“At the beginning of the empire, the tax rates were low and the revenues were high. At the end of the empire, the tax rates were high and the revenues were low.”

Former US President Ronald Reagan proudly referred to Ibn Khaldun’s above quote in an article for the International Herald Tribune in 1993 titled, “Excuse me Mr. Clinton, I must have misheard you” (February 21, 1993, p. 4). Reagan did not quote Ibn Khaldun first time in 1993. Actually he quoted him many years earlier, at the beginning of his term in the White House, as a support to his economy politics, so called Reaganomics. Although, some historians [1] saw no connection between Reaganomics and Ibn Khaldun’s theories, Reagan caught people’s attention with his reference to this notable, but mostly forgotten (at least in the West), scholar. The name was foreign to many ears, and for many Americans, it was the first time they had heard of him.

Who was Ibn Khaldun, really? Was he an economist? According to many accounts, he came up with many economic concepts 400 years before Adam Smith. Ibn Khaldun was the inspiration behind the concept popularly known as the “Laffer Curve.” Nevertheless, he was not an economist, per se.

Was he a historian? The famous historian Arnold Toynbee declared that Ibn Khaldun’s book, Muqaddimah, is the greatest book of its kind. But still others contend that he was mainly a philosopher and a political scientist.

Today, the consensus among scholars is that Ibn Khaldun was all of those things, yet today, he is primarily known for being the founder of sociology. In fact, Ibn Khaldun’s own accounts confirm this view. In his ground-breaking book, Muqaddimah, often translated as “Prolegomenon,” he declared that he had established a new science. In his own words:

“It should be known that the discussion of this topic is something new, extraordinary, and highly useful. Penetrating research has shown the way to it.” (Baali 1988)

This article is a tribute to Ibn Khaldun, the great fourteenth-century Muslim scholar. It briefly introduces his life and the sociological perspective of his contributions, specifically his ideas on luxury and its impact on the weakening of asabiyyah, or group solidarity. This is one of the most important concepts in his writings and is regarded as the seed of his famous cyclical theory of the rise and fall of the nations.

Ibn Khaldun

Abd al-rahman ibn Muhammad, generally known as Ibn Khaldun (the name came from a remote ancestor), was born in Tunis (North Africa) on May 27, 1332, to an upper class family who had fled from Seville, in 1248, to escape the Christian conquest of Andalusia. His family had witnessed the rise and fall of Muslim power in southern Spain.

As a privileged child, Ibn Khaldun had a thorough education in Aristotelian physics and philosophy, as well as mathematics, religion, geography, and poetry. His teachers were prominent scholars of their time. In the fourteenth century, in an era of unrest and political instability, he began his carrier as a seal bearer and then became a political official. He worked as a statesman, ambassador, and jurist in cities from Fez to Granada.

In 1375, growing exhausted of the politics of his time, Ibn Khaldun confined himself to the Salama Fort, near Constantine, for four years. From this seclusion, he emerged having written one of the greatest studies on history, his magnum opus, Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History.

Drawing on both his personal experiences and the regional history of North Africa, he identified a cyclical pattern of the rise and fall of civilizations, and he then analyzed the factors contributing to such patterns. He studied the dynamics of group relationships and argued that asabiyyah, or group solidarity, is vital to political power and to the ascent of a new civilization. He maintained that the sedentary lifestyles of urban city life introduce luxurious habits into people’s lives, thus gradually causing a deterioration in the asabiyyah and creating the conditions for civilizational collapse. According to Ibn Khaldun, a particularly strong ruler can delay this destruction; nevertheless, the asabiyyah will decay – generally within five generations – as events inherently follow a cyclical process. Every nation contains within itself the seed of its own destruction.

Possessing a keen eye for human behavior and a rare capacity for organizing his observations, Ibn Khaldun changed history by merely recording events and telling stories which could explain and predict human behavior. His methods grew from his belief that scientific research requires: (1) accurate observations; (2) logical and objective methods; (3) gathering data from the present and the past; (4) careful recording; and (5) the courage of careful description and reporting (Faghirzadeh 1982). Unlike most writers before him, he emphasized societal, economical, psychological, and environmental factors that governed events. This revolutionary approach laid the foundations for a new science: Ilm Umran (the science of society), as Ibn Khaldun called it in Muqaddimah. Explaining societal factors almost five centuries before nineteenth century classical social thinkers such as Comte, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, he is considered the forerunner of sociology. And his profound insights and observations about the society in which he lived still inspire the sociological studies of our times.

Having written his book, Ibn Khaldun grew tired of seclusion, went to Cairo, and adopted a teaching role at Al-Azhar University. His reputation had preceded him there: Al-Azhar was crowded with students and many distinguished scholars who came to listen to his theories on social phenomena. While he was in Cairo, he learned the devastating news that his entire family had been lost in a shipwreck as they were coming from Tunis to join him. Except for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1387, and a few trips to Damascus, he remained in Cairo for the remainder of his life, serving as a chief justice. He died in 1406 at the age of seventy-four, shortly after his sixth nomination for the judgeship.

He continued to write until the end of his life. Alongside Muqaddimah, the other volumes in Kitab al-Ibar, his book on world history, dealt with the history of Arabs, Persians, Europeans, Romans, Jews, and Greeks. In the last volume of his book, he initiated a new tradition by writing an analytical autobiography, known as Al-Tasrif.

Over the last two centuries, following the first complete French translation of the Muqaddimah by de Slane in 1863, Ibn Khaldun has been discovered by scholars in the West and acknowledged as one of the great thinkers of the Muslim world. Yet it was Franz Rosenthal’s first English translation in 1958 that allowed the Muqaddimah to achieve the most acclaim in the United States and abroad.

Asabiyyah and the cyclical pattern

Let’s look closer at asabiyyah. Derived from the Arabic root asab (to bind), the concept of asabiyyah is one of the most significant concepts in Ibn Khaldun’s writings. Although some suggested keeping the Arabic term, because it cannot be translated adequately, the English translation “group solidarity” comes close in meaning to the original term. Asabiyyah, in Khaldunian terminology, then, is a social bond of cohesion that is used to measure the stability and strength of social groups. The solidarity among group members is mainly due to the constant cooperation and interdependence of its members. In this respect, an individual’s identity is fused into the group of which he or she is a member, and they thus become “one of the others” (Ibn Khaldun 1967, 277).

According to Ibn Khaldun, this bond, asabiyyah, is the most important factor in the development of a society or a civilization from a nomadic tribe to a state. He argued that asabiyyah is strongest in the nomadic phase, and decreases as a civilization advances. The concept of asabiyyah fit under his general scheme of the cyclical process and the rise and fall of civilizations.

From his perspective, every cycle has 5 stages: 1) invasion; 2) summit; 3) tolerance; 4) tyranny; and 5) decadence (decline). In other words, every society is created, approaches perfection, declines, and is replaced by another society. It is a strong sense of asabiyyah that leads to conquest, then to the sedentary urban life; it is, finally, a taste for luxury that leads to societal collapse. Thus, nomads, who once had a strong solidarity among themselves and were known for their bravery and hard-work become less brave, less hard-working, and far more individualistic urban city dwellers under the influence of luxurious habits. Ibn Khaldun summarized the whole process as follows in Muqaddimah:

As a result, the toughness of desert life is lost. Group feeling and courage weaken. Members of the tribe revel in the well-being that God has given them. Their children and offspring grow up too proud to look after themselves or to attend to their own needs. They have disdain also for all the other things that are necessary in connection with group feeling…. Their group feeling and courage decrease in the next generations. Eventually group feeling is altogether destroyed. … It will be swallowed up by other nations. (Ibn Khaldun 1967, 107)

Ibn Khaldun placed emphasis on the power of religion to keep asabiyyah strong in a society. In his view, religion is not merely a set of moral laws, but determines all relations in a society. He maintained that if piety is replaced by ambition, and if the latter takes over human behavior in a society, then the treacherous desire to gain wealth will permeate people’s hearts. This will make a society and its people capricious, hence the corruption and eventual decline. As an example, he pointed to the time of Harun al-Rashid, and how after it passed, pleasure-seeking and corruption destroyed the strong asabiyyah of earlier Islamic civilization. They had abandoned the path of piety.

Luxury and the cyclical process

Luxury constituted a fundamental theme in the sociology of Ibn Khaldun, for to him it was the main factor distinguishing urban city life from nomadic life. He maintained that luxury in the cities follows certain economic factors. In cities, surplus labor is available to produce luxuries; thus, city people have higher incomes than people in rural areas, and this leads to higher standards of living in housing, clothing, etc.

Although a luxurious lifestyle initially causes prosperity in the city and adds to the civilization’s strength, Ibn Khaldun argued that such luxurious customs eventually become drawbacks. They create many demands and impose so many needs that the individual cannot earn enough to satisfy them. Furthermore, as a result of the additional taxes imposed by the government on such goods, the price of the various goods increases, and this in turn contributes to the cost of living, which consequently reduces the majority of people in the city to poverty. Thus, luxury increases the expenses of both the people and the state and leads, according to Ibn Khaldun, to the bankruptcy of the state.

Ibn Khaldun argued that luxury not only weakens the state economically, but also causes other physical, moral, social, and political disadvantages. Physically, it makes people weak and less immune to diseases, especially “when a drought or famine comes upon them” (Ibn Khaldun 1967, 177-182). Morally, luxury is destructive in the sense that it convinces people to value material comfort above all else and prefer their individual interests over the interests of others. Luxurious practices become indispensable. Desiring and obtaining luxuries eventually results in a degradation of the soul and breeds dishonesty and other immoral behaviors.

Moreover, it also destroys asabiyyah in the group since the pursuit of material comfort becomes the essential aim of most individuals. As a result of the disintegration of the group feeling, the group becomes easy prey for the next conqueror. The state’s leaders become increasingly lax and less disciplined, while also becoming more concerned with maintaining their power and lifestyle. Their ties to the peripheral group loosen, and asabiyyah turns into individualism and factionalism, and thus their political power diminishes. Under these conditions, they are susceptible to political disintegration, especially by the groups at the periphery. Thus, conditions for a new conqueror are ready and the cycle begins anew. Through this center-periphery model, Ibn Khaldun explained how each civilization has within itself the seeds of its own downfall.

Conclusion

Some may consider Ibn Khaldun’s approach to be a very deterministic perspective on history, and others may find nomadic invasions irrelevant to our age. His idea is obviously a theory, and every age and society have their unique social dynamics. What history is teaching us is that no civilization lasts forever, and certain aspects like group solidarity, religion, obsession with pleasure, and luxury do have roles in the ebbs and flows of nations. However, these dynamics and aspects have manifested in different ways across different times and cultures. Today, nations and cultures are interacting in different ways: through travel, the internet, immigration, etc. Ibn Khaldun’s theories do give us a perspective on how we can observe, contribute to, and be prepared for these ever-changing dynamics.

Note

[1] Daniel Snell, a professor of history at the University of Oklahoma was one of them. For his criticism, see, http://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/07/opinion/l-reading-reagan-s-favorite-arabic-sage-943993.html.

References

Baali, Fuad. 1988. Society, State and Urbanism: Ibn Khaldun’s Sociological Thought. State University of New York Press, Albany.

Faghirzadeh, Saleh. 1982. Sociology of Sociology: In Search of Ibn Khaldun’s Sociology Then and Now. The Soroush Press, Tehran.

Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translation by Franz Rosenthal. 1967. Princeton University Press. Vol I

When I entered the room, the patient’s wife and adult son were standing in a corner with a nurse, staring at the deceased, wearing grim and shocked faces. It was the oddest thing, because he died while actively getting out of bed to go to the bathroom. His wife looked at me, feeling the need to explain, and said, “He just said he had to go to the bathroom. That was all he said, and he started to get up.”  

One leg was already off the bed, not quite touching the floor. Mr. Griffin was wearing boxer shorts and a tee-shirt. He looked to be in his 50s. The whole length of his body was uncovered, revealing a tall, thin frame. He was lying on his side, on the edge of the bed, with one arm bent at the elbow, hand splayed, as if using it to push off.

Suspended in mid-air, Mr. Griffin was positioned like an action figure, basically half off the bed. I was inclined to run to catch him, before he fell. His facial expression was frozen, but not in surprise. Rather, his eyes were wide open, lips parted, and intent for his destination. But Mr. Griffin had been caught unaware in the act of dying and stopped by the instant of his death.

I asked the nurse to please place the man in a more relaxed position and cover him, while I escorted the family from the room to comfort them.

My grandfather, who lived into his nineties, would always say, “I’m not going to die one second before my time on earth is up.” As a Muslim, he was informed by the Qur’an, which states, not unlike the Bible, that every living thing has an appointed time on earth, known only to the Creator.

The image of Mr. Griffin sometimes visits me when I am praying. Usually, it’s a time when I feel rushed to get my prayer over with (and get back to my friends), or at a time when I realize, regrettably, that I am praying by rote.  My next thought forms the question: Why am I rushing, when this could be my last breath or action?

My witness of Mr. Griffin in death has given me an indisputable piece of empirical evidence that my next breath is not guaranteed.

For a believer (no matter what religion), being in prayer is a sacred space and an opportunity to become aware of God’s presence. God-consciousness intensifies a sense of inner peace, and I would certainly prefer to die in this state of mind than get caught unaware.

Being God-conscious is the counterpoint to praying by rote, which is a state of ungratifying unconsciousness. I recognize that in this unconscious state, I take everything about my existence for granted, including the movement of my hands and legs, my breathing, and even whatever or whoever is waiting for me, when I am finished my obligation.

In fact, for those God-conscious people who have worked hard to establish prayer in life, the mindlessness of praying by rote defeats the whole purpose of taking time out to pray. . For those trying to establish prayer in their life, praying by rote is counter-productive and , actually makes it harder to establish daily prayers.

I should point out that praying by rote is not synonymous with praying by force of habit. Good habits are hard to form, require self-discipline, and are more akin to achievements. Self-discipline is one of the fruits of recognizing our self-worth. Taking time out (five times a day for a Muslim) to create a sacred space from the routine of another mindless, busy day is a discipline of mindfulness gained, similar to meditation, which has an appeal for similar reasons.

In Islam, however, prayer is something more than meditation. For being and fulfilling an obligation, it brings with it the inner peace of self-satisfaction. In addition to the satisfaction of self-discipline, prayer has a sacred purpose and brings with it the promise of a greater, unimagined reward in the hereafter.

Since my visit to Mr. Griffin, I am more immune to praying by rote. Carving out the time in my day and praying in a sacred space gives me an opportunity to occupy my mind, not in a superficial way, but in deep reflection. As I reflect on the existence of an All-loving, All-just, All-powerful, All-forgiving, and All-knowing Supreme power, I find myself listening to the rhythm of my breathing. Furthermore, as I enter into a state of pious mindfulness known in Islam as the Arabic word, “taqwa,” I pray for this precious God-consciousness to stay with me, because I know that it increases my appreciation for everything and everyone in my daily life.

The dragonfly’s four wings allow it to deploy significant amounts of airflow through these wings, generating the lift necessary to keep itself balanced while striking its prey. This combination of airflow and the complex maneuvers the dragonfly can make have astonished researchers. A dragonfly can make complicated maneuvers even while approaching its prey at a speed of 60 km/h. It can also suspend itself in the air.

According to Akiko Mizutani’s observations, “while chasing its prey, dragonflies shadow their enemies in complex maneuvers that military fighter pilots can only dream of.”. This statement highlights the fact that dragonflies are one of the most agile and maneuverable insects in the world. Dragonflies were, in fact, designed to be very talented predators that intelligently utilize their agility and speed. 

A dragonfly’s wings enable its speed and agility. All four wings are transparent, very strong, and flexible, and they have wingspans of up to 16 cm (about 6 inches). The front and rear pairs, however, have been designed with different shapes. According to research carried out at Cornell University by Z. Jane Wang, professor of theoretical and applied mechanics, a dragonfly uses drag to support its weight. A lot of research done on airplanes has focused on minimizing drag, which decreases in-flight efficiency. Since the slender, elegant dragonfly uses a lot of aerodynamic drag to carry its weight, the insect holds the potential for deep insight into a complex detail of flight.

Dr Chahl said, “If we could have an aircraft… which could do some of the things that a dragonfly can do, then we would have something that nobody has, or is predicted to have, for some time” (www.abc.net.au/news/stories).

The US military has recognized the amazing implications this could have for developing technologies — from the ability of fighter aircraft to approach the enemy undetected, just like a dragonfly, to greater maneuverability, to enhanced helicopter logistics. The scientists who believe the insect’s flight control could have applications in new planes and helicopters must realize that replicating the complex design of a dragonfly for flight controls demands a highly intelligent designer and producer. It’s not a coincidence that the very first helicopter, designed by Westland Aircraft Company, was named Dragonfly. The helicopter was a rough and very simplified imitation of a dragonfly.

These observations don’t just help our technological know-how – they help us to appreciate the incredible design that exists in nature. Looking at the dragonfly, it becomes obvious how complex nature’s systems are.  

The tiny body of a fly has a relationship and connection with most of the elements and causes in the universe; in fact, it is a summary or index of them. If it is not attributed to the Eternal, Powerful One, those elements and physical causes should be present and operate in it of their own accord. It is even required that they should be present and work in each of the cells of its eyes, which are tiny samples of its body. For if the causes or agents responsible for something’s existence are of a physical nature, they should be present in the immediate vicinity of, rather, inside their result. Therefore, attributing a fly to “natural” causes and elements requires that those causes and elements should be present and work in each of its cells. (Said Nursi, The Gleams, 23rd Gleam)

As part of these new developments, humans are discovering inspiration in the works of art hidden in nature. Although Biomimetics has recently emerged as a scientific discipline, many researchers are already switching over to it. Biomimetics is the study of the design available with all its grandeur in nature and searching for ideal solutions to human problems. These solutions are then used to develop new technologies. Basically, it aims to make progress in technology by imitating the perfection of nature.

Many examples of what has been transferred from living things to technology, in fields as diverse as robotics, optics, new materials, vehicle technology, and so on, are now all around us. Yet, all engineering designs face a basic challenge: “ensuring the highest endurance with the least amount of material.” Spending less on materials will reduce overall costs, in both the long and short term. Lightweight materials mean saving money on energy over the lifetime of a project.

Thankfully, as Biomimeticians have discovered, nature is designed to be efficient.

Research into wheat stems has shown that they have remarkable characteristics when it comes to strength. Most of us have seen wheat fields waving in a wind strong enough to topple trees. Despite carrying a relatively heavy ear of grain and being supported by a delicate stem structure, the wheat is able to withstand strong winds. It rarely breaks.

This kind of strength could be an asset in building skyscrapers. While the ratio of the height of a wheat stalk to the base diameter is 500, the tallest building in the world, the 828-meter-high Burj Khalifa, has a height to width ratio of only 5. Wheat stems may hold the key to taller, stronger, more efficient buildings.

What are the physical and geometric reasons underlying the strength of wheat stems? Can these features be imitated to inspire new designs? Not only is the material used for great stability, but the geometric features and distribution of those materials have an important effect, too. The cross-sectional area of a characteristic wheat stem is shown in Figure 2.

When the cross-sectional area of the plant is examined, the following characteristics are seen: 1) The cross-sectional area is circular, cylindrical, and empty. 2) The filled wall section is similar to a honeycomb. 3) The density of the material increases gradually from the center to the outside, while the honeycombs formed by the hexagonal cells are shrinking in size. 4) The density of the material in the outermost periphery has increased greatly and the honeycomb structure has disappeared. 5) There are areas where the material is heavily piled up in the form of small circles near the outer wall.

When studying this design, an engineer will note a few things: 1) The hollow cylindrical structures increase the cross-sectional inertia and increase the flexural resistance. 2) The honeycomb structure is important for ensuring maximum durability using minimal material. Mathematicians have proved that a honeycomb structure can enable us to divide an area into small equal pieces with the shortest length of line. Just as in beehives, this structure exhibits the most efficient use of materials possible. 3) The increase in material density from the inner radius to the outer radius is intended to increase the cross-sectional inertia of the field in the cylinder and this increases flexural resistance. 4) It is also important, in terms of flexural resistance, that the material density at the outer wall rises to the highest level. 5) The circular small areas near the outer wall are similar to iron bars placed in cement. They increase the stiffness of the stem against bending. In fact, engineers have designed more robust bars, inspired by the geometry of the wheat stem (Figure 3).

In Figure 3, the dashed curve represents the actual measurements of the wheat stem and the parabolic continuous line represents the approximate curve calculated in accordance with the actual measurements. As can be seen in the figure, there is a slight decrease in material density in the inner wall. Then the density of the material making up the outer wall increases nearly 100%. The slight increase in the material inside the inner wall can be considered a kind of reinforcement to prevent damage to this small inner area. Based on this material density range, a new material for steel rods can be produced using a porous but simpler structure.

In Figure 4, we see a cross section of cylindrical rods that are filled, hollow, and inspired by wheat stems. According to the loading analyses done with the computer-based ANSYS program, it is observed that the newly designed rod had the lowest minimum stress and lowest maximum stress (Figure 5). This shows that in the new design, the stiffness decreases and the durability increases.

While studying nature, it is important to remember that nothing is pointless. Natural structures have been perfectly calibrated, and the scholars who know how to read them can create incredible works of art. A good analysis of nature’s perfection will enrich our minds and open the door to new inventions that will make our lives easier.

Reference

• Strength of Wheat and Barley stems and Design of New Beam/Columns, Mathematical and Computational Applications, 15 (1), 1-13, 2010.

Hallaj al-Mansur was inspired by the philosophy of Unity of Being (wahdat al-wujud), which he followed. When looking at his words we can understand love in two ways. First, love is an irrevocable desire for truth and the quest to discover it. Second, love is being preoccupied with someone, expecting favor from them, and not accepting any other rivals for their affection. Selfishness and egoism can easily be sensed in this second type of love.

As a matter of fact, Satan can be said to be superior to humankind in terms of its extensiveness in time and space – at least as far as its nature is allowed to reach. Being so blessed, one could think highly of oneself. Satan thought, “I will not prefer Adam to myself.” If we call this “love,” this is the kind of love Satan possesses.

Instead of such an impaired love, a love that expects reciprocity, we should follow a love of obedience, which takes a person to perfection. This obedience refers to doing everything for the sake of God’s good pleasure and expecting nothing in return. It means remaining remote from worldly grudges, never making one’s relation to God a matter of negotiation with God, and always behaving with submission and surrender.

Hallaj was referring to these considerations, which are by all means restricted by various boundaries, when he said, “Love should be learned from Satan and obedience from Adam.”

Love is associated with one’s weakness and neediness; as such, there are some gateways in its nature that are open to abuse. Perhaps, this was the case with Satan.

Causality

For this reason, it is very important to follow the Prophetic path in regards to love, enthusiasm, and gratitude. Sometimes a person may not find the things he has been seeking. This person may consider causes as absolute values, and may say, “These causes should have given certain results.” This person doesn’t understand that there is a distinct mercy and justice in God dragging us through compulsory situations. Of course, He is not required to create a result according to our causes. The Prophetic path teaches us this truth. As Ali al-Qari said, nothing is incumbent on God, Who is All-Transcendent. In some of the covenants He condescends to make with His servant, His saying, “This is your right and this is Mine,” is characteristic of the language as it occurs in a mutual communication. Otherwise, what right do we have to try and determine the result of something with our will, all the materials of which belong to Him? Getting a result is not in our hands, nor is passing judgment on the result.

Yes, there actually is a relationship between causes and results, and within the principles of Divine practice when those causes are observed, a certain result occurs. However, people representing those causes have no right to think of the result and say “It has to be like this…”

For even if there is a connection between cause and effect, in reality, effects are not built on causes. For example, if to put forth His will, God said to people, “When you blow on the solar system, I will disperse it,” and we blew on the solar system and God dispersed it, then we thought we were the cause of this, we would be mistaken. Our blowing would not have caused the solar system to disperse.

Servanthood

It is better to follow the path of Adam’s servanthood instead of Satan’s love. For love can sometimes cause a person’s foot to slip from the true path. But obedience on the Prophetic path will never slip!

Let’s also look at Hallaj al-Mansur’s point from the perspective of a comparison between love and obedience. Actually, what made Hallaj say this was that he thought Satan had fixed his heart on God; he gave his heart to no one else. However, when he saw man between himself and God, Satan’s love prevented him from prostrating to anyone but God.

It is not possible to fully agree with these ideas. Even if it were true, there is something that Hallaj and Satan overlooked; that is the fine point of the command to obey. Adam understood this fine point, and after his lapse, he pleaded and prayed, “Our Lord! We have wronged ourselves, and if You do not forgive us and do not have mercy on us, we will surely be among those who have lost” (A’raf 7:23).But Satan did not learn; he did not understand God’s command to bow down to Adam.

In comparing love and obedience, it was stated that if love is based on obedience, then it means something. If there is no obedience in love, then just as intoxication can be born from it, so, too, can hopelessness, vexation, and even rebellion. In fact, intoxication grows in proportion to the size of the love, which may lead to estrangement from God, even while one may assume he or she is on the Divine path. Worthy things can suddenly lose their value.

These results do not prove that love is unimportant. As stated in “The Emerald Hills of the Heart” series, love is very important. In fact, some have even given great importance to metaphorical love, even considering those who died for physical love as martyrs. Folk stories like Laila and Majnun, Shirin and Ferhat, and Aslı and Kerem all turned this kind of obsession into legend. However, love is meaningful only when it is endowed with the merits explained above. If these requirements are not fulfilled, then when one’s expectations from love are not fulfilled, and reunion does not take place, love can turn into resentment.

The case with Satan is – perhaps – that when he did not find reciprocation from God, he was disappointed and ruined; as such, he did not rise up again. With respect to obedience, this kind of mistake can never be made. Obedience is a heartfelt and active deed made in line with the approval of the One who must be obeyed because His wishes and desires must be obeyed. On the other hand, love affects the balance of a person. It opens the door to unbalanced behavior. In other words, it can make a person insane. In this regard, Satan is an unbalanced creature. It is mandatory to conform scrupulously to rules imposed by obedience. This is balance. Adam preferring obedience shows he was a balanced creature.

A final point: I initially mentioned, with just one sentence, that Hallaj believed in the philosophy of the Unity of Being. He and people like Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi often evaluated matters from the angle of the vastness of God’s mercy. They do this and even seek a road to salvation for Satan and the pharaohs. In this respect, their kind of interpretation is a necessity of their basic philosophy. For according to them, “Everything is He,” and Satan is a different manifestation of Him. Whereas according to me, “Everything is from Him.” Consequently, Hallaj’s saying, “Love should be learned from Satan and obedience from Adam,” should be accepted as normal in respect to his philosophy of Unity of Being.

Brunger JM et al. Genome Engineering of Stem Cells for Autonomously Regulated, Closed-Loop Delivery of Biologic Drugs. Stem Cell Reports, April 2017.

Arthritis is an ancient disease that is associated with swelling and inflammation of the joints. It often results in stiffness, pain, and restriction of movement. In most cases of arthritis, the range of necessary treatments is very limited and common pharmaceutical treatments simply relieve the symptoms. However, a new study using stem cell technology may lead to the development of an arthritis vaccine that specifically targets inflammation in joints and stops pain before it even starts. Researchers used CRISPR technology, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, to reprogram mouse stem cells to combat inflammation caused by arthritis. These newly generated stem cells are called SMART (Stem cells Modified for Autonomous Regenerative Therapy). They are designed to develop into cartilage cells that produce anti-inflammatory agents. They also end up replacing damaged cartilage, reducing chronic arthritis-related inflammation. Researchers hope to package these reprogrammed stem cells as a vaccine for arthritis, which would deliver an anti-inflammatory drug to an arthritic joint, but only when needed. Current arthritis medications are given systemically, meaning they have the potential to interfere with other parts of the body. Since SMART cells deliver the medication only to the targeted location, this will significantly reduce the systemic effects. The question is: will they be effective? In trials, SMART cells were observed to grow into cartilage tissue and even protect against inflammation over the course of a few days in mice. Further testing is still in its initial phase in mouse models. These stem cells have been engineered to fight rheumatoid arthritis.

Plastic-eating caterpillars

Bombelli P. et al. Polyethylene bio-degradation by caterpillars of the wax moth Galleria mellonella, Current Biology, April 2017.

Plastics are made of synthetic materials consisting of polymers, long strings of molecules derived from fossil fuels. Since they have a half-life of approximately 450 years, every piece of plastic that has ever been made is with us today, except for the very small amount that we’ve burned. Polyethylene, from which plastic bags are manufactured, is one of the plastic types that is the most resistant to degradation. Since stores give out more than one trillion polyethylene plastic bags every year, these indestructible plastics are accumulating all over the globe and pose serious environmental problems. Scientists have long been searching for effective and environment-friendly solutions to eliminating plastic trash. One approach is to exploit simpler organisms, as they can be adept at utilizing unusual energy sources. After a lot of trial and error, researchers found that larva of a common insect, Galleria mellonella, is able to biodegrade polyethylene. Galleria mellonella, whose larvae are also known as waxworms, was discovered to do a significant amount of damage to a plastic bag in less than an hour. The follow-up tests detected the presence of the basic building block of polyethylene, ethylene glycol, in the waxworms’ guts, demonstrating that the waxworms were indeed digesting polyethylene; they were not merely chewing it up into smaller pieces that passed through their guts unaltered. These results were initially puzzling to scientists; they couldn’t understand how waxworms were able to digest a substance that had only begun to be manufactured in the last century. The answer came from the ecology of the waxworm itself. Waxworms are a well-known pest to beekeepers, as they grow and feed on wax and honey. Since wax is a polymer with a very similar chemical structure to polyethylene, waxworms seem to already know how to digest polymer structures like plastics. Scientists still don’t know whether the polyethylene digestion is done by the waxworm itself or if it is relying upon the bacterial flora within its gut. As they learn more about the digestion mechanisms, they hope to design practical and effective biotechnological solutions for managing plastic waste, which will ultimately protect our oceans, rivers, and overall environment.

Pill for exercise?

Weiwei F et al. PPARδ Promotes Running Endurance by Preserving Glucose. Cell Metabolism, May 2017.

The benefits of exercise are well-known. Unfortunately, there are people who are obese, elderly, or mobility-limited and cannot benefit from exercise. To offer them a solution, scientists discovered a drug called GW1516 which mimics the beneficial effects of exercise, including an increased stamina and a higher rate of fat burning. While the control mice could only run 160 minutes on a treadmill, mice with the experimental drug lasted 270 minutes—about 70 percent longer. The discovery of GW1516 came from scientists’ previous knowledge of genetics. Scientists already knew that genetically activating the gene called PPAR delta enabled mice to run a lot longer than normal without getting tired. Moreover, these mice are much less likely to gain weight or become diabetic. Scientists basically designed a chemical compound that activates the PPAR delta. The research team also analyzed the wide range of physiological effects of GW1516. While the genes that break down fat for energy did more work in the mice with GW1516, genes that break down carbs for energy did less work. This is somewhat expected, as the bodies of really fit people typically burn fat, not carbs, for fuel. Despite these differences, GW1516 didn’t improve muscle mass. The only benefit seems to come from changing how the body breaks down energy. Although the initial studies have been done in mice, scientists are eager to develop clinical trials for humans as soon as possible.

Considering the limited astronomical technology these civilizations had, it would be unfair to expect our ancestors to know that an eclipse was just the moon coming between the Earth and the sun. But for believers, regardless of time or circumstance, nothing happens without a purpose. A celestial event as big as an eclipse can, at the very least, inspire a sense of awe in all of us. We are reminded how easy it is for darkness to descend upon our lives. But we are also aware that just as the eclipse doesn’t last for long, these periods of darkness will also pass. The light will return.

This issue’s lead article uses an eclipse as a metaphor for a reason. For the author, Fethullah Gülen, a real eclipse is not a celestial event, but when we are faced with weaknesses like “contempt for values, addiction to pomp and vanity, avarice and indulgence in pleasures, worldly ambitions and wishfullness for eternal life in this world, Machiavellianism … outrageous indifference, embarrassing heedlessness, being silent like in the face of sheer injustice, and closing our ears to the uproars of despots and oppressors and to the cries of innocents and victims.” Yet Gülen believes that if there are a few souls devoted to lofty ideals, who are patient and seek the Divine good pleasure, then there is always hope; and eclipses, however long they may last, will eventually end.

Complementing the lead article, Alice Bolton writes on Ibn Khaldun’s theory that a life of luxury is enough to bring down even the strongest civilizations. Considered the first sociologist in history, Ibn Khaldun argued that group solidarity is vital to political power. He believed that the sedentary lifestyles of urban city life gradually erode a society’s togetherness, eventually leading to civilizational collapse. Bolton introduces readers to the life and influence of this remarkable social scientist, whose theories seem relevant to many nations today.

Timbuktu provides a good example of Ibn Khaldun’s theory. Located today within the borders of Mali, in West Africa, Timbuktu was once a remarkable center of learning and trade, which West Africans perceived as a cultural and economic capital equal to “Rome, Fez, and Mecca.” Adam Penale, from the University of Buffalo, shows how Timbuktu rose to the heights of a vibrant center of education, only to fall into a city of sand and dust.

One country currently facing such serious “civilizational” problems is Turkey. In this issue, Fr. Thomas Michel of Georgetown University writes on the complicated recent situation in Turkey, especially with regards to the ruling Erdoğan regime and the Hizmet Movement. Under normal circumstances The Fountain does not cover politics as we have done in the last few issues. However, over the last few years, the Erdoğan regime has banned The Fountain – as well as hundreds of other media outlets – in Turkey. This obliges us not only to defend our rights in terms of freedom of the press and free enterprise, but also to give voice to those persecuted simply for being associated with the Hizmet Movement. We hope this tyrannical regime will soon be over, and we will not need to cover such stories any more in our future issues.

Never despair, keep your willpower alive
If you can, be a source of hope for all

Our society is currently being challenged by a spiral of problems – problems of a rare kind. We are troubled by countless incitements. We are faced with depravation, contempt for values, decadence that leads to desultoriness, addiction to pomp and vanity, avarice and indulgence in pleasures, worldly ambitions and wishfullness for eternal life in this world, and – to be able to attain these ambitions – Machiavellianism that unscrupulously legitimizes all sorts of means.

While our hearts and souls are paralyzed by these devastating afflictions, there are also many other cases of baseness. They come in the form of outrageous indifference, embarrassing heedlessness, being silent like “a mute devil” in the face of sheer injustice, and closing our ears to the uproars of despots and oppressors and to the cries of innocents and victims. This level of wickedness has been rarely witnessed in history.

Notwithstanding all these concentric deviations, there have been a few dozen devotees of love who have always taken on all the risks and moved forward on their path of resurrection, even at the expense of their own lives and regardless of the bumpy road ahead. These devotees have tied their lives to the wellbeing of others and have always breathed with this lofty ideal. They say as Fuzuli said,

I can only be thankful, if the Beloved asked for my life,
What is its worth anyway, that I wouldn’t forsake it for my Beloved.

They have lived these sentiments joyfully; they rose with hope and moved with disregard for worldly ambitions. As they took refuge in the All-Patient One, they never slowed down while marching on the path of the Prophets, despite all the complicated and insecure directions, unyielding hurdles, and merciless deviations. Never deterred by these challenges, they preserved the purity of the sacred in their hearts and the glory of their ideals. Never satiated with the distances they covered, they asked for more and traveled to the four corners of the world to voice and exemplify the truth and love of the Divine.

When they first set out, they already knew compliance with the heavenly orders and checks would not be easy. They knew there would be pitfalls ahead. They knew it was not a smooth highway they had chosen, but they were reassured that with the elixir of patience their heavy burden would become light enough to carry. As painful and indigestible as patience was in the beginning, its results have been sweet as sherbet.

Patience is the elixir helping these devotees survive the vortexes of sins and carnality. With patience, they can remedy the malice of their persecutors and render ineffective the conspiracies of tricksters. Through the goggles of patience, they see everything has a due time. They have patiently accepted the fact that this is a long walk and the road will not come to an end soon. Patience has taught them to seek refuge in the infinite power of the Almighty. With patience, they have steered clear of the maddening bigotry of some fanatics who have fixated themselves on revenge, grudge, obstinacy, and envy. With patience, they have moved forward, calling others to brighten their minds with the “sunlight of knowledge” and to nourish their hearts with the “moonlight of faith.”

When faced with a pressing situation, they have hung on by always turning to, “O you who believe (believers who are people of security and trust)! Seek help (against all kinds of hardships and tribulations) through persevering patience and the Prayer; surely God is with the persevering and patient” (Qur’an 2:153). This verse has served as a fresh water spring and healed their spirit from all kinds of afflictions. What a heavenly source of life this spring has been! A new Divine favor has been born in their hearts with each sip, gracing them with eternal life. Each drop has become an ocean.

They have been fully aware that their lives are transient and their strength limited. They have disassociated themselves from their individual powers – to the extent of their good judgment – and sought refuge under the unlimited strength of the Almighty and His Willpower, by way of which their drops turn to oceans and their atoms to suns. Indeed, what doesn’t exist comes into existence, and what has no value becomes priceless, in this way. The Almighty’s favors are also dependent on the self-relinquishing ones who have turned to Him. How wonderfully the following lines by a pious one express this fact:

You do not reveal Yourself when my presence veils
My nonexistence is the condition that You reveal Your presence

These devotees of love have strived hard even during the direst of times: when time – time that has been detached from the One – has been disloyal and feelings have turned to delirium; when brute force has run amuck and pursuing a life of prophetic virtue has become extremely difficult. Through it all, they’ve continued on the path even when the future has become obscured.

They have worked to generate humble resources, and built their own fountains. They did their utmost to inspire our hopes as they expanded wide as an ocean and then evaporated to precipitate as drops of mercy. The driest deserts and thorn fields have become gardens of roses. When there was no beam of light across the horizon, and roads were concealed without signposts, they illuminated the path of those left in the dark. They have been praised everywhere as the cavaliers of light. But their efforts have never been for praise; what they have received is the expression of love and gratitude.

Ultimately, it has been Divine favor upon them. They have come to be recognized for what great conquerors were unable to achieve. But in compliance with the principle of logic, “negating a negation is an affirmation,” they have humbly renounced themselves in awareness of their impotence and poverty in relation to the Divine Majesty. The Almighty is the One who gives, and they are the honorable ones to receive.

This is how they have formulated the matter, and they have done their utmost not to assume any false pride, arrogance, extreme self-reliance, or self-praise. They have tried not to fall as low as to be disrespectful to the Most Honorable One. They have maintained their faithfulness and sincerity in being His servants by seeing His help, support, and protection behind all the grace; despite misfortunes and obstacles they have never fallen into despair, they have never been disappointed. They’ve galloped wherever the sun rises and sets, seeking to realize their ideals and to deserve the merits of being “the perfect pattern of creation” (Qur’an 95:4). Realizing their goals has been no different than racing great distances under the scorching desert sun. But their ideals have been like the cooling shade of a spring rain. These ideals have been their provisions on this hard trip, keeping them alive and motivated, and enabling them to soar to their destination. God would never leave these sincere travelers of truth abandoned on their way.

As was the case for all their predecessors, their path has been obstructed by some intolerant bigots, who have been miserably impaired by billowing feelings of envy. They have launched organized defamation campaigns and attempted to destroy whatever God enabled the cavaliers of light to achieve. This extreme malice would not even be perpetrated by the most outrageous deniers of truth. Devils have rejoiced, for this level of persecution is unacceptable in all circumstances. But it is endorsed when inflicted on these devotees.

Yet, the desire of these devotees for the Divine pleasure has made such destructive efforts ineffective; those marching on His path have devised alternative gateways to His contentment and have marched on without losing speed.

Time shrinks as they march, and the Earth, humbled under their feet, breathes life. Each spring turns into a waterfall, hopes grow firmer, and drizzles become downpours. Many surprise triumphs happen when failure seems unavoidable; murmurs of life are heard in the spiral of darkness; and many unexpected rays of light beam off celebrations in broken hearts.

“God is with the truthful,” whispers their common sense, in a quiet search for wisdom, as the following lines flow from within:

If still determined, no more despair
You overcame what was impassable before
And became a source of hope for all
Now, it’s your turn to speak, I say no more…

• Ibn Qayyim, Jawziya, Jawab al-Kafi, p. 69, 113; Nawawi, Sharh al-Sahih al-Muslim, 2/20. It is reported that the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said, “That who sees injustice and remains silent is a mute devil” (i.e. a silent partner in that injustice).

The theory is not far-fetched given archeological discoveries which may confirm that temples were built before there were settled communities. Göbekli Tepe, in present-day southeastern Turkey, was built 11,600 years ago and used for religious ceremonies. It was built by hunter-gatherers. Agriculture developed around the temple to sustain the feasts held there (Dietrich et.al., 2012; Mann, 2011).

To organize these feasts, it’s likely that one of the world’s first bureaucracies was formed. There was no separation of religion and state: religion was the reason for the state – or in this case, the community.

Human civilization has come a long way since those times, and yet religion is still important in the lives of many people. Even in the most secular of societies religion plays a role in individual identity. In the United States, church attendance is much higher than in Western Europe, and in many parts of the world there remains no separation between religion and government.

In 2009, Gallup released the results of a poll that surveyed residents across the fifty states as well as across the world. They polled respondents on their views regarding the importance of religion. Gallup declared that the people of Alabama and Iran had one thing in common: their views on the importance of religion. Eighty-two percent of people in both Iran and Alabama stated that religion was an important part of their daily life. The difference between Iran and Alabama is that one is a declared theocracy and the other is secular, with constitutional constraints on the establishment of religion (Crabtree & Pelham, 2009).

At its core, religion represents a set of values and these values are still important, even in highly secular societies. Public administration has become the modern-day science of government – and within it, values have become a part of ethics.

The concept of values or principles is an extremely difficult subject in public administration, but it is important. Many of the reactions against established values or principles led to utilitarian or pragmatist ideas. These ideas were considered “scientific.” One of the earliest paradigms in public administration in the United States was known as “scientific management.” The values embodied by the “higher law” were viewed as an irrational dogma handed down from former generations.

Dwight Waldo, one of the foremost scholars of public administration, did not associate this higher law with the normative or cultural values of a society, but pointed out the need to educate administrators in both the normative values of a particular society and utilitarian concepts. These future administrators might then consider both sources in his or her professional life (Waldo, 2007).

Another intellectual heavyweight in public administration, John Rohr, believed that public administrators needed to be steeped in the constitutional values of the nation, and these values have origins in western Europe and its political, cultural and religious history. He identified three core values in the United States: freedom, equality, and property. Other values that are often associated with public service are the common good and serving others, which could be meta-values for those values listed by Rohr. These values have origins in religion, although they are not monopolized by it (Rohr, 1989).

There are many values that drive individuals to pursue a career in public service, regardless of if they’re elected or hired to the office. These values are associated with the common good, service to others, and social equity. There are also deeper values like benevolence, which can be defined as a love for others. Many of those who pursue these careers see it as a calling in which they have a strong communitarian impulse. These are all fundamental values found in religion (Lowery, 2010; Cunningham, 2005).

Cunningham (2005) argued that in public administration there is a space for mythos-thinking. This kind of thinking is focused on meeting the emotional and spiritual needs of those who serve and are served by the government. This type of thinking may be necessary to create social bonds between the citizens and the government, and may be more relevant in the United States since, “spirituality / religiosity plays a larger role in American lives and culture than we logos-thinkers are willing to acknowledge” (Cunningham, 2005 p. 951).

One of the key values that public administration and religion share is a belief in the importance of civil society. The United States was founded on this idea. McConnell (2010) asserted that the founders saw religion as a part of the formation of public character and opinion. The First Amendment, which outlines the non-establishment clause, was adopted to prevent the government from exercising control over religion. The founders sought to create space for religion, and thus the freedom of religion and to act on those religious beliefs became entrenched in the United States (McIntyre, 1993).

Unfortunately, public administration scholars rarely consider the influence of religion on government in the United States. This attitude has been shaped by the Progressive Era and the negative impression of the political activity of religious conservatives in the modern era (King, 2007). This has led to a situation in which “the academic discipline of public administration has largely ignored the religious or spiritual impulse that runs deep in American culture” (Lowery, 2010 p. 326).

A study by Houston, Freeman, and Feldman (2008) explored the religiosity of public servants in the United States. They found that people in government-related public service occupations were more likely to be more religious than people in non-public service occupations. This was even higher and more significant for government occupations than other types of public service occupations.

The researchers also found that public servants were less likely to believe that religion should be in its own sphere compared to other types of occupations. In general, the authors found that public servants were not secular, and that “religious values influence a wide range of behaviors, including voting and volunteering, and play an important role in the decision making of elected officials” (Houston, Freeman & Feldman, 2008 p. 428).

Religion can be a source of some of those lofty values that modern-day secular regimes cherish without divulging into the church-state divide discussion. Ignoring the reality that public servants serve while being inspired by these values or that public policy is heavily influenced by these religious values does a disservice to the field. It also forces a scientific, utilitarian rationalism on the human being that is rather alien to it. As pointed out by the example of the Göbekli Tepe temple, humans are motivated through community values that are often embodied by religion.

The idea of the community being greater than the individual, and the individual fulfilment that is attained through that process, has been appreciated by social psychologists for some time. Jesus addressed it in the Gospels. From Mark 10:42-45, according to the New International Version: “Jesus called them together and said, ‘You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many” (pp. 1065-1066).

In the above set of verses Jesus is distancing him and his community from those who do not believe, i.e. the Gentiles. Those without faith rule over people and expect those they rule to serve them. Those with faith do the opposite. Their position of authority is not for gaining power and forcing their will upon others, but to serve others. How much better would our world be if those in power served their people instead of expecting the opposite? Positions of power are not for exploiting, but helping and facilitating the well-being of the people.

In Islam, this tradition is represented by the life of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, and his Companions. It is known that even though he sat at the seat of what would become one of the greatest empires in the world, he lived in poverty until his death. His condition even caused Umar ibn al-Khattab to lament, noting that the kings of Rome and Persia lived lavishly while God’s Prophet slept on a cheap mat on a dirt floor. The Prophet retorted that it is the next life that is better than this life. He did not come to amass riches, but to serve God and the people. Did not Jesus come to do the same thing? Did not all prophets, all of whom passed to the next world in a state of poverty?

Umar ibn al-Khattab would go on to become one of the greatest Caliphs. There is a story in which, during a famine, he roamed the streets of Medina at night. He came upon a widow and her children, who were crying in their house. The woman was cooking, but explained to Umar that it was only water and stones so that the children would think it was food and fall asleep from their exhaustion. Umar immediately felt guilty and responsible for the plight of this woman and her family and immediately fed them. He then made it a point to ensure that he would ascertain the conditions of his people and not rely on them begging to know that they were needy. He exemplified public service that is directly linked with the meaning of the term khalifa in Islam.

We live in a changing world and in challenging times. The prophets came with sound advice couched in essential values. These have real meaning and utility that could be highly applicable today. Our societies are better off by appreciating and learning from these values. The world’s faithful are better off by understanding each other and how these values are the same or similar across faiths. Those that administer are better off by viewing themselves as responsible for the ills in their society and serving and upholding the will of the people. Communities are better off when they value each other and value the community and its maintenance. Selfishness only hurts the community and ultimately the individual. These values are just as important today as they were in the past. It would be advantageous if people learned from them even if they did not embrace the religious connotations behind them.

References

• Cauvin, J. (1997). Naissance des divinités, naissance de l’agriculture: La révolution des symboles au néolithique. Paris, France: CNRS éd.
• Crabtree, S., & Pelham, B. (2009, February 9). What Alabamians and Iranians Have in Common | Gallup. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/114211/alabamians-iranians-common.aspx
• Cunningham, R. (2005). Religion and Public Administration – The Unacknowledged Common (and Competitive) Ground. International Journal of Public Administration, 28(11-12), 943-955.
• Dietrich, O., Heun, M., Notroff, J., Schmidt, K., & Zarnkow, M. (2012). The role of cult and feasting in the emergence of Neolithic communities. New evidence from Göbekli Tepe, south-eastern Turkey. Antiquity, 86(333), 674-695.
• Houston, D. J., Freeman, P. K., & Feldman, D. L. (2008). How Naked Is the Public Square? Religion, Public Service, and Implications for Public Administration. Public Administration Review, 68(3), 428-444.
• King, S. M. (2007). Religion, Spirituality, and the Workplace: Challenges for Public Administration. Public Administration Review, 67(1), 103-114.
• Lowery, D. (2005). Self-Reflexivity: A Place for Religion and Spirituality in Public Administration. Public Administration Review, 65(3), 324-334.
• Mann, C. C. (2011, June). The Birth of Religion. National Geographic. Retrieved from http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/print/2011/06/gobekli-tepe/mann-text
• McConnell, M. W. (2010). Religion and Its Relation to Limited Government. Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy, 33(3), 943-952.
• McIntyre, P. (1993). The Collision of Public Policy with Belief-Based Values. Journal of Church and State, 35(4), 831-857.
• Rohr, J. (1989). Ethics for Bureaucrats: An Essay on Law and Values (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Marcel Bekker.
• Waldo, D. (2007). The administrative state: A study of the political theory of American public administration. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Auguste Escoffier was not just a chef; in Paris in the late 1800s he was the chef. He had opened the most glamorous, most expensive, most revolutionary restaurant in the city. He had written a cookbook, The Guide Culinaire. And, he also created meals that tasted like no combination of salty, sour, sweet, and bitter; they tasted new. He offered a spectacular new sauce that seemed to deepen and enrich the flavor of everything it touched.

But because it was neither sweet, bitter, sour, salty nor any combination of those four, as far as scientists were concerned, it wasn’t real. People may smack their lips, drool, savor, and pay enormous amounts of money to M. Escoffier, but what they tasted wasn’t really there. It was all in their heads.

Meanwhile, halfway across the world, a chemist named Kikunae Ikeda was at the very same time enjoying a bowl of dashi, a classic Japanese soup made from seaweed. He too sensed that he tasted something beyond categor[ization]. And it was, thought Ikeda, simply delicious.

But what was it? Being a chemist, Ikeda could find out. He knew what he tasted was, as he wrote, “common to asparagus, tomatoes, cheese and meat but… not one of the four well-known tastes.” Ikeda went into his lab and found the secret ingredient in 1908. He wrote in a journal for the Chemical Society of Tokyo that it was glutamic acid, but he decided to rename it. He called it umami (pronounced “oo-MA-mee”), which means “delicious” or “yummy” in Japanese. Ikeda then crystallized monosodium glutamate (MSG), the chemical ingredient responsible for umami, as a seasoning that would become popular worldwide, and began commercial distribution of MSG products. [1]

Almost 100 years after Escoffier wrote his cookbook and Ikeda wrote his article, a new generation of scientists took a closer look at the human tongue and discovered, just as those two had insisted, there is a fifth taste. When something is really, really yummy in a non-sweet, sour, bitter, or salty way, that’s L-glutamate you taste. This new taste was named “umami,” in Ikeda’s honor. [1]

Umami is a Japanese word that means “good flavor” or “good taste.” The closest English equivalent, taste-wise, is probably brothy or meaty. Umami describes the flavor common to savory products such as meat, cheese, and mushrooms. Bouillon cubes are the closest Western product that could be identified as umami. Unlike the other four tastes, umami is much vaguer and harder to pinpoint. All candies exhibit some sweetness, yet not all cheeses or vegetables will be umami. Although North Americans cannot easily identify this flavor, it’s quite easily recognized in many East Asian countries because the idea of umami is a part of the culture. Thai fish sauce, for instance, is pure umami.

Salts of umami, the most common of which is monosodium glutamate (MSG), are used as natural flavor enhancers which bring depth and balance to food without drowning out more subtle tastes. Valued at USD 4.5 billion, the global MSG market stood around 3,000 kilo tons in 2014. It appears in almost everything from fast food sausages to supermarket items like rapid-cooking soups, chips, bouillon cubes, ketchup, steak sauce, cheese, etc., providing flavor enhancement. What MSG has going for it is that it is a readily available, inexpensive, intensely umami ingredient with no off-flavors — just as sugar is a classic expression of sweet and salt is perfectly salty.

In many parts of Asia, it is as common to add a dash of MSG to dishes as it is for cooks here to toss in a little salt or sugar. But in the U.S., MSG has developed a bad reputation as a suspicious additive that many consumers believe causes allergies or headaches. [2] Concerns have been raised on anecdotal grounds. Hypotheses have been put forward that MSG may be associated with migraine headaches, food allergies, obesity, asthma, and hyperactivity in children, etc. Yet, subsequent research failed to present any causal association that MSG is responsible for these symptoms, even in studies with people convinced that they are sensitive to it. U.S. Food and Drug Administration “considers the addition of MSG to foods to be generally recognized as safe.” [4]

Umami in food

In the wake of breakthroughs in food science, umami is going mainstream. Chefs are offering dishes that pile on ingredients naturally rich in umami to reduce the fat and salt content of foods without sacrificing flavor. Just as a few shakes of salt can improve a dish, a correctly applied dash of cheese or ketchup can pump up the umami without overwhelming the dish. [2] Packaged-food companies are trying to ramp up the umami taste in foods like low-sodium soup to make them taste better. Companies that develop flavorings for the food industry are seeking ways of delivering the taste to foods while also cutting back on fat, salt, sugar, and artificial ingredients. These can range from natural ingredients to artificial flavors that are to MSG what saccharine and aspartame are to sugar. [2]

Umami blends well with other tastes to expand and ignite their flavors, and to awaken the taste buds. It is a subtle taste that occurs naturally in many vegetables and dairy products as well as in meat, fish, seafood, and their fermented or cured derivatives. However, it’s not as easily recognizable in the Western diet as sweet, salty, bitter, and sour. In Asian cuisines, umami is mainly found in beans and grain, fermented seafood-based products, shiitake mushrooms, soy sauce, fish sauce, Kombu, and dried seafood. These are all inherently rich in umami, without additives or chemicals. The most common example in Western cuisine is tomatoes. [3]

Tomatoes are an indispensable ingredient that form the basis of a wide variety of dishes. The glutamate levels in tomatoes increase significantly in condiment forms such as juice, ketchup, paste, or sauce. Today, tomatoes are one of the most widely produced vegetables and their umami taste, especially present in ripe, juicy beefsteak tomatoes, is appreciated all over the world. [3]

Foods high in protein are the best for sensing umami. Glutamate is released when protein is broken down through drying, aging, curing, smoking, slow-barbequing, or slow cooking; for instance, mushrooms better contribute to umami when sautéed, and meat that has been marinated is tastier. Many kinds of meat become tenderer when matured: the enzymes contained within the meat break down its proteins to increase the levels of umami-imparting amino acids. Processed beef products have higher levels of glutamate than meats do in their natural state. [3]

Already rich in glutamates, milk further releases glutamic acid when it is cultured and aged to produce cheese. That’s why aged cheeses, such as cheddar and parmesan, are grated over or stirred into other dishes as seasonings or used as toppings to add a savory flavor. Parmesan cheese, also high in protein, is one of the world’s most popular hard cheeses. More than two years are required for the maturation of parmesan. The glutamate content is so high that even a rind tossed into a soup pot deepens flavor. A large chunk of parmesan cheese will have small but visible white glutamate crystals, which were formed during maturation. [3]

The sweetness and umami of green tea is provided by amino acids. Teas – such as green, black, and oolong – all originate from the leaf of the same tea plant, but variations in the production and processing result in differing beverages. Most of the tea consumed in China and Japan is unroasted green tea, where the essential elements of the tea plant are left largely intact. [3]

Another food combining umami substances is the cheeseburger. Its combination of beef, cheese, and ketchup creates a delicious synergistic effect. The effect further increases when it is accompanied by fried potato, as potato slices lose water content when they are fried up, which concentrates the glutamic acid in each bite.3 Piles of umami toppings on pizza – tomatoes, pepperoni, mozzarella, and mushrooms – could explain why people love its savory taste and the full, tongue-coating sensation it provides.

Another role glutamates play

Glutamates are important neurotransmitters in the human brain and play a key element in learning and memory. A sweet taste signals a source of energy, through sugars and carbohydrates. A salty taste signals the presence minerals that are essential to keeping the mineral balance of the body’s fluids. Sour tastes signal that something has gone bad in the food, and a bitter taste, meanwhile, signals that something is harmful to the body, such as a toxin.

On the other hand, umami is the taste of amino acids or nucleotides, and plays the role of signaling the presence of proteins, which are essential to human beings. Just as sweets serve as an incentive for carbohydrates, glutamate helps us enjoy proteins.

Our body recognizes the various tastes via taste receptors on the surface of the tongue. Negating the opinion that each taste has its particular zone, research has revealed that all tastes can be detected anywhere around the tongue, as each taste bud has 50 to 100 receptors for each taste. Furthermore, separate taste receptors on the tongue with no purpose other than detecting umami have been discovered.

What is more, recent research has discovered that there are glutamate receptors not only on the tongue but also in the stomach. It has been ascertained that the pneumogastric vagus nerve only reacts to glutamate. This suggests that when a piece of food enters the stomach, and glutamate receptors detect the presence of glutamate, this information is relayed to the brain by the vagus nerve and an order is sent from the brain to the stomach to prepare for digestion.

As we see here, the whole system – of taste, sense, and digestion – is tied together. One can only marvel at the incredible design of such a complex system – maybe while enjoying a delicious, umami cheeseburger!

Notes

[1] Krulwich, Robert. “Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter… and Umami.” NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15819485.

[2] McLaughlin, Katy. “A New Taste Sensation.” The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119706514515417586.html.

[3] Umami Information Center. http://www.umamiinfo.com/.

[4] https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm328728.htm

Figure 1. Examples of umami food