately succeed us as the primary inhabitants of our planet [www.bbc.com/news/technology-30290540]. Their main rationale is that AI will exceed our limited human intelligence, and machines will ultimately transcend us in their capabilities. AI has already entered our lives with our smart phones (e.g., voice recognition software, like Siri), Google’s search predictions, Netflix’s movie recommendations, your major bank’s fraud-detection algorithms, and many other ways. In the very near future, we will likely see self-driving cars on the streets, drone-based delivery of online purchases, and ‘smart’ machinery for our households. It’s certain that AI based algorithms will substitute or at least help humans in performing certain tasks. In fact, they already have. But will advances in artificial intelligence research eventually allow humanoid robots to surpass us, not only in specific tasks, but in all ways?

A little history

The Industrial Revolution, in the early nineteenth century, and subsequent socio-economic developments, inevitably pushed the course of human culture towards a computerized future. In the Victorian era, financial institutions had started to carry out millions of transactions per year. Large populations needed to be surveyed and governmental censuses required the processing of millions of records. Increases in manufacturing and trade required constant bookkeeping. Such tasks were manually carried out by employed clerks. However, the advent of large-scale data required a much more efficient and effective means of data processing.

It was this need that caused an engineer named Herman Hollerith to develop a mechanical system for data processing in the late nineteenth century. Hollerith commercialized his invention by establishing the Tabulating Machine Company, in 1896, which later gave birth to IBM.

Such mechanical devices carried out specific tasks very efficiently and replaced error-prone human computers (clerks) in processing large amounts of data. But more importantly, they attracted mathematicians’ interest in defining what a “task” is and what was computable by such devices. This led to the rigorous formulation of the “algorithm,” the task or process a machine carries out, in the early twentieth century. Several tools and celebrated theorems were introduced during these years to describe computability: the Lambda-calculus, Church’s thesis, the Turing machine, Godel’s incompleteness theorem…

The pioneering work of Claude Shannon’s A Mathematical Theory of Communication, in 1948, laid the foundations of digital communication. With the invention of the transistor, data was transferred into a digital format, and digital machines or “computers” based on the Turing machine model were developed. Electronic productions were becoming cheap, ultimately enabling computers to be affordable for the public. Apple was established in the 1970s to sell personal computers (PCs). During this same era, Microsoft was also founded as a company providing software solutions for the newly emerging PC market. With the commercialization of the Internet in the 1990s, the need for content search engines was on the rise. As such, Google was founded by two PhD students from Stanford.

Today, the aforementioned companies are among the largest in the world. One common pattern in all of them is that their founders were successful in reading the global trends and aware of the course of scientific developments. With tenacity and talent, their companies were able to rise to the top of the financial heap in a short amount of time.

The era of AI?

There is a recent trend in investing in AI. Google has recently acquired many of the world’s leading robotics firms, including Boston Dynamics. Amazon, Facebook, and Microsoft are all investing in machine learning, with the hope of pushing their businesses into the future. The number of AI startups has exploded in the last few years, capitalizing on over 300 million dollars from investors in 2014, up more than 20-fold compared to four years prior [www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-03/i-ll-be-back-the-return-of-artificial-intelligence].

Many scholars point out that an AI revolution is taking place and that staying relevant in tomorrow’s world requires acting today. Of course, some philosophers and scientists are arguing that AI poses a threat to our very existence. Could machines inherit our human capabilities and replace us as the predominant, intelligent form on Earth?

According to Said Nursi, the progress of human civilization and scientific development is God’s desire in humankind “to make manifest and display in the view of the people the majesty of His rule… the wonders of His art, and the marvels of His knowledge, and so that He could behold His beauty and perfection.” In achieving this, God has created mankind as the vicegerent of the earth, and He has bestowed us with remarkable abilities. As a manifestation of this, humankind has established civilizations by using our social-cultural advancements and dominion over our natural environment. Thus, knowingly or not, humanity has excellently displayed and made known the miraculous art and divine-attributes of our Maker.

From a religious viewpoint, does this forecast of intelligent machines surpassing human abilities contradict the purpose of humankind as the vicegerent of the earth? Does it also contradict humanity’s status as the most superior creation of God? What does science tell us?

We know that the Turing machine, on which modern computers are based, has serious limitations. In 1900, the famous mathematician David Hilbert published a list of problems which was unsolved at the time. The tenth problem asked for a general algorithm to determine whether a given Diophantine equation with integer coefficients has an integer solution. We now know that no such algorithm exists. Similarly, in the 1930s, Turing himself put forth that the halting problem (whether the Turing machine halts or not) is undecidable – i.e., it is impossible to construct an algorithm that always leads to a correct yes-or-no answer.

At the time, many also argued about whether the Turing machine was the ultimate mathematician. The question was: given a list of axioms and some rules of logic, will a Turing machine be able to prove every mathematical statement? The rationale behind the idea was that, since all theorems are derived from a set of axioms and logic rules, the machine can eventually enumerate all possible theorems and thus validate the correctness of a given statement.

The question was answered just a few years after. The celebrated Godel’s incompleteness theorem simply states that in a consistent system, where statements are not true and false at the same time, we will have statements that we cannot decide the correct answer to. This theorem seriously dampened the enthusiasm of people overly excited about the capabilities of these new machines. Ever since Godel’s discovery, the computability theory has been used to research the limits of computation. It is well known that the current computing models, such as Turing and Quantum machines, have their ultimate limits.

Differing from computability theory, artificial intelligence is more concerned with developing algorithms that learn or adapt to their environment, allowing them to perform a particular task. Though such algorithms inherit the ultimate restriction of the computing model they operate on, computers can still be taught to perform certain tasks, such as visual/speech recognition. The technological advances in the last decades are mind blowing, as algorithms that perform certain tasks, such as human/face detection, already show great accuracy. However, we’re still far from the kind of robots we see in certain sci-fi movies or shows.

The question remains whether we can see progress in the near future of AI that will eventually allow machines to surpass humans in their skills. But what makes humans, well, human? The computability theory first requires defining, mathematically, what an algorithm is before developing machine models that function as instructed by such an algorithm. The lack of an answer to the question of what makes humans human thus contributes to the ever-continuing discussion of AI vs. humans. Denying our spiritual side will most likely cause people to continue to see AI as the next evolutionary step; whereas, given the undeniable spiritual capacity of humans, it is not wrong to state that although AI will increasingly dominate our lives, it will never fully replace us.

Bayram Kara – PhD Candidate studying in the areas of Machine Learning.

The interplay of both factors in determining one’s development has been agreed upon by many Muslim scholars who have contended that factors such as genetic predispositions, education, and spirituality play complementary roles in behavior. For instance, reports from the early Islamic period records Prophet Muhammad to have advised many times about making wise decisions when choosing a partner, as a marriage will influence the development of a newborn (Abdullah, 2011). On the other hand, the Prophet has also been cited regarding his emphasis on the role of the environment around a newborn and how this will impact them later in life.

Related to spirituality, the concept of the soul is important in the Islamic debate of nature vs. nurture (Abdullah, 2011). In Islam, humans are comprised of both the physique and the soul. The soul (nafs), according to the religion, is what differentiates humans from animals; it allows humans to use reason and intellect, whereas animals can only follow their natural instincts. Humans are capable of higher cognitive functions, which may result from education and spirituality, and are made possible by the existence of the soul.

In Christianity, the debate of nature vs. nurture does not end at just two divisions. The more Biblically accurate contextualization of human behaviors, according to the religion, comprises four divisions (Powlison, 1995). These divisions are creation-nature, sin-nature, sin-nurture, and grace-nurture. Basically, these divisions acknowledge that nature can be created by God (creation-nature) and by humans’ tendency to sin (sin-nature), while sinning can also be encouraged (sin-nurtured), just like behaviors that comply with what God wants (grace-nurture) can be encouraged.

While semantically Christianity’s stance in relation to the nature-versus-nurture debate is complex, it is practically similar to Islam, where spirituality (as in the concept of God) is one of the vital pillars in understanding the roots of human behaviors.

In Buddhism, spirituality is also seen as the focal point of human behaviors (The Neurobiologist’s Guide to Buddha, n.d.). However, spirituality, as conceived by Buddhism, comes from one’s mind, and it seems that very little of the Buddhist philosophy is associated with the image of God (Olson, 2002). This is how the concept of spirituality in Buddhism differs from the one in Christianity and Islam: Buddhism emphasizes the role of the mind, especially in the state of enlightenment, which is when worldly characteristics such as desire, anger, and passion are eliminated.

The interaction between nature and nurture is explained in one disease model called the Diathesis Stress Model (Zuckerman, 1999). This model asserts that every individual is born with a certain level of vulnerability to certain diseases (though this level does not mean they have the disease). This level can be high or it can be low. Then, the influence of the environment – or the interaction between person and surroundings – will influence the likelihood of a person actually getting such diseases. Mental health experts have attempted to explain schizophrenia, depression, and other diseases through this lens. Some scientists claim that everyone is born with a risk to become schizophrenic. If their tendency towards schizophrenia is low, then a high degree of influence by stressful external factors is required for the symptoms of schizophrenia to manifest, and vice versa.

Crime is another important issue in the nature versus nurture debate. When discussing crime, we can rarely escape discussing aggression. Aggression is a trait in almost all individuals, and it can be influenced by both nature and nurture. Some factors leading to aggression are levels of aggression-related hormones, such as testosterone, or the existence of certain forms of genetic code that are deviant from normal structures. Various studies have shown that there are particular genetic codes that are more prevalent among arrested offenders (e.g. McDermott, Tingley, Cowden, Frazzetto, & Johnson, 2009; Tiihonen, et al., 2015). This shows that some people can be born with the inclination towards being aggressive, but it is also undeniable that aggression can be developed through external influences.

In a well-known experiment, Bandura, a psychologist, tried to explain that children can be taught to be aggressive (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961). The experiment involved putting children in a room with a television where the television showed a model doing something to a doll named Bobo. The children were split into three groups: in group one, the children watched the doll being hit; in group two, the children saw the doll being played with non-aggressively; and in the last group, the children saw nothing (this served as a control group). Then, all three groups were led to a room where there was a similar doll, and the researchers observed what the children did to the doll.

The findings showed that aggressive imitation was observed to be high in group one, suggesting that behaviors could be learnt upon observations. This group’s behaviors were similar to how the aggressive models behaved towards the doll, while the other groups manifested little aggressive behaviors towards the doll. This study supports the theory that environmental, or external, factors shape the development and acquisition of at least certain behaviors.

Intelligence is another hotly debated subject in the nature vs. nurture debate. Earlier presumptions favored the role of nature in being the most influential factor in determining an individual’s intelligence (Leahy, 1935). However, as scholars further investigated the topic, they found that intelligence is not as simple as once thought. While some argued that both nature and nurture have an equal level of influence (Holzinger, 1929), others observed that external factors such as culture may play a bigger role (Kan, Wicherts, Dolan, & van der Maas, 2013).

One of the most important implications of the debate about nature vs. nurture is the implication of accountability. While accountability can be a different issue altogether, many have argued that determining the root cause of human behavior entails determining if humans are accountable for their actions. Take the example of an offender who has the genetic markers prevalent among offenders: does this make the offender not accountable for the crime he/she has committed? Is someone with low intelligence doomed to possess that level of intelligence for the rest of their life?

In conclusion, nature and nurture both influence how humans work and acquire certain characteristics and behaviors. Since science has spent a considerable amount of effort in resolving the debate, it can be concluded that the answers are not simple. Just as human dynamics are variegated, the issue of nature and nurture also reflects the complexity of the human world. Further systematic research into the issue should be conducted, as the debate has implications for many aspects of life. Further studies could provide invaluable benefit to humanity.

References

• Abdullah, F. (2011). Human behavior from an Islamic perspective: interaction of nature, nurture and spiritual dimension. The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 28, 87-105.
• Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-82.
• Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196, 129-136. Holzinger, K. J. (1929). The relative effect of nature and nurture influences on twin differences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 20, 241-248.
• Kan, K., Wicherts, J. M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Maas, H. (2013). On the nature and nurture of intelligence and specific cognitive abilities: The more heritable, the more culture dependent. Psychological Science, 24, 2420 –2428. Leahy, A. M. (1935).
• Nature-nurture and intelligence. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 17, 236-308. McDermott, R., Tingley, D., Cowden, J., Frazzetto, G., & Johnson, D. (2009).
• Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 2118.
• Olson, R. P. (2002). Religious theories of personality and sychotherapy: East meets West. Psychology Press. Powlison, D. (1995).
• Anger part 1: Understanding anger. The Journal of Biblical Counseling, 14. Rowland, J. H., & Baker, F. (2005).
• Introduction: Resilience of cancer survivors across the lifespan. Cancer, 104, 2543–2645.
• The Neurobiologist’s Guide to Buddha. (n.d.). Nature or nurture? Retrieved from The Neurobiologist’s Guide to Buddha: http://www.biojuris.com/buddha/topics.html
• Tiihonen, J., Rautiainen, M. R., Ollila, H. M., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Virkkunen, M., Palotie, A., . . . Paunio, T. (2015). Genetic background of extreme violent behavior. Molecular Psychiatry, 20, 786-792.
• Zuckerman, M. (1999). Vulnerability to psychopathology: A biosocial model. Washington: American Psychological Association.

Once considered a beacon of hope for the Middle East, Turkey has been rapidly backsliding on issues of democracy, freedom of the press, and human rights. One would have thought this downfall hit bottom on July 15, when a bloody coup was attempted, leaving behind more than 250 dead. We mourn with the Turkish nation for those who lost their lives and wholeheartedly condemn this violent action. Yet, many questions are still hanging in the air about this weird attempt, which was, at best, unfavorably démodé and useless on all fronts – and at worst, dangerously foolish. To provide one glaring example, the plotters shut down the state-run TV network and one other private channel while there were still hundreds of other local and national networks broadcasting live. This tactic worked in 1980, when the Turkish chief of staff appeared on the only available network and made the coup announcement, but it failed terribly in 2016, when nearly every country in the world has access to hundreds of channels – not to mention the internet. This failure would have been laughable, were it not for the very real tragedy that followed the amateurish attempt. 

Whatever the tactics, the coup is over; democracy, if what Turkey has is a democracy, is back. So, what is the deal with The Fountain?

The coup was followed by an immediate response from Turkish President Erdogan, who announced in the first few hours, while the coup was still underway, that Mr. Fethullah Gülen and the Hizmet movement inspired by his teachings were the actors behind the plot. The President did not present any evidence implicating Mr. Gülen or Hizmet, but Mr. Erdogan has blamed Hizmet for nearly every problem he’s encountered over the previous three years – though he has never once provided any evidence in support of his charges.

There is not space in this editorial to detail all the reasons behind Erdogan’s hatred of Hizmet, but what is clear is that his crackdown on the movement started in December 2013, when he and his close circle of ministers and family members were implicated in a massive corruption scandal. Blaming Hizmet for revealing his own government’s corruption, President Erdogan began cracking down on those he considered to be his enemies – journalists, academics, judges, and more – all under the guise of “purging” Hizmet members from civil service organizations. No evidence of wrongdoing has ever been provided; suspicion, or perhaps a mean Tweet, was enough to ruin a person’s livelihood.

After this most recent coup attempt, the crackdown took a new turn as Erdogan ordered the closure of thousands of schools, hospitals, dormitories, and charities; fired tens of thousands of teachers, doctors, and public servants; and arrested tens of thousands of citizens who, it would seem, had already been listed as associated with the movement before the coup attempt. Many newspapers, TV channels, and other publications have been ordered to close in Turkey, including The Fountain.

The President declared a state of emergency, which will last for at least three months. This has allowed him to suspend universally binding laws and conventions. Already there are reports of torture, disappearances, deaths in custody, and arrests by association. Erdogan’s witch hunt has led to large scale defamations against a group of people, and it has infringed upon the right of thousands, perhaps millions, of people to live their lives freely. Not only have free speech and the rule of law been suspended, but so has the freedom to practice business. Law abiding companies have been seized as “spoils of war.” These are not episodes of a dystopian drama, but what is being “proudly” reported by the Turkish state-run media as “democracy.” This media, like the government, is under the control of one man: President Erdogan.

The government’s crackdown has been as primitive and bloody as the coup attempt was amateurish and anachronistic. Yes, silencing The Fountain and other media outlets in Turkey may serve as another point scored against the Hizmet movement, but what is the cost of that “victory”? It runs completely against the basic principles of democracy – for democracy is not only about elections, but about freedom of speech, the rule of law, and the basic right of all law-abiding citizens to pursue a livelihood of their choosing. This kind of true, healthy democracy is dead in present-day Turkey.

Here we are, walking at the seaside… On one side, we are watching seagulls soar with the wind; and on the other, we are passing people fishing. We’re struck with this realization: though many people do not have the patience for a few minutes of prayer and contemplation, they can spend hours sitting still while fishing or watching a movie. As we go along, we see a person who is doing certain basic exercises and stretches. He looks concentrated, and rather abstracted from everything around him. He does not look like he needs to lose weight. We approach him to chat for a little while. “You look like you exercise regularly. It is a must for staying healthy, isn’t it?” “I try to do it as much as I can. But not just to stay healthy.”

“For what else?” “Regular exercise keeps the memory strong. Thus, it helps me memorize my prayers. Sports also make the physiological foundation of an innovative mind. To catch original ideas, to make extraordinary observations and assessments, you need sports. Exercise is also an effective medicine for habituation, which can impair a person’s thankfulness towards God and inhibit remembrance of Him. For example, one way to comprehend and feel the meanings of certain attributes of God is to try gymnastics. By trying to stand on a single foot, but always in a different position, you can experience God’s presence as being The Lord, One who perfects, One who adjusts, One who starts and maintains. By engaging in ever more challenging positions and durations, you can observe God as He grows the talent seeds that He planted in your body. Thus, you can better appreciate the equilibrium of existence with every fiber of your muscles.”

We leave this person to his “worship” and decide to have a seat at the café behind him. As we wait for our tea and cookies, our eyes are drawn to the paintings on the wall. After a few minutes, our order comes, and we start chatting with the waiter:

“The paintings on the wall are rather interesting. Where did you get them?” “They are not purchased. They are my own work. Everyone working at this café is an artist, too. The music in the background, for example, is a recording made by some of my coworkers. If you look at the chairs, none of them has the same carvings as another. Each of them, again, the handiwork of one of our employees. The designs on the tiles on the floor have been worked on individually, and none of them is the same as another.”

Upon hearing these words, we are pleased to be in an exquisite and rare place like this – but we are also a little embarrassed for having stepped and sat on such art work! “If you opened an exhibition or commercialized these, you could make some real money.”

“Maybe! But our purpose in making our art isn’t for trade or proving something to others. We make art because the flourishing and fruition of the talent seeds embedded in us please the real Owner of our talents. We are making this art so that those who look upon them can reflect on the originals in nature and, thus, can appreciate the real Artist, who is also our Creator. And in creating art, we feel like we are witnessing that real Artist at work.”

Following these words, the waiter leaves us alone with our servings. As we take a bite, we catch a glimpse of a small truck waiting outside. Looking at the cement and tiles in its trunk, it’s clear it is there for maintenance or some minor construction. However, there is nothing around that needs maintenance. We stop the waiter again and ask:

“Excuse me for a minute. What are these materials in the back of the truck for?” “Part of our café is going to be demolished, and in its stead, there is going to be an addition to another part.”

“Why? I cannot see anything wrong with what is already here.” “It is not because something is wrong. The land on which this café is established is constant, but the location of the café is continuously changing. By demolishing one side and adding to another side, the café is shifted little by little every year. There is a fifty-year cycle over the entire land. This means that our customers fifty years from now are going to be able to sit at the same place again. But even then, they are not going to find the same café, because the tiles are going to have different designs, and the songs will have changed.” Faced with such an extraordinary answer, we are shocked. But still, there is a question unanswered:

“But why?” “Because we are afraid of becoming a veil before the eyes of the people due to the constancy of our works.” “This much sensitivity may be okay, but how do you fund such works?”

“This café is not just a café. At the same time, it is a venue for exhibitions and concerts. It also serves as a model, and pictures of it are often taken and published in books or magazines. This place also functions as a rehabilitation center, and the patients prefer this setting over the depressive atmosphere of the hospital corridors. Aside from these, there are also contributions of those who support this effort.” “What do you mean? People are contributing to something that is going to be demolished the following year?”

“Why does it surprise you that people are donating to a sincere and spiritually guided project, when you don’t feel surprised that they are investing in a worldly life that is certain to end at an uncertain time?” This answer, once again, fixes us in our seats. Behind the smile on our faces, our brains freeze and boil at the same time. Right then, the waiter steps aside a little, and orders another cup of tea for us with a voice that hardly differs from a whisper. But that voice echoes everywhere. The acoustic design inside leaves us in waves of awe. All of a sudden, a miracle happens: a window opens from the wall next to our table, and we are served a fresh, hot cup of tea. When that window closes, we realize a feeling that is creeping into our minds. Are we going crazy, or is there something strange going on here? As we are about to turn our inquisitive gazes towards the waiter, we find out that she is not there anymore. The volume of the music in the background also fades out. That truck that had parked outside so silently makes a great roar and starts moving away. Then we see that little paper on our plate: the bill. We cannot save ourselves from the guilt that is caused by the suspicion that those inquisitive thoughts a minute ago might have caused the unique experience to end.

We leave quickly after paying. In order to secure some distance and to be able look back, we walk towards the bus stop ahead. But still, there is a question in our minds: if we returned, would we see the same extraordinariness, or would those inquisitive looks of ours follow us? At the bus stop, we start staring at that café. Unlike our expectation, we were not hallucinating; it is still there! Then, we are distracted by an announcement posted on the glass:

“Are we inventing math or discovering it?” The poster has visuals about the applications of pi, e, and the golden ratio. They act as if mathematics is the discovery of an already existing order by humans. This is just like the art at the café: they were meant to be an instrument for the discovery of the art already present in nature! We are engulfed in a joy of discovery. We head back to the café to donate to the project …

The etymology of these crises that encompass our people and our world like an incubus reaches to the post-Renaissance period of the West, in which spiritual values were mocked in derision, the past was condescended, and the metaphysical was chased away from houses of knowledge. Carnal desires were idolized, self-interest and egos were motivated, the soul was sacrificed for the body, the heart for the throat, and thought for demagoguery, and humans were turned into material beings. These were not the vices of the Renaissance itself; rather, they came about through its misuse and and the misuse of every independent thought that were born out of it. As such, the masses were, day in and day out, turned into ego-centered heaps devoid of any scope. They were oriented towards mere the material comfort of the physical world and strayed away from spiritual and humanistic values. Such a schism means disconnecting a person from their very essence. This is a break that causes a person to become a mess of problems.

Because of all this, nations are in twists and turns. Individuals and families are tangled in a web of disintegration; democratic “mass organizations” are helpless and panicked. Important measures are overturned. At the epicenter of these terrifying tremors, families and their youth are miserable, their beliefs and ethics damaged. Many people’s hopes have been consumed by malediction. Others are driven solely by corruption, and the desire to defame and darken the hopes of the faithful.
In this environment, evil is free to roam about. Society is bent double and is hemorrhaging blood. Those who are in a position to give directions are lost in a state of indolence.

Hearts are merciless, emotions are ragged, desires are servile.
The meaning that flows from gazes is full of contempt for the servants of God. (Mehmet Akif)

While society waits for competent hands to offer solutions to its problems, these problems and hardships are being used by certain groups to attain certain things and to reach certain positions; they are used to defame and dispose of groups not wanted by those in power. A great deal of national suffering is being used for political gain. Beside all these, it can be said that there are certain positive efforts being made; however, they are limited to the individual strivings of a small group of intellectuals alongside the passive reaction of a few others. On the other hand, a great majority of people expect everything from the hands of the government or are indulged in the wishful thinking that everything will be sorted out by an amazing hand of favor.

In reality, however, alongside the government and rulers, many responsibilities fall upon volunteer organizations and, in fact, upon every single individual. In this regard, fighting against ignorance, challenging certain wrongs through education, enlightening thought through modern science and knowledge, and enabling souls to connect with God by representing and suggesting the truth of religion in its originality are the vital points that must be focused on to remedy all of our social ills. Presently, the general situation is bound for an immediate movement of spiritual reconstruction and development.

Harvesting the fruit of such a blessed movement will always be possible to the extent that the elite, the distinguished intellectuals – the learned and prominent figures of society – help and support its advance. This movement of distinguished individuals, directed completely towards values of faith, society, and ethics, will certainly reach its goal, one day or the other, and our society will break free from despair.

It all comes down to our intellectuals taking advantage of every means, from education to media, to infuse the fabric of our society with our essential spiritual and historical values. Indeed, it will be enough for those architects of thought, who will reconstruct our future, to channel our material and machine-locked worlds a little towards spiritual life, and the metaphysical and spiritual values contained therein. True suffering is being starved for these values, and until this hunger is sated, it will be impossible to truly become satisfied. That is why, if the individual is not fed with the truth that comes about from their nature and their past, he or she will continue with negative pursuits and will search for solutions in the least possible places, delve into legends and superstitions, and, all the while, everything that he or she encounters will increase their despair.

It is in this sense that, as a society, we must not give way to excessive materialism, the domination of materialistic thought over our people, the erosion of the truth of religion, or the elimination of our cultural traditions. While we must, on one hand, stand firm and serious about this matter, we must also, on the other hand, always keep our interpersonal relations alive; starting from within, and expanding it to the whole world, we must always take deep breaths of tolerance and call others to dialogue. We must accept differences with forbearance, respect every thought and idea, concentrate on education, and must not draw back from any self-sacrifice in this cause. Not only that, we must, once more, look over the sources which nurture our system of thought, and, by reinterpreting our times, over and over, through the spectrums of reason, experience, and revelation, we must construct a new society that is open to advancement, a society that is a believer in knowledge and wisdom, and full of respect for the conscience.

Such a vital formation is, of course, going to be in need of certain heroes, heroes that are civilized and precious enough to be able to act selflessly for the sake of the cause they believe in. Every change and transformation is like stepping from one sphere onto another, like jumping over an insurmountable precipice, and such an attempt can certainly not be without danger. Even the smallest and ordinary attempts carry certain risks, let alone the risks associated with efforts of great measure. After all, we did not come to this world to realize and live out our own bliss. If we do bear such intentions, we must certainly break free of it; in order to be able to promise bliss to those around us, especially the future generations, we must say “farewell!” to the personal pleasure of life and must awaken in ourselves a love of keeping others alive. This is the most sacred purpose of our existence. We are indebted, even if only a little, to those who came and went before us, the heroic representatives of God’s good favor and grace, who jumped into danger time and time again in order to build such a world for us. We are indebted for the values, assets, and things which we hold sacred and cherish today. And, naturally, it is our obligation to take all the values we have been handed from those before us and, as trustworthy human beings true to their trust, pass them on to those who will come after us, even if it means at the expense of our own lives.

Every civilization, to this day, has been the work of a couple dozen heroes. And, henceforward, it will always be so. Our world today, broken apart by various storms and diseases, will reach the old rose-colored days, the full-mooned nights, the future that effervesces with clouds of love where revivals will take place one after another; it will all be reached by the virtue of such heroes.

Answer: When a believer experiences some fiascos on the path he walks, faces some allegations and slanders that taint his honor and reputation, or experiences some failures in certain activities that seemed likely to succeed, he should view each of these events as a Divine warning and use self-criticism to revise his relationship with God and servanthood to Him.

The cost of centuries-long negligence

We fail to “read” the meaning of events, as they sometimes are not favorable with what we desire. We fail to discern, and thus cannot establish, the connection between events and our deeds. As beings immersed in a world of causality, we mostly think in accordance with the cause and effect principle and say; “The punishment for that event must have been so and so.”  However, things happen in accordance with the mystery of Divine testing. In this regard, if one does not view events with the keen eye of wisdom, one fails to discern their connection with people’s deeds.

What falls to us is to be respectful of God’s decrees and judgments, to see the troubles and misfortunes that befall us as our just desserts, and to accept them with patience and resignation. In fact, we are supposed to view events in this way and question ourselves in the face of every trouble we experience by saying; “I wonder what kind of a fault I have that God has sent me this trouble?”  This does not signify a rebellious attitude against Divine destiny to insolently say; “I did not commit any wrongs to deserve all this!” As the former signifies viewing events as Divine warnings and straightening oneself out, the latter signifies an implicit rebellion against the decree of Divine destiny in a mood of weariness in order to escape difficulties and troubles. What really matters for a real believer is being able to think; “Which fault and sin of mine may have given precedent to such trouble?”

Concerning a football match for example; if you are not present in the parts of the field you are supposed to be as much as you should, namely, if you do not have any presence near the goal, nor in the midfield or sides, then you do not have any right to say; “How come they keep scoring goals all the time?” In order to be saved from this situation, firstly you need to see your flaws and determine whether you really deserve this result or not.  If you did not assign your players to the right places, if you did not plan what kind of a game to play through them, and did not play your part accordingly, then it means you are receiving your just desserts.

In the same way, as representatives of rectitude and honesty, if you have neglected different areas of life and left them to others’ hands, then you must criticize yourself first in the face of certain troubles that befall you. If you are not present everywhere in terms of rectitude and uprightness, then you cannot put a stop to the spread of corruption. If you are not present anywhere, you will be completely surrounded and obliged to live in subjugation. Even though you think you are living in a free society, you will actually be living in manifold captivity. You can neither act freely as an individual, nor maintain peace in your family within the frame of the values you believe, nor can you raise your children in the way you desire.

If we view the issue worldwide and evaluate the present miserable condition of Muslims today, we see with the same perspective that they cannot play the game as required by the rules and cannot fulfill the duties that fall to them. God willing, by avoiding complaining and by pinpointing the source of the problem correctly, this suffering will be a compensation for the sins of all of us. In this regard, misfortunes have this aspect of being a blessing in disguise. Manifestations of God’s general and particular mercy reveal themselves there as well.

The spiritual guides that interpret the meaning of events

Although we say, “believers are responsible for ‘reading’ the meaning of events correctly,” we need to accept as a reality that it is not possible for all believers to have insight into an issue to the same degree and depth, or to fully comprehend them. For this reason, it is very important for there to be spiritual guides who can view and interpret unfolding events with a comprehensive perspective, with relation to the actual causes and effects. They must analyze very well the reasons for the troubles being suffered, approach matters with the consideration of causality, reckon very well what kind of negative consequences could be suffered from the mistakes that have been made, and give people the right guidance on these issues.

By looking at the conditions of the time that he lived and his available means, it is seen that he was put under serious pressure and was impeded from taking action. However, despite all of these difficulties, he did what needed to be done and evoked in people a serious concern and excitement for the sake of Islam. It is not possible to take action without such excitement. You cannot realize anything for the sake of your ideals with stagnant people. Nevertheless, it is also necessary to moderate excitement within the proper framework of religious teachings. In other words, on the one hand, it is necessary to evoke excitement in people like roaring floods, but on the other hand, it is also necessary to set boundaries to balance this excitement and turn it into something beneficial; it is necessary to build proper canals and dams.

Negligence

The devoted souls in our time extend to the four corners of the world for the sake of their noble ideals and make efforts for the sake of realizing a new resurrection. However, this time people who act with a feeling of rivalry and envy have begun to obstruct them on the path they walk. Instead of finding a way of their own and walking accordingly, these people who act with a feeling of rivalry cause problems for the devoted souls on the path they walk and give way to traffic problems. Without letting others survive, they greedily want to exist in all fields. Thus, they wish to hamper in such ways a movement that has reached our time with its defects and shortcomings.

By the way, let me point out that it is also very important for believers to present behavior that is becoming to them against the rude and ugly acts of such transgressors. For it may not always be possible to maintain balance in the face of such oppression and violations. You might lose the uprightness of your feelings and thoughts at least. For example, some people become fixed on doing you harm and continually try to dig a pit for you. However, a day comes in the end and, even if you have no part in the issue, others dig a pit for them and cause them to fall down into it. In the face of such a situation, it is not becoming for you to say; “It serves them right! They have received their just desserts.” Also, if you depend on such a consideration, console yourself with it, and neglect the tasks you are supposed to carry out, then it means you are breaching the essential human values of our path and failing to keep up your rectitude of character.

The Qur’anic verse with the following meaning actually points to this fact: “…Do not let those who lack certainty (of this truth) shake your firmness” (Rum 30:60). By expounding on the meaning of this verse, we can say: Some casual behaviors of those who lack certainty in faith as an outward reflection of their character must not cause you to act casually as well; they should not divert you from the way you follow, not cause you to present certain negative attitudes against them in return, and not cause arrhythmia in you. As it happens with the heart, once the rhythm of societal life is upset, it is not possible to correct it without the effect of a shock. Sometimes even shocks do not suffice, but the body cannot tolerate arrhythmia and collapses. For this reason, it is necessary to act cautiously on this issue from the very beginning.

It is necessary to make one’s best effort for the sake of establishing the unity of social spirit and maintaining society-wide concord and unity. Note that the means of receiving Divine support is having concord and unity. In this regard, it is very important for people with different dispositions and affiliations to meet on common ground and give support to one another. At least, they should not turn against one another, should not accost one another with negative things, and should not try to bring one another down. Having done that, they should seek ways of acting together, realizing some projects in cooperation, and defending others as well to a certain degree, just as they support those who share the same opinions as them. Namely, they must find a reasonable and logical way of agreement to enable coming together. This depends on people giving their willpower its due and suppressing some negative feelings that arise within. It should never be forgotten that such an endeavor will gain people blessings as if they observed worship. Even if the other side lacks understanding of this issue, we should do what falls to us, without harming the collective we are included in. In the words of Bediuzzaman, a person’s seeing his own path as a good one and loving it much does not necessitate showing enmity to others.

Some of the food we take in are used for our body heat. The amount of food reserved for heat is maximum in babies, which goes down as the child grows.

Food taken in in the form of carbohydrates, fat, and proteins are broken down to be captured by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecule. Energy is converted into ATP to be fueled to where it is needed. This conversion takes place in the mitochondrion, a membrane-bound organelle, during which almost 35% of energy is transformed to heat. The energy-protein synthesis in ATP are utilized for various functions like muscle contraction, transportation of some materials from external and inner organelle membranes, secretions from glands, forming the rest state potential for nerves, and conveying the signals across nerve fibers. During these functions another 38% of energy is released as heat. Thus a total of 73% of energy is converted to heat, while body functions consume only the remaining 27%, a great majority of which is also turned into heat through muscle movements and friction in tissues.

Other factors that increase body heat are shiver, heart pumping blood, friction in the veins, lungs expanding and contracting during breathing, tissue surfaces rubbing against each other, stomach and intestine activities. All of these contribute to maintaining the body heat at a certain level. Deeper tissues in our body are kept at ± 0,6 0C. Exercise and being nervous may contribute to increase in body heat, and obviously extreme cold outside would decrease it.

Metabolism is the combination of two kinds of chemical reactions: constructive metabolism and destructive metabolism. For example, the synthesis of proteins from amino acids is constructive metabolism, and the breakdown of proteins to amino acids and then to energy is destructive metabolism. When our metabolism increases, the body heat is also increased.

While under psychological conditions like pressure, excitement, and fear, metabolism increases, sympathetic nerves are triggered, and adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones from suprarenal gland are secreted into the blood. These will further increase the metabolism and body heat (chemical thermogenesis).

Another group of hormones that is effective on chemical thermogenesis is thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). When we feel cold, the secretion of TRH (Thyrotropin-releasing hormone) from hypothalamus is increased. This hormone is brought through blood veins to pituitary front lobe to start TSH (thyroid stimulant hormone) secretion. TSH has a role to increase the secretion of T3 and T4. These two hormones generate a rise in metabolism and thus body heat.

The brown fat tissue has a key role that relates metabolism increase to body heat. This issue is found in large amounts in the newborn babies, especially in their back on the upper half of the spine, and is functional for almost two years. What distinguishes this type of fat from white fat tissue are its unique qualities for the protection of the baby from hypothermia. In babies, the sympathetic system, adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones, and thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) increase the burning of food in mitochondria found in the brown fat tissue with oxygen. As opposed to other tissues, ATP is not produced as a result of this process in brown fat tissue. All the energy found in fat is transformed to heat.

Brown fat tissue is visible in some babies in between their shoulder blades. As the child grows, he or she can feel the changes in temperature and becomes strong enough to dress up, brown fat tissue disappears and is no longer visible. It is such a miracle that babies who are weak and in need of help are protected from cold and death with the wondrous capabilities given to the brown fat tissue.

Olkowicz S. et al. Birds have primate-like numbers of neurons in the forebrain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States. June, 2016.

Calling someone a “bird brain” is no longer an accurate insult to their intelligence. Although birds generally have small brains, a recent study showed that certain types of birds, such as parrots, songbirds, and ravens, have a surprisingly high number of neurons, the brain cells responsible for processing power, in their small brains. Researchers dissected 73 brains from 28 bird species, then dissolved them completely in a detergent solution. Once they obtained a homogenous solution of brain cells, they labeled and counted them to calculate the exact number of neurons in each part of the brain. They particularly focused on the forebrain region called the pallium, a structure of the bird brain that is analogous to the mammalian cerebral cortex. Their analyses revealed that neuronal sizes in bird brains were much smaller than expected, they displayed shorter but more compact connections between neurons, and in some birds, the pallium contained twice as many neurons, compared to primate brains of similar sizes. Scientists have always been puzzled that birds can be very smart yet have very small brains. For example, ravens are very intelligent, capable of using tools, planning ahead, and solving complex problems. While a direct link between number of neurons and cognitive ability has not been established, this study provides an explanation for the remarkably high cognitive power of some birds.

Bacteria as vaccine vessels

Li Y. et al. In situ pneumococcal vaccine production and delivery through a hybrid biological-biomaterial vector. Science Advances. July, 2016

The thought of ingesting Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria is probably not appealing to most of us, but what if it can be used to treat diseases?  E.coli is a rod-shaped bacterium that normally lives in the intestines of people and animals. Most E. coli strains are harmless, and are actually important for a healthy human intestinal tract. Researchers developed an E.-coli-based transport capsule to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the next generation of vaccines. The capsule is  generated by wrapping the positively charged synthetic polymer beta amino ester around the negatively charged bacteria. Then, researches inserted a known protein-based vaccine against pneumococcal disease into the capsule and tested the effects in mice. Analyses of vaccinated mice showed that the capsule caused an enhanced immune response by activating both the passive and active targeting of immune cells. Moreover, those mice who had been administered the capsule exhibited strong vaccination capabilities against pneumococcal disease. The E-coli-based capsule is relatively cheap and flexible, and can be used in a variety of therapies in the future, including fighting cancer and other infectious diseases.

Paper-based microbial fuel generates power without current consumption

Hashemi N. et al. A paper-based microbial fuel cell operating under continuous flow condition. Technology. June, 2016.

Researchers demonstrated a three-dimensional paper-based microbial fuel cell (MFC) that exploits capillary action to channelize the liquids through the MFC system without using an external power.  The system was able to run for five days and generate current, as biofilm forms on the anode. The mini eco-friendly MFC generates 1.3 μW of power and 52.25 μA with a power density of approximately 25 W/m3. These results show that the paper-based microbial fuel cells could be the next alternative power source, by transforming chemical energy into electrical energy without the use of any outside power. The key element of the project is the size and thickness of the biofilm. Bacterial cells metabolize electron-rich substances in a complex process involving many enzyme-catalyzed reactions and ultimately generate free mobile electrons. Then electrons are free to travel to the anode through one of many modes of electron transport. This device, for the first time, demonstrates that microbial fuel cells can be used for longer durations and operate individually. The research team is currently exploring new improvements in the system to better control the voltage output and to create a constant current. Although the current MFC model is not ready for commercialization yet, it opens new avenues in applications for biosensors and power generation.

The roots

During the Clinton administration in the, the US economy experienced 8% GDP growth for multiple years. A growth of this magnitude, for an economy as big as the US economy, was applauded by the economists around the world. During this period, the US economy was expanding in all fields; each sector was developing new areas of investment. Investment banks were especially aggressive in seeking new investment opportunities, hoping to get a larger share of the growing economy. Unfortunately, in their haste, they did not perform proper risk analyses on these new behaviors. Some of new forms of investment had high profitability, but they also carried serious amounts of risk. However, nobody was questioning the high risk aspects of these investments. One of the fastest growing sectors was the housing market. House prices were booming in conjunction with the high employment levels and wages. As a result, financial institutions were underwriting mortgage loans at record levels. Mortgage loans are illiquid items on financial institutions’ balance sheets. As such, financial institutions believed that they were not adequately utilizing these mortgage loans. In response, financial firms invented the “mortgage backed securities” by “bundling” mortgage loans.

This new investment vehicle provided investors with bonds of various levels of leverage and risk preferences by bundling the mortgage loans and putting a structure around them. These bundled mortgage-backed securities were well received by the credit agencies; many mortgage bonds were rewarded with AAA ratings (the highest possible rating) even though many of the individual bonds making up the bundles were poorly rated. As a result, with the high demand for these investment vehicles, financial institutions were able to convert illiquid mortgage loans into highly liquid and profitable bonds.

False applications in the mortgage market

One of the common mistakes Wall Street makes is to take a brilliant idea, put it into application, and then generate asset bubbles by over applying the great idea. Unfortunately, bundled mortgage products caused one of the biggest bubbles of recent times. In order to satisfy the high demand for mortgage-backed securities from investment banks, financial institutions greatly increased the amount of mortgage loans they underwrote. As a result, many individuals who would not otherwise be able to qualify for a mortgage loan were granted loans. This trend resulted in a bubble in the housing and mortgage sectors, and the volume of mortgage-backed securities increased to $2.1 trillion. Utilizing their high leverage levels, banks ended up issuing mortgage backed securities in excess of existing mortgage loans.

As a result, the sub-prime mortgage market was overloaded with individuals who had low credit scores. However, at this time the U.S. economy was booming and house prices kept rising. During this period, the Federal Reserve failed to recognize the increasing threat from the mortgage sector. The Fed did recognize the abnormal growth in the U.S. economy and was trying to take preventive measures for a softer landing for the anticipated recession thereafter. However, the Fed did not seem to identify the heart of the problem. The Fed believed that if a home owner defaulted on his or her mortgage, he or she would be able to sell their house at a higher price and move on, given that housing prices kept rising. Therefore, mortgage defaults were not a threat to the economy.

This approach alone indicates that the Fed failed to perform the necessary analyses to identify the threat coming from the housing market. Unfortunately, after peaking in 2006, housing prices started to fall in 2007, and this triggered the financial crisis that would shock financial markets around the globe. In the blink of an eye, the upward trend in the global economy was dramatically reversed. The people who normally should not have been granted mortgage loans started to default on their loans and were thus forced to sell their houses far below the prices they purchased them at. These sums were not sufficient to cover the original amount of their loans. And many home owners failed to sell their houses, which were therefore sold in foreclosures by the banks at even lower prices. This pushed housing prices even lower. With the increasing number of foreclosures, the U.S. economy faced a severe problem. Mortgage loans were the foundation of mortgage-backed securities. Given the high leverage used in structuring the mortgage-backed securities, the amount of existing mortgage-backed securities that were under stress was in excess of the existing mortgage loans. The high level of defaults on mortgage loans resulted in a huge drop in mortgage-bond valuation. This turmoil in the mortgage market put stress on all the investment firms who had mortgage bonds in their portfolios. Credit rating agencies, traditionally, were able to recognize their incorrect ratings; in 2007, these agencies downgraded many mortgage loans which were originally granted high ratings.

The crisis spreads across financial markets

The downgrading of the mortgage bundles was a wakeup call for other actors in the financial markets, and a financial panic began spreading to many other markets. The summer of 2007 witnessed a high volume of activity compared to the previous summers. In a couple of months, spreads on credit default swaps were doubled. The crisis first hit the mortgage underwriters and many mortgage companies declared bankruptcy. Countrywide Home Loans was saved by being acquired by Bank of America.

At this juncture, financial institutions pressured the Fed to decrease the interest rates to boost the economy. However, the Fed had not grasped the severity of the situation. The Fed did not want to decrease the rates, as it was hoping to avoid the possible depreciation of the U.S. Dollar and a potential increase in inflation. The Fed was finally able to start decreasing the rates in September 2007, which turned out to be too late to stop the impending collapse.

After mortgage companies, the crisis spread to the banks. The distrust in mortgage bonds was spreading to all sectors of the global economy. As a result, banks – especially investment banks – were suddenly in distress, as the high leverage investments on their balance sheets rapidly lost a substantial amount of their value. The Fed finally recognized the severity of the problem and started taking unprecedented measures to save many of these financial institutions.

However, some investment banks had too many troubled assets on their balance sheets. First, the smallest of the “big five” investment banks, Bear Sterns, was almost bankrupted in March 2008. This resulted in significant drops in the U.S. stock market. JP Morgan Chase saved Bear Sterns by acquiring it. This gave temporary relief to the financial markets.

During this period, the Fed was still claiming that the financial crisis would not spread to other sectors of the economy. However, there was a substantial shift in expectations. The troubled finance companies undertook huge layoffs in order to save themselves. Those who had lost their jobs started to lose their homes, as well. And soon, not only the sub-prime mortgages, but also all other types of mortgages, started defaulting. This accelerated the price drops in mortgage bonds even more, causing further trouble for finance companies. On the other hand, the new houses coming onto the market, coupled with foreclosures, increased the excess supply in the housing market, which drove house prices even lower. As a result of large layoffs at the financial companies, the spending by the laid off employees decreased, which lowered the demand for the firms’ products, which in result caused even more problems for the troubled firms, and thus resulted in even more layoffs. The economy was in a disastrous cycle, and the financial crisis was now ready to spread to the “real” sector.

Further compounding problems at this point, crude oil prices went as high as $145 per barrel, which increased the cost of goods, causing even more problems for the greater economy. Also, the credit crunch was at its peak. Troubled banks were not lending out to the financial firms, and it was very difficult for the firms to find a way out from the dire situation in which they found themselves. 2008 was a brutal year for the investment banks. Merrill Lynch was saved from going bankrupt when they were acquired by Bank of America in an operation orchestrated by the U.S. Treasury. However, the same government officials let Lehman Brothers go bankrupt to set an example for the financial institutions and to signal to the market that they would not save every troubled financial institution. Whatever the symbolic power of the gesture, the real-world result was devastating. Following the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history ($639 billion) , panic spread all over the U.S. financial markets. As a result, many financial and economic indicators dipped. Following Lehman Brothers, 54 more U.S. companies declared bankruptcy. Unemployment passed 10%. The Federal Reserve decreased its funds rate to zero percent and transferred billions of dollars to financial institutions. The invoice to save AIG alone was for $85 billion.

The chaos in the U.S. financial markets continued for almost 7 months, with the markets finally hitting bottom in March 2009. The remaining investment banks on Wall Street, Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley, converted themselves to holding banks in order to survive the crisis. This technically ended the investment bank era on Wall Street.

Macroeconomic troubles in the U.S. economy

The stock market started to recover following the market bottom in March 2009. Since then, the major stock indices in the New York Stock exchange have gained over 100%. This recovery is a result of unprecedented support from the Federal Reserve and the U.S. Treasury. However, as a result, the U.S. economy had a record budget deficit of $1.4 trillion in 2009 and a deficit of $1.3 trillion in 2010. Today, though unemployment is below 5%, a stubbornly high percentage of workers have simply taken themselves out of the job market. The Fed’s funds rate is still at zero percent. Though the U.S. had a financial crisis in 2007-2009, today the U.S. faces macroeconomic issues.

The financial crisis in Europe

The European Union followed a similar path during the financial crisis. Since the financial markets are interconnected, the crisis easily spread to markets in Europe. However, U.S. officials were more determined to resolve the economic and financial issues by taking unprecedented measures, whereas officials in the European Union were more conservative. The financial crisis forced the hidden problems in European Union to the surface. The economic problems in Greece especially showed the lack of financial and economic strength in some European countries. In March 2012, Greece had to restructure its sovereign debt. This restructuring caused a $3 billion default in sovereign credit default swap contracts. In addition to Greece, Portugal and Italy have also experienced severe economic problems. Even Spain and France have showed signs of instability. In summary, compared to the U.S., the European Union has much deeper problems. In the coming years, the Union might face real challenges that threaten its very existence, as recently indicated by the Brexit phenomenon.

Conclusion

The recent financial crisis caused some fundamental changes to the global economy. The world’s largest stock exchange, the New York Stock Exchange, experienced its largest crash since the Great Depression. The impact of the crisis was quite painful for ordinary people in the U.S. and Europe.

Ali Fakih is a researcher specialized in financial markets, investments, and market microstructure.

References

• Brunnermeier, Marcus K., Deciphering the Liquidity and Credit Crunch 2007-2008, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Volume 23, Number 1, Winter 2009, Pages 77–100
• Federal Housing Finance Agency, Housing Market Data, http://www.fhfa.gov/
• Markit, CreditEx, http://www.creditfixings.com/information/affiliations/fixings.html
• U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www.bls.gov/ces/
• Wikipedia, Bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy_of_Lehman_Brothers
• Federal Housing Finance Agency

Just as animals can find their food, GPS seems like it can find almost any spot on Earth. Thanks to this technology, it is now possible to find people lost on mountains, in caves, or at sea. GPS can instantly detect the whereabouts of a car in a city; parents worried about their children are able to track them with ease and precision.

Though we’re able to track people with shocking degrees of accuracy, it’s harder for us to follow the miraculous activities of the micro-structures and complex molecules in our cells. We do not yet have instruments which can accurately track objects that are so small. Though we can see the holes in our skin with the naked eye, we can only see molecules, and smaller structures, with the help of an electron microscope.

Green fluorescent proteins

Taking the minute activities that occur inside an organism and transferring these processes into a visible format, and photographing intracellular chemical changes, are among the major struggles scientists face. Many researches have tried to develop ways to transfer the micro and nano worlds into a visible form.

One way of doing this is called molecular tracking. To do this, scientists track one molecule, which is easy to spot or photograph because of the light it has been conditioned to emit, and connect it to the item they’re going to examine. It is possible to make minute things observable by means of this light-marking method. The question is: how to make the molecule emit light in the first place?

The answer lies in nature. Certain sea creatures emit colorful lights. Producing light as a result of biochemical activity is called “bioluminescence”. Many creatures living in the depths of the sea, as well as fireflies and a few other species, possess bioluminescence.

Bioluminescent creatures live with special proteins that absorb light energy. While they absorb a little of this energy, they reflect the rest, emitting light. For a long time, scientists did not understand how these proteins worked. But in the 1960s, scientists managed to isolate green fluorescent proteins. This was a breakthrough in terms of marking and viewing human cells. The researchers who decoded the chemical structure of these molecules won the 2008 Nobel Prize in chemistry.

One of the most important bioluminescent creatures is the jellyfish aequorea victoria. Shimomura et al first obtained this creature’s proteins through chemical means in 1962. These green fluorescent proteins are now widely used in molecular biology and biochemistry. They are used as gene and cell markers, and thus help scientists determine the amounts of these genes in different organisms.

One of the proteins scientists track is GAD67, a protein which has important duties, particularly in the brain. GAD67 produces some messenger molecules, which function in the communication activities of the nervous system. When scientists want to know if there is GAD67 in the brain or somewhere in the nervous system, they first inject green fluorescent proteins into the cell. Later, they study the cell by using special antibodies attached to the green fluorescent proteins. If there is GAD67 in the tissue, scientists recognize it from the green color. What they are seeing is not actually GAD67, but the green fluorescent proteins attached to it.

These proteins, which are complex structured giant molecules, have a very special geometry and pattern. While even modeling the mathematical structures of a molecule takes much effort, another molecule of a different color produced by another creature makes things easy for researchers. This “marking” makes it possible to understand whether genes work or not, and whether they are active in protein production or not. It is possible to trace connections between cells, observe reactions between proteins, and to find mechanisms that form signals.

During the diffusion of light from the green fluorescent protein, no substance other than oxygen is needed (such as metal ion, phosphate, etc.). Such research can thus be simply conducted by observing the green-lit protein under ultraviolet light. This protein absorbs light from a spectrum between 395 nm and 470 nm. This range is within the wavelengths of light visible to the human eye. Normal proteins diffuse light at 300 nm, and are not visible to humans. Here, we witness another miracle in the way the world are created. It is a blessing that this special protein diffuses light of 450 nm, unlike other proteins.

Uses of green fluorescent proteins

Since the 1970s, fluorescent proteins have been used as markers in researches studying cell biology, biochemistry, and material sciences. The discovery of these proteins marked the beginning of a new era for intracellular (in vivo) research. Scientists have used this method to discover the biochemical workings of bacteria, nematodes (round worms), insects, and mammalian cells. For example, green fluorescent proteins can be used to observe the development of embryos, the unfolding of genes, or to monitor cancer metastasis in the human liver. Since a series of cancerous cells generates a very bright green light, they can easily be spotted. Hopefully, the wider use of such proteins will make identifying cancer easier in the future.

In addition to these discoveries, the emergence of some plant viruses has been observed thanks to these proteins. They’ve also been used to monitor the development of pollen. Lastly, the proteins have been useful when tracking gene transfers from plants to animals.

All of this has been possible because sea creatures absorb light differently than creatures on land. Organisms living underwater diffuse light best at a wavelength of 450-490 nm. The jellyfish who provide the necessary green proteins are perfectly adapted to their environment, and this enables them to hide from their enemies. It is this light that scientists are now using to understand nature – and to potentially save lives.