No link found between gender and performance in physics courses

Dew et al. Gendered performance differences in introductory physics: A study from a large land-grant university. Physical Review Physics Education Research, February 2021.

A new study discredits the stereotype that male students perform better than female students in science, more specifically in physics. Researchers from Texas A&M University analyzed the grades of more than 10,000 students enrolled in four introductory physics courses over a decade-long period and found no evidence that male students consistently outperformed female students in these courses. Their analyses showed that exam success and final grades were largely independent of student gender. In addition to multiple statistical analyses of course-level data, researchers distributed questionnaires to students to see how the results aligned with student perceptions. Interestingly, student responses showed that female students had lower perceptions of their performance than their male classmates. The only class where female students perceived their performance as equal to their male classmates was algebra-based mechanics, in which females outperformed males. This study can be another step in breaking up the preconceived notion of a societal bias based on gender in physics. Moreover, it may help to fight against gender stereotypes that negatively impact so many female students and harm women in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) related courses.  All students should have equal opportunities and chances for success.

Air pollution may cause chronic heart disease in children

Prunicki et al. Air pollution exposure is linked with methylation of immunoregulatory genes, altered immune cell profiles, and increased blood pressure in children. Scientific Reports, February 2021.

Exposure to air pollution has been linked to various diseases in adults, but no study had yet extensively investigated its long-term impacts on children. A new study suggests that children exposed to air pollution, such as wildfire smoke and car exhaust, for as little as one day may become more prone to heart disease in adulthood. Researchers investigated air pollution’s effects at the single-cell level in a group of 221 school-aged children (6–8 years). They focused on Fresno, California, a city with some of the country’s highest air pollution levels due to industrial agriculture and wildfires. Using a combination of continuous daily pollutant concentrations measured at central air monitoring stations in Fresno, daily concentrations from periodic spatial sampling, and meteorological and geophysical data, the research team estimated average air pollution exposures for 1 day, 1 week, and 1, 3, 6, and 12 months prior to each participant visit. When combined with health and demographics questionnaires, blood pressure readings, and blood samples, the data showed that polluted air can alter gene regulation in cardiovascular and immune systems of children in a way that can impact long-term health. In particular, exposure to fine particles, carbon monoxide, and ozone over time is linked to increased DNA methylation, a form of epigenetic alteration of DNA molecules that can change their activity without changing their sequence. This inheritable change in gene expression may be passed down to future generations. Researchers also found that air pollution exposure leads to an increase in monocytes, white blood cells that play a key role in the buildup of plaques in arteries and could possibly predispose children to heart disease in adulthood. According to the World Health Organization, air pollution is one of the leading causes of death in children. Children typically breath faster than adults, making them more susceptible to health problems by rapidly inhaling low quality air. With air quality deteriorating globally, we all need to be more careful and conscientious to protect kids from air pollution.

Sleep memories

Clawson et al. Causal role for sleep-dependent reactivation of learning-activated sensory ensembles for fear memory consolidation. Nature Communications, February 2021.

Sleep is very critical for brain functions. Inadequate sleep can impair our abilities to concentrate, think clearly, and process memories. Past studies showed that regions of the brain that are highly active during intensive learning surprisingly show more activity during sleep. However, which biological purpose this “reactivation” of memories during sleep serves remains unclear. To address this question, researchers studied how memories associated with a specific sensory event are formed and stored in mice. They specifically examined how a fearful memory formed in relation to a particular visual stimulus in the brain. By focusing on a specific set of neurons in the primary visual cortex, researchers were able to create a visual memory test. When they ran this test in various conditions, the mice with regular sleep learned to fear the specific stimuli that had been paired with a foot shock. However, the mice with disrupted sleep had no fear association with the visual stimulus. These sleep-deprived mice seemed to process the fact that they should be afraid, but there may have been a lost connection regarding what they were supposed to be afraid of. These observations suggest that sleep-associated reactivation of the neurons encoding that stimulus is required for them to make an accurate fear association with a visual stimulus. These findings have important implications for anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorders. In the absence of sleep, the brain seems to manage processing the fact that we should experience emotions, but we may be unable to link those emotions to exact causes accurately. That specification process may be one that goes awry with such anxiety-related disorders.

Question: Arrogance is a serious character problem we experience throughout our lives. We falsely claim ownership over every good deed we are involved, forgetting that they are blessings from God. How can believers cope with such an arrogance? 

On seeing certain positive results, one might sometimes think they are doing good works, and this consideration might appear very innocuous to that person. However, sin can find a way for itself even in the most innocent feeling and thoughts. When thoughts like “we did this, we did that; we planned this, we planned that…” plague our neurons, we adulterate the good work we did. Being able to keep upright in this respect is very difficult. Even if you make great accomplishments, if you conquer worlds, if you dig out treasures hidden deep under the earth but afterwards sing your own praises in your mind similar to “we also have a part in bringing these works to existence,” you have already lost.

God’s creating does not accept any partners

A person’s will is essential at the outset of anything we do. So, it is important to give their willpower its due in addition to fulfilling all requirements of causality, being committed at the issue with great determination, and doing all we can very seriously. However, the resulting work comes out as a blessing of the Divine Power; we do things because it is our duty to do them – we do not own the work and we cannot lay personal claim onto it. God is the one who creates all beings and everything that happens in the universe, and partnership is impossible at that. Giving consideration to a thought of participation here is a type of associating partners with God.

When people begin to presume themselves as the source of God’s blessings onto them, they lose those blessings. Even if the good work continues to expand a bit more with the centrifugal force of sincerity at the beginning, it is bound to stop after a while on account of a loss of sincerity of intention. After setting about some blessed task with sincerity at the beginning, those who begin to consider themselves as partners in the issue will lose even if they are saints of the greatest kind. They will be doomed to fail sooner or later.

That was why Bediuzzaman Said Nursi counseled his disciples to keep reading the Treatise on Sincerity every second week at least without giving a longer interval. This is very important in terms of a person being able to utterly neutralize their ego, nearing to the port of “we”—which is actually a lesser form of associating partners with God—and afterwards even with a consideration of further sincerity, throwing away “we” as well and being attached to “He” in the end.

The path we walk is that of Divine unity. It is the path of reviving the considerations about God’s existence and being one. The essential dynamics of this issue were damaged for years and were forgotten by many. It should be known that it is not possible to walk on the path of Divine unity with a consideration of associating partners with God. On such a path, if you start ascribing certain issues to things other than God, such as causality or your ego, God will take them away from you after some time. At the moment that you think you built a world, it collapses onto you and you remain under the debris. For this reason, as Divine blessings and favors increase, our heed for, and bond with Him, must also get stronger; everything other than Him must be erased from consideration.

Nursi explains the place of causes in contrast to God’s Unity as follows:

“God’s Dignity and Grandeur require apparent causes to prevent complaints and to hide, from those who reason superficially, the hand of Power’s involvement in certain seemingly insignificant or vile things and affairs. At the same time, God’s Unity and Glory require that these apparent causes have no part in either the creation or disposition of things” (First Treatise, Al-Mathnawi al-Nuri).

As it is seen, causes only serve as a screen in between us and our Creator.  Although humans are endowed with the blessing of reason and honored with the best pattern of creation, their actions are nothing beyond apparent causes. Therefore putting “I” in the place of “He” is a gross act of disrespect towards God.

A person should not allow even the slightest wrong consideration in this regard to pollute the mind because this consideration might gradually grow and make the person into a monument of egoism. Once the issue comes that far, even the person concerned cannot so easily destroy that self-constructed idol.

Sincerity

It is stated in that it is God Who created you and all that you do (Saffat 37:96). One may not feel this all the time. Sometimes one might lay claim to the fruits of the efforts he or she made. However, as soon as realizing this the person must ask for forgiveness from God immediately and stay away from these wrongful considerations. One should not even let the imagination be polluted with these kinds of thoughts. So far, there is no successful person among those who repeatedly says “I.” Even if such people take a task to a certain extent, they give in to a whirlpool at an unexpected point and overturn. God does not like a person who keeps saying “I.” It is for this reason that if we wish to succeed with our services for His sake, we must carry out all of our deeds with sincerity.

The carnal soul, the desire within each person that pushes us to do what is reprehensible and forbidden for the sake of worldly gain or pleasure, wishes to see itself as independent from God and wants to boast about the achievements it made. However, as Prophet Joseph (peace be upon him) states in the Qur’an, the human carnal soul forcefully commands evil (Yusuf 12:53), and therefore it cannot be trusted. When we do certain things in the name of the carnal soul and ascribe them to it, we end up devaluing the deeds carried out and eliminate their positive effects. Deeds done for the sake of the carnal soul are doomed to be fruitless in the Afterlife as well. Even if you conquer worlds, if you acted for the sake of your carnal soul, you cannot receive any reward from God Almighty.

Moreover, there is no doubt that such egoistic attitudes will evoke a reaction in sincere servants of God. You may receive their dislike, and that these actions may push your fellow companions onto the path of envy and jealousy. It needs to be remembered that such a person with self-approval for his own person and deeds will disapprove of others in the same degree.

The worship of “playing down”

Good works, however small they may look from the outside, become great when they are done with sincerity of intention. Nothing done for the sake of God is insignificant. The noble Prophet counsels that no good act should be underestimated, even if it is as simple as a smile (Muslim, Birr 144).

While we should not underestimate anything done for the sake of God, on the other hand we should see even the greatest deeds we carried out for ourselves as being little. A believer must have such a perspective of all things he or she attempts to do. No personal deed should be seen as great. They should see both the acts of worship they observed for God and their efforts for the sake of glorifying His name as little. They should not feel content with the time they spared for God and the endeavors they made for guiding others and communicating the message. Actually, such a consideration also counts as worship in a different sense. Let us name this as “worship of playing down.” If there is some greatness concerned, it lies in carrying out our deeds for the good of humanity and doing them for the sake of gaining good pleasure of God because we believe that God may grant great positive results even for efforts of little scale.

For example, consider some good deeds you did with sincere intention, like opening homes for a few students, God can render them a means of great expansion in the future. The seeds you sow can grow into saplings, then become trees, and then begin to flourish everywhere, and then help turn the world into a garden of roses. Even the one who initially sowed the seeds remains in amazement and utmost astonishment before that outcome. This is a given result that the actions that were carried out were done for the sake of gaining God’s approval and the people who did these great deeds did not try to express any kind of greatness or grandeur via their activities.

In conclusion, we can say that, concerning people who are not primarily focused on the benefits of the good deeds that they carried out, who do not put themselves first, who do not pursue worldly concerns, and who genuinely serve God with selfless devotion, God will make them succeed. As it is stated in the first verse of the Qur’an’s chapter “Fath,” God will clear their way, open new roads, and will turn narrow footpaths into highways for them.

As for people who act like spiders and care about weaving a world for themselves instead, and harbor considerations such as “I work, I keep running, I migrate, I forbear great hardships… Where are the returns of all these efforts and sacrifices?” they will fall into the web they personally wove, which is the web of arrogance. Once they fall into that web, they will not be able to get out of it and will become prey to others. May God bless all of us with peace and living a life with a blissful end.

Communication is the essence of the qualities which make human beings social creatures. The primary purpose of inter-personal communication is information exchange between two parties, but the conveyed message could be influenced by many factors including emotions, body language, the mediums used, as well as cultural and social influences. The science of communication has been studied extensively in many fields including social science, psychology, sociology, business, and healthcare.

Communication involves three components: verbal (the words we choose), paraverbal (the tone, how we say the words), and nonverbal (body language). Researchers, especially in the field of psychology, extensively studied communication and concluded that the interpretation of a message is 7% verbal, 38% tone of voice, and 55% percent body language. That means that 93% of our communication is “nonverbal” in nature, a primary reason why many researchers studied to discover the “power of body language and nonverbal communication” [1].

The most common definition of nonverbal communication is “communication without words.” This silent language includes senses of touch, facial expressions, eye gaze and contact, postures, body positions, signs, and gestures. Body language tells an audience more about a person’s character than the words they say or the tone in which they utter them. In other words, nonverbal communication cues tell the truth and mostly provide objective measures and reactions of the body.

In medicine, doctor-patient nonverbal communication has received great attention from researchers. Studies found that nonverbal communication in doctor-patient interaction influences satisfaction, trust, medication adherence, health outcomes, and discontinuity of care. [2] Effective nonverbal communication is critical for doctors to establish trust with their patients so patients can adhere to, and follow, the suggestions and instructions of doctors. [3] Eye contact is particularly important for positive interpersonal communication, since it activates brain arousal systems and can elicit strong emotional responses. Eye contact has been defined by communications researchers as “the most powerful mode of establishing a communicative link between humans” [4]. The communication of babies relies heavily on body language, in particular mostly on eye gaze. As humans develop from babyhood into childhood and adulthood, eye gaze continues to be an important tool of human interactions as it provides information, regulates interaction, and expresses emotional states. Consistently, eye gaze has been correlated with perceptions of likeability, competence, intelligence, and credibility, as studies have rated those participants who made eye contact more favorably than those who did not [5]. Note that moderation in gaze is also important. Recently, excessive technology and computer usage by doctors in healthcare visits inhibited nonverbal interactions and lead to a reduction in patient adherence to treatment or a reluctance for patients to return to the physician, thus causing negative health outcomes [6].

Some other studies explored the pattern of nonverbal communication of depressed patients who have suicidal tendencies; it was found that some distinct patterns were present [7]. This is helpful for doctors to identify these patients and potentially intervene to prevent a catastrophic outcome.

Furthermore, this phenomenon is not only present in the healthcare industry. Dr. Gottman, a psychologist, observed the interactions of married couples, including their nonverbal communication for around 30 min-45 min, and predicted if they would end up staying married or getting divorced with a success rate as high as 90% [8].

For the last decade, historians and anthropologists have shown a great deal of interest in studying the various forms of nonverbal communication as one possible avenue to the cultural codes and social sensibilities of the past. Most interestingly, we are seeing increased numbers of studies exploring nonverbal communications in holy scriptures including Bible and Qur’an. These holy scriptures utilize and emphasize nonverbal communication tools like intonation, different ways of expression, from traitorous eyes to dead looks, gestures, facial expressions made in anger, derision, and eyebrow movements. There are a number of these instances in holy scriptures, but they are seldom commented on.

Exploring nonverbal instances in the interpretation of Biblical and Qur’anic scripts might provide additional and complementary perspectives to better understand the conveyed meanings of the verses as well as encourage researchers to study implications of such forms of communication. For instance, when Zechariah (peace be upon him) was told that his wife would give birth to a son, he asked for a sign. The sign is described in the Qur’an as “Your sign is that you will not speak to the people for three days except by gesture” (3:41) and in New Testament “not able to speak, until the day that these things shall be performed” (Luke 1:18–22). In another verse in the New Testament that describes wicked and worthless people, it gives details of the nonverbal cues “They are constant liars, signaling their deceit with a wink of the eye, a nudge of the foot, or the wiggle of fingers. Their perverted hearts plot evil, and they constantly stir up trouble” (Proverb 6:12-19).

The Holy Qur’an portrays Moses’ (peace be upon him) encounters and speeches with God at Mount Sinai during his journey with his family and how he was given two miracles by God to use at his mission during his encounter with Egypt’s pharaoh. The Qur’an specifically describes the body language of Moses (peace be upon him) related to his fear during this encounter at Mount Sinai: “Now put your hand through (the opening of) your collar, it will come out (shining) white, unblemished. And cross your arms tightly to calm your fears. These are two proofs from your Lord to Pharaoh and his chiefs. They have truly been a rebellious people (Qasas-32).”  This verse might have implications to study how people can control their fear with some body language cues.

The holy Qur’an has many verses which take advantage of using nonverbal communication to describe many characters, feelings, and emotions such as happiness, sorrow, anger, the characters of believers or nonbelievers, humbleness versus arrogance, and specifically describes their associated facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, and hand movements. In the surah al-Muddaththir, a nonbeliever’s reaction is described with details in his body language as follows: “Then he re-contemplated (in frustration), then frowned and scowled, then turned his back (on the truth) and acted arrogantly, saying, “This (Qur’an) is nothing but magic from the ancients” (Al–Muddaththir 21-24).

In another verse, when the Qur’an describes a regretful farmer’s action on the loss of his wealth, it portrays the exact picture including details of his hand movements: “And so all his produce was (totally) ruined, so he started to wring his hands for all he had spent on it, while it had collapsed on its trellises. He cried, ‘Alas! I wish I had never associated anyone with my Lord (in worship)!’” (Al-Kahf 42).

The Qur’an also advises Moses (peace be upon him) for the tone of communication that he should utilize when he encounters the Pharoah: “Speak to him gently, so perhaps he may be mindful (of Me)” (Ta ha 44). Some of these verses show the importance of nonverbal communication and might encourage researchers to study these behaviors and their implications in detail.

The “Messengers” who influenced millions of people were also great communicators and educators that utilized “the power of body language” in their teachings. Jesus (peace be upon him) was described as a humble and caring person, and his behavior and body language only reflected these innate qualities. We see various passages of the Bible that go along the lines of, “Jesus was warm and compassionate, and his facial expressions no doubt reflected this” (Matthew 11:28, 29). “People of all sorts sought him out for comfort and help” (Luke 5: 12, 13; 7: 37, 38). “Even children felt at ease in his presence” (Matthew 19:13-15; Mark 9:35-37).

Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was also another messenger of God, and his noble manners were described as “And you (stand) on an exalted standard of character” in the holy Qur’an (68:4). One aspect of his character is using his body language very effectively to teach others, so he was a perfect example of how to communicate with people [9]. Some of the examples we see in additional narrations about his non-verbal language are as follows:

When he pointed to something or somewhere, he used to point with his whole palm. When he was surprised, he used to turn his palm inside out (upwardly). He used to join his palms while speaking and hit his right palm to his left thumb. When he got angry, he would turn his face to the other side. When he was happy, he would lower his eyes. His laugh was mostly a smile. When he spoke to someone, he would look at his face, if he held his hand, he would not leave it unless he let go, and he would not turn his face to the other side.

In one hadith, the Messenger of God said, “One who cares for an orphan and I will be this close in Paradise,” and he pointed to his index and middle fingers.

Most of Muslim scholars in the science of hadith study and evaluate the Islamic hadith—i.e. the record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Prophet (pbuh)—deal with the text, we also see some narrators who report the body language he used when he says that specific statement [10].

In this technology dependent century, we use many different technologies as primary communication tools in daily life from text messaging, group chatting, to emails. This growing industry also realizes the integration of body language expressions in written messages that are vastly different from traditional nonverbal communication features. Emojis are one such people feature that allow people to express their feelings in greater detail.

As we see from current science, historical sources as well as divine sources, body language is very important and has some forms associated with negative attitude, and other forms with positive attitude. Taking proper training, and learning how to use our body language effectively, we can improve our interactions, trust, and relationships with others. It is also mindful to learn the influence of cultural differences on body language to better understand and communicate with people from multinational countries. Daily technology use is also another growing factor that influences our forms of communication overall.  However, using technology in unhealthy quantities can also potentially harm our in-person communication, especially body language since it takes away attention and creates ignorance. There is ongoing research on how technology influences in-person communication, and effort is being put into mitigating strategies to minimize potential negative influences. Finally, the trend of body language manipulation to gain trust for negative purposes is also increasing. We should also be mindful and cautious against this trend and always have checks and balances against people with such wrong intentions.

References

1. Mehrabian, Albert. 1972. Nonverbal Communication, Chicago, Aldine-Atherton.
2. D’Agostino, T. A., & Bylund, C. L. (2014). Nonverbal accommodation in health care communication. Health Communication, 29(6), 563-573. Montague, E., & Asan, O. (2014).
3. Montague E and Asan O. (2014). Dynamic modeling of patient and physician eye gaze to understand the effects of electronic health records on doctor-patient communication and attention. International journal of medical informatics, 83(3), 225-234.
4. Farroni, T., Csibra, G., Simion, F., & Johnson, M. H. (2002). Eyecontact detection in humans from birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,99, 9602–9602.
5. Montague, E, Xu,J., Chen,P., Asan,O., Barrett, B and Chewning, B. “Modeling eye gaze patterns in clinicians“ patient interaction with lag sequential analysis.” Human factors 53, no. 5 (2011): 502-516.
6. Asan, O., & Carayon, P. (2017). Human factors of health information technology: ”challenges and opportunities”.
7. Asan, O., Kim, S. C., Iglar, P., & Yan, A. (2018). Differences in verbal and nonverbal communication between depressed and non-depressed elderly patients. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 11(4), 297-306.
8. Gottman, John M., James D. Murray, Catherine C. Swanson, Rebecca Tyson, and Kristin R. Swanson. The mathematics of marriage: Dynamic nonlinear models. MIT Press, 2005.
9. https://fountainmagazine.com/2003/issue-42-april-june-2003/prophets-as-teachers
10. Bunyamin Erul. Muhammad (Pbuh) and the Body Language. Journal of Islamic Research. 1(2). 2008

“70 percent of [these] scientists (who work as engineers or in research and development) said that the narrative that all life, including humans, evolved over millions of years without the involvement of God or an intelligent force was probably or definitely false.” (p. 42)

It is sometimes asserted that religion is the stuff of miracles, blind faith, and obedience while science is based upon facts, logic, and sound reasoning. This paints an image of a great rift between two incompatible forces that are perpetually at odds with one another. Dr. Elaine Howard Ecklund works to dispel this narrative in her book “Why Science and Faith Need Each Other: Eight Shared Values That Move Us Beyond Fear” by examining what the two disciplines have in common within the context of Christianity and its greater American community. Dr. Ecklund believes that atheists and believers can be connected in a multitude of surprising ways across 8 values: curiosity, doubt, humility, creativity, healing, awe, shalom, and gratitude. There are only a few passing references to these values in this review; readers should take a look into the book for a more comprehensive discussion.

This book is primarily targeted towards Christian audiences as a guide for how to better inculcate an appreciation, acceptance, and love of science in their churches. However, it is also informative for members of other faith traditions that wish to better understand how science can relate to their faith, and how to better discuss science in religious settings. Curious atheists and agnostics that believe science and faith are incompatible can also benefit from hearing Ecklund’s arguments, as they often come from scientific and empathetic approaches that they may more strongly relate to than strictly theological ones. 

Science and faith are compatible 

Ecklund is a devout Christian who firmly believes that science and religion are as compatible as can be. A sociologist by education, she has travelled across the world interviewing Christian scientists and churchgoers, along with members of other faith traditions, about how, or even if, science and religion co-exist. “Why Science and Faith Need Each Other” is the culmination of her research: it is an informative and eye-opening, yet enjoyable and easy to read, look into science’s place in Christianity. 

One of Ecklund’s key takeaways is that a majority of Christian scientists and churchgoers that she interviewed believed that science and religion were compatible but that they did not feel comfortable, or invited, to talk about the relation of science and religion openly in religious settings. This has led to the perpetuation of a stigma that Christians, especially more evangelical ones, are against science and that they believe it has no place in church settings. One of Ecklund’s primary goals is to dispel this stigma by showing how open the Christian community actually is to discussing science’s place in religion and by proving, through the arguments of Christian scientists, that religion and science are indeed compatible. She also indirectly aims to advise readers with steps that they utilize to better incorporate religion into science, and vice versa, in both their daily lives and religious environments. 

Science’s place in Christianity 

Science often has the capacity to leave those that study it closely in complete awe of it. Religious communities use science as a vehicle to better understand and observe the power and wisdom of God. Exceptionally complex microbes and cells often leave Christian scientists dazzled at the might of the One capable of creating such awe-inspiring creations. Non-believing scientists also tend to experience a similar form of awe from their research, though the focus is more so on the complexity and orderliness of creation as opposed to the might of the Creator behind it. Ecklund points out similarities such as this in order to show that Christians, scientists, and believers have more in common with each other than they may think. 

Evolution and Darwinism are much discussed in the book, as they have been important sources of discussion for Christian communities for the past 100+ years. Darwinism, and sometimes science in general, has often been viewed as a source of doubt and insecurity. It was thus feared that this doubt could undermine a person’s faith and therefore it has sometimes been discouraged to bring up such topics in church. Doubting is also a natural part of the scientific process, as many curious questions around science begin by doubting a status quo. Ecklund believes that this fear of doubt in churches is dangerous as it only stifles the mind. She argues that churches, instead of fearing doubt and running from it, should confront doubts raised by science head-on. She narrates how her own faith was strengthened and became resilient through overcoming doubts that she personally had. 

Humility is touched upon as an absolute necessity for religious communities that wish to confront, and perhaps come to terms with, science and viewpoints that may contradict their beliefs. Ecklund argues that it requires humility to take a step back and realize that one’s previous assumptions were incorrect whether they are believers or not. She cites some of humanity’s greatest modern scientists, such as Albert Einstein, and the humility that they presented and how it allowed them to achieve the success that they did as scientists. Humility also allows both sides to consider that, perhaps, there is something going on behind the scenes of life and that they can benefit from one another as opposed to existing in a constant state of disagreement, animosity, and argument. 

Religious settings should foster scientific discussions 

Ecklund argues that churches should be less fearful of having discussions around topics that are considered taboo. This specifically includes infertility. She narrates how important the concept of having children is in Christian societies and how women, even established scientists, are often seen first and foremost as mothers and caretakers within church settings. This can present obvious difficulties for couples that are struggling with infertility. Ecklund goes into detail discussing her own personal struggles with infertility and the lack of open discussion in many churches around topics such as this one. She calls on church leaders to be more mindful of the real-life problems that their congregants may be facing and encourages them to create environments where they can feel open and encouraged to discuss the difficulties that they may be wrestling with. Leaders of any spiritual setting can heed her advice as it is important for believers to constantly be discussing the difficulties that their followers are facing. 

Ecklund also touches upon the importance of curiosity, how churches are stifling it, and why they need to be more open when it comes to letting people explore their natural curiosity. Curiosity is the itch in our brains and hearts that motivates us to find answers or to discover the truth. When restricted, it can cause discomfort or frustration, as was the case with Jill, a scientist that Ecklund had interviewed. As a teenager in her church, Jill was curious about the role of science in Christianity, however her pastor told her to “…make a decision to believe…to forget about science” (p. 59). Her curiosity was continuously stifled over and over, thus leading her to believe that religion was a tool for passing judgment onto others. Ecklund encourages churches to allow their congregants to explore their curiosities by discussing their questions because, she argues, these discussions can lead to a stronger conviction in their faith. The same can be said for members of other religions if faith is being used to smother curiosity and instead enforce control. 

The latter part of the book focuses on redemption and encourages Christians to accept and utilize science in order to alleviate the suffering of others. Ecklund highlights statistics that show that an overwhelming majority of members of both the scientific and religious communities place a high emphasis on alleviating the suffering of others. She also discusses how Christians view medicine as a gift from God onto mankind as a means to end suffering, and that the knowledge itself that scientists and doctors must possess in order to enhance and utilize medicine is also a divine gift. This idea runs parallel to the core tenets of Islam, where knowledge is also described as a gift from God, and serves as another solid example of how non-Christians can gain insight from this book.

Many of the theological topics discussed in the book, such as evolution, embryonic freezing, genetic modifications, and the usage of stem cells are also modern scientific hot topics for other faith groups. These modern issues pose questions for all people across all faiths, thus demanding a discussion. Non-Christians perceive and understand the nuances of their faith from a lens that differs from Christianity’s, but believers can gain a wealth of insight regardless. It addresses the place of God in science, something that all believers can relate to and discuss, within a Christian context. 

“Why Science and Faith Need Each Other” is the bridge between two seemingly distant worlds that desperately need one another. It is a love-letter to both of them from a scientist that has spent much of her life reconciling how the two relate, intertwine, and differ. Curious readers of all faiths, or lack thereof, will gain much insight from this thorough and intellectual discussion.

Stop giving up,
or else you cannot reach the end.
You cannot harvest the fruit,
unless you firmly stand.

Those who reached their purpose,
made it thanks to their being steadfast.
Steadfast you should be; or else,
you cannot behold the Friend’s countenance

Roads are long and onerous;
yet faith is the wayfarer’s provisions.
Be spirited with belief,
Or else, you cannot enter heavens.

The bridge is ruined, the road is rough,
and nobody to hold you by the hand;
If God unraveled your fabric,
you can in no way weave it.

Deep river, steep slope…
all welcome to the devoted.
Crossing is your duty;
do not condemn anyone for that.

Those who made it, did so long ago;
by being nothing did they attain existence,
So should you be: nothing,
Or else, you won’t be admitted to the Divine presence.

The avocado is a fruit that grows in hot, tropical climates that has a sweet and sour taste. Avocados are a well-known source of carotenoids that provide a multitude of vitamins including vitamin A, minerals, phenolics, and fatty acids. In a number of studies, it has been noted that avocado consumption helps to lower blood lipids and cholesterol, decrease blood pressure, get protection against and heal diabetes, avoid being overweight, inhibit the formation of coagulation inside the veins, fight and cure arteriosclerosis, and protect the heart.

It is also reported that its seed, shell, and leaves are beneficial against abnormalities (when consumed after certain processes) that constitute the metabolic syndrome.

Dried avocado leaves may be brewed using hot water for consumption, or they can be ground to be added to soups or salads. There are many scientific studies that suggest that avocado leaves can prevent diabetes and lower blood pressure. Avocado leaves have also been shown to be effective in protecting the heart and decreasing cholesterol.

Avocado seeds may be consumed after they are baked and grated or ground. They may be brewed in the same way we brew tea, or they may be added to salads, soups, or pasta. Avocado’s fat-burning content is found not only in its flesh, but also in its seeds. The high fiber content of its seeds ensures a feeling of satiety. With nutritional fats, antioxidants, and soluble fibers in its content, avocados help us reduce our cholesterol levels. It is highly efficacious in preventing high cholesterol and coronary artery disease. Patients with high blood pressure should not throw away avocado seeds. The potassium content in avocado seeds helps to expand veins and arteries, lowering blood pressure and reducing the heart attack risk.

Avocado oil is equally popular because of its resemblance to olive oil. It is produced at high quality using cold pressing method that is also used on olives. Highly beneficial to body health due to the minerals and vitamins it contains, avocado oil is studied across the globe. With its high vitamin E content, avocado oil is particularly effective for skin and hair health. As edible oil, it is low in saturated fatty acids and oxidation, and also does not contain any carbohydrates.

In terms of content, avocados differ considerably from other fruits. While other fruits have higher sugar content, avocados are high in oil. Having a rich vitamin and mineral content, avocado oil contains vitamins A, B1, B2, B5, D, and E. As a source of potassium, proteins, and certain minerals, avocado oil is very beneficial to heart and skin health.

A medium-sized avocado contains approximately 25 grams of monounsaturated fatty acids, which are known to be heart-friendly. Another benefit of avocado oil is its impact on cholesterol. Avocado oil is very rich in alpha-carotene and beta-carotene, thus it is said to provide effective protection against cancer. It is particularly effective against prostate cancer.

Numerous clinical studies have recently been conducted concerning the effects of the avocado. Avocado products are proven to be efficacious against metabolic syndrome. Its most important effect is its positive influence over blood lipids. Avocado consumption restores or balances the following blood lipids; low density lipoproteins (LDL-C); high density lipoproteins (HDL-C); triglycerides; and phospholipids. This positive effect on blood lipids is explained as avocado’s ability to disintegrate certain lipoproteins so that they can be absorbed and stored by adipose tissues, or they can be burned in several tissues such as the liver and the pancreas. Avocado products result in an increase in the amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum that has a special role in the lipid mechanism in the liver cells.

Avocados are tasty and healthy; but as with any fruit, it is best to have a healthy measure and not overeat!

Reference

Jamshid Tabeshpour, Bibi Marjan Razavi and Hossein Hosseinzadeh. Effects of Avocado (Persea americana) on Metabolic Syndrome: A Comprehensive Systematic Review. Phytotherapy Research (2017). DOI: 10.1002/ptr.5805

Fethullah Gülen, the Muslim scholar who inspired the global educational movement called Hizmet, has not only challenged popular perceptions of Islam in the West and certain practices among Muslims, but has also established a space for humanistically inclined individuals, not only followers of Islam but of other religions as well, to put humanitarian values into practice.

Since the 1960s, Gülen’s teachings have mobilized tens of thousands of individuals to put their efforts to make possible “service” to everyone in need regardless of their religion, ethnicity, or nationality, and consequently, a transformation of society into one that is more inclusive.

Not only do the Gülen-inspired non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other organizations work in the field of education for all members of society, they also work for their upliftment by implementing holistic workspaces and living environments to bring out the best in the individuals who are associated with it. This effort has yielded notable exceptions to the practice of confining women folk to homes and household duties, a practice still prevailing in many traditional societies. Since its inception, the teachings of the movement have evolved to veer towards inclusive approaches towards others even though Gülen does not identify any community or social group as a social or political ‘other’. The case of Hizmet is a good example of social movements of religious nature which do not confine themselves to the country of its origin but to reach out to both wealthy and impoverished societies across the globe with humanitarian approach.

Many western scholars have associated the movement with what is called “moderate Islam,” as contrasted with some of the “orthodox” currents that exist in West Asia and South-East Asia. Notably, Gülen’s teachings have focused and placed a heavy emphasis upon education, including in its origins opportunities for girls that belonged to Muslim households in Turkey who were uncomfortable with sending their daughters to different cities to pursue higher education. With the establishment of Hizmet dorms across the country which promised and delivered safety and trust, this became possible. Hizmet also provided scholarships for girls, including those who wished to continue to wear headscarves at university, an act that was until recently illegal in Turkey. Gülen’s advocacy of equal opportunities has resulted in a rise in literacy rates of females in Hizmet’s society of origin, Turkey.

Patriarchy in Muslim societies

Patriarchy has been the dominant feature in many traditional social systems throughout history and across all nations. Along with many other reforms, Islam has established a set of foundational principles to establish a more just society in which women could enjoy equal rights and dignity with men. At the time of the Prophet there were good examples of women who were involved in full participation as businesspersons, scholars, as well as warriors. Such exemplary roles and contributions of these women have since suffered setbacks owing to multiple factors. A reason for its endemic presence is the sudden spread of Islam and a lack of organic evolution and embrace of truly Islamic practices on the one hand, and a carryover of pre-Islamic cultural mores on the other. Islam’s egalitarian treatment of both sexes could not have full control over many pre-existing restrictive and patriarchal customs and practices which continued to dominate societies. As a result, women have been confined to their homes, denied education and access to the public sphere. The modesty expected from women have been used to restrict their interaction with the outside world. Women have not only been seen more as caregivers and childbearers than anything else, but have also been associated – and victimized – with honor of men.

All of these factors collectively contributed to a patriarchal and misogynistic approach in many Islamic societies to the day. In present times, women have had to bear the brunt of the fiercely competitive capitalistic setups at the workplace which do not want to invest in a labour force with limited hours of production time. Their training is seen as a waste, and their psychological and emotional upheavals as a loss to the economic enterprises engaging them.

It is imperative that we make note of the fact that the prevalent and widespread misogyny in some Muslim societies has no basis in Islamic traditions.

There are several verses of the Qur’an where men and women are accorded an equal space and status in society. However, the Qur’an and Islamic practices do make a distinction on the basis of physiological and biological differences between men and women. In some Islamic traditions attributed to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) they become apparent, for example, “Paradise lies under the feet of your mother,” and the reference which finds mention too often, that when the Prophet was asked, “Who is most deserving of my good company?” The Prophet said, “Your mother.” The man asked, “Then who?” The Prophet said, “Your mother.” The man asked again, “Then who?” The Prophet said, “Your mother.” The man asked again, “Then who?” The Prophet said, “Your father.”

It is also true that a reactionary response of some Islamic scholars to western influence resulted in restricting women’s spaces in Muslim societies.

As a Muslim woman growing up in North India, I find it imperative to note that female members and volunteers in many mainstream Sunni charitable social movements play limited roles and are bound to homes and halaqas. Although women in these communities are actively involved in activities as part of their social and political roles, and space is reserved for their use in public gatherings, including local mosques, significant changes are still needed in women involvement.

Hizmet as a social movement

Religion has been the source of many social movements that have transformed societies. Not only do religions provide endurance to withstand adverse situations, they also have the capability to produce charismatic leaders around whom the movement grows. Such leaders provide ideas that can provide people with incentive to serve God and restore order to His world.

While different theories look at why social movements form and become successful, early social science theories stressed that they are formed to address the grievances of marginalized and underprivileged groups. They may also involve resistance to discrimination of participants. Such was the origin of the now popular Hizmet movement, a name that is used interchangeably with the Gülen movement. It emerged as an alternative path in late 1960s with the spiritual guidance of Islamic scholar Fethullah Gülen at a time when Turkey had become a battleground for fascists and socialist extremists. By that time, conservative masses, the so-called “Black Turks,” were already facing discrimination and persecution by the ‘secular’ and elite “White Turks.” Gülen drew intellectual heritage from the works of the influential and greatly loved Islamic scholar and writer of Kurdish origin Said Nursi. Nursi preached at a time of what he called “Kemalist excesses” and retreated from public life as a result of “arbitrariness of the administrators”.

While Nursi spent periods of his life in exile and under arrest and was forced to look inward for a better understanding and view of human life, Gülen, in a changed political scenario, hoped to see Muslims find ways to contribute to society by necessitating social, cultural, and intellectual interactions with others.

Regarding the more sensitive issue of the Islamic headscarf and its ban in Turkey and other countries, Mr. Gülen has been a vocal advocate of focusing on what is better for societies and their individuals in the long run. He has encouraged his followers to afford education its due importance and has reiterated that while the hijab/headscarf is an important part of faith, young Muslim women should seek alternative ways to continue their education in favour of a higher purpose of empowering women. Gülen remains a committed advocate of women’s education. The importance of access to higher education and the social rewards which accompany it, as well as a sense of commitment and resolve in self-actualisation, are the formidable tools the preacher identifies that women have at their disposal to decide how to serve humanity and take part in Hizmet on their own terms.

Women empowerment in the Hizmet movement

The Hizmet movement has moved beyond mere lip service in regard to women’s roles in Muslim societies. Rather than confining itself to discursive conceptions of an egalitarian Muslim society, it has put in practice its teachings.

It has empowered women by entrusting them with power and authority across their networks of organization. While doing research on the movement for this paper, the author came across profiles of several successful female achievers excelling in their roles as part of Hizmet-affiliated organizations. Hizmet has elevated women to positions of prominence as spokespersons and editors-in-chief; they serve as administrators and teachers in affiliated schools, an occupation of great spiritual and religious importance.

Gülen sees the inclusion of women as vital to the realization of a cohesive society and frequently gives an example of the Prophet’s wife Aisha, who continues to be highly regarded in the Islamic world, for she was a scholar of Islam. She tutored others on, and answered many queries about, the Prophet’s conduct, a topic of great interest and importance to Muslims.

Gülen’s teachings have led people inspired by him to found platforms and opportunities for women to assume various leadership roles either as a spokesperson of an NGO, chief editor of a newspaper, executive director of a mosque, or as a community religious teacher in a town. In his sermons, Gülen reiterates that during the time of the Prophet, women were as active in social life as men. He also adds that it is best for a society to make appropriate and fitting space for its womenfolk.

In Gülen’s sermons, one finds references to the principled inclusion of women in the workforce. He emphasizes that women are not to be burdened or restricted with their household roles or professional responsibilities and that if they excel at both then they should be provided with an environment that is conducive to bringing out their full potential.

Gülen calls for a solidarity of society’s members, which can only be possible if there is adequate and proportionate participation of the young and old as well as men and women. Going back to the time of the Prophet of Islam, he mentions that serving Islam was open to all, men and women.

In one of his sermons, Gülen said “Women might have specific circumstances and it will be unfair to impose overwhelming standards on them but they should be given duties to the best of their ability,” yet, he adds that a “realistic approach is required where women are included as part of every facet of social life, just as it was in the Age of the Prophet” [1].

Gülen charges both men and women to shoulder human responsibility, and the way to do it, he says in his signature, poetic style, is to “not tread on any toes.” He cautions against alienating people or losing friends with careless language, disposition, or words. He builds on this sentiment by saying that discussion, consultation, and ideas, can only prosper when backed by reason and coherence. His emphasis and keen attention to the sensitivity of local culture and civilization appears to be key in his talks. He does not restrict his concerns to ameliorate the situation of mankind or Muslims, but holds a more universal approach, noting that the God of Islam, Allah, did not instruct nor obligate His followers to assist and aid only Muslims, but His creations, i.e., all of mankind.

He warns against being unmindful of delicate matters such as the case at hand and worsening the situation when dealing with cultures not forthcoming of women participating in community-building and social activities. Through these teachings, Mr. Gülen’s followers have led by example by having not only providing spiritual and professional assistance, but also moral and social support through the organizations and networks they have formed.

The network Hizmet has made available brings forth associations and bonds which are formed as a result of the secure spaces provided through sohbet (discussion groups) and ders (Islamic study groups) help these women of religious bent find like-minded individuals.

Since hicret, Turkish for the Arabic word hijra, the Islamic concept of migration, is a salient feature of Gülen’s teachings, Hizmet volunteers often serve away from their native country or region of origin. This reinforces the need for inter-family interaction and support while building a life in lands far away from their own family in a land where volunteers might not always understand the language, local, ethic associations, or find themselves in new cultures. In some cases, where entire families, including women and children move to unfamiliar environments, women of such families find company and emotional support outside their homes too. In circumstances where women are part-time volunteers or are on a break from work or are full-time housewives, this opportunity to network over ders, food, and culture becomes central to their social lives.

Conclusion

Gülen’s approach embodies how the Islamic way of life is in fact very inclusive and egalitarian in a modern sense and that Islam and modernity are not incompatible as perceived even by Muslims in many parts of the world. Gülen refers to the contribution of both men and women in Hizmet as the two faces of a coin – one without the other renders the coin valueless.

Hizmet has provided an alternative to religiously inclined individuals who seek to lead balanced and modern, secular lives yet have made social service a pivotal part of their everyday lives. This, in turn, has metamorphosed into a powerful socially transformative and inclusive movement.

The Movement is an example for how transformation of society can be made possible by serving others through the efforts of a community of committed, generous agents of change. Not only does the movement provide opportunity to women in professional spheres but also provides feminine spheres of bonding to those of filial bents over culture, art and food.

^[1] “The Role of Women in the Hizmet Movement and the Principles of Coexistence (Heartstrings) Aug 26, 2019”, Heartstrings by Fethullah Gülen, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kPEKmunorL0

Jam‘ (absorption) literally means coming and bringing together. In the language of Sufism, it means fixing all one’s feeling, sight and consciousness on the Ultimate Truth, to the extent that one is absorbed in Him and does not feel the existence of the world with all that is in it. To the degree of one’s knowledge of God, one only knows Him, feels Him, sees Him and is saved from preoccupation with anything else. If this meaning is approached from the concept of unity, it is the opposite of multiplicity; but if it is conceived of as one’s heart cutting off relations with all else save God, then its opposite is distinguishing (farq), which we, God willing, will deal with as a separate subject.

Absorption is a state or station belonging to those who have reached the final state of the spiritual journey. Travelers to the Ultimate Truth who are honored with the gift of absorption always feel Him, know Him, and according to the level of the horizon and spiritual pleasures of each, can be aware or not aware of the people around them. But they always feel and are always conscious of the Ultimate Truth and live as if charmed by observation of the meanings that belong to Him and that are reflected in everything. They always see the manifestations of His Names and Attributes in all things and events which they encounter. Thirsty for the Divine Being Himself, they fly around the manifestations of His “Facial” Light like moths flying around a light. In tides of wonder and admiration, they cannot help but utter: All-Glorified are You, how exalted You are (as the Divine Being)!

Two steps further from this state of pleasure is absorption within absorption, which means a total absence for initiates. Travelers who find themselves in such a whirlpool of feeling are no longer aware of their own selves nor that of others. Totally detached from distinguishing, they are completely forgetful of all else save the Ultimate Truth—as anybody except He is a shadow of the shadow of the light of His Existence—and turn to Him with all their being.

For initiates who base themselves on absolute unity in all their views and considerations, everything is a shadow of the light of the Existence of the Ultimate Truth. For one who is in the state of absorption, it is a shadow of the shadow of His Existence’s light, while one who is in the absorption within absorption only sees the rays of the manifestations of His “Facial” Light in the name of the creation. Some scholars mention a further degree of absorption, which they call holy absorption. This is the rank which the verifying scholars of Sufism regard as the title of nearness to God, Who is nearer to us than ourselves, by means of supererogatory prayers. The travelers who have attained this level are conscious that it is God Who maintains them, and begin to observe everything more deeply and clearly with their innermost senses, which have become sharper than their external senses. They hear with their spirit, see with their power of insight, review and examine with their conscience, and have the ability to see the true faces of theoretical knowledge through the door half-opened through their inner vision and experience. This is the rank where travelers are favored with the full manifestation of the truth contained in He is the First, and the Last, and the All-Outward, and the All-Inward (57:3), and where they become polished mirrors that reflect it. The servants of God who have reached this farthest point either “travel in God” and rotate around themselves like the North Star, or are turning around their axis in their hearts while being in their bodies among people.

Those who have attained the rank of absorption have also been favored with “subsistence by God.” Those who hold this rank in the final stage of the journey, and who are abstracted from their own attributes in their absorption in God’s Attributes and from their own being in absorption in God’s Being, gain a new existence through subsistence by God. They begin to feel the bliss of eternality and breathe “absorption” in the delight of being aware that their acts have become lost in God’s Acts. A stage further, which can be likened to deepening in worship by bowing down after standing in the Prayer, and when they observe that their attributes have been annihilated in the all-comprehensive Attributes of God, they become lost in the delight of experiencing absorption within absorption. Finally, as a result of their own being being obliterated in the face of God’s Knowledge and Existence, they leave themselves to the consideration of the holy absorption with inner vision and spiritual pleasures, and are immersed in the feelings of wonder upon wonder.

From another point of view, the act of observing the requirements or responsibilities of servanthood to God with the utmost care, devotion, and consciousness is called “distinguishing,” while being favored with a shower of Divine gifts that come “from where they do not reckon” as a reward for this “small capital”—small in the face of God’s favors coming without reckoning—is absorption. In view of this approach, heroes of the spiritual state say that one who does not perceive “distinguishing” is ignorant of servanthood, while one who does not feel absorption is unaware of knowing God.

The Qur’anic statement (1:5), You alone do we worship, which expresses the individual consciousness developing into and translating the public consciousness, is a voice of distinguishing and servanthood, while You alone do we ask for help (1:5) is an expression of absorption and a declaration of human poverty and helplessness before God. Every initiate hears the voice of distinguishing at the beginning of the spiritual journey and feels the pleasure of absorption at the end of it. The ultimate point, which only those endowed with a particular capacity can reach, is “absorption within absorption” and the “holy absorption.” While the former signifies the rank of ahadiya (feeling God’s absolute Oneness in the sense of His concentration of the manifestations of His Attributes and Names on things or beings individually), the latter is a sign of the peak of wahidiya (feeling God’s absolute Unity in the sense of His manifestation of His Attributes and Names throughout the universe).

According to al-Kashani, [1] distinguishing is the knowledge of God the Almighty and spiritual pleasures of those who have not yet been able to develop their theoretical considerations about God (I personally find this view unacceptable), while absorption is immersion caused by a concentration on the Creator without ever thinking of the creation, and absorption within absorption is the peak of seeing the creation as subsisting by the Creator. This final rank is also the rank of distinguishing above absorption. Since in this rank only God’s Acts, Attributes and Essential Qualities are observed, for those who have attained this rank, the All-Holy, Ultimate Truth becomes the eyes with which they see, the ears with which they hear, and the hands with which they hold. For this reason, He attributes to Himself what they do with their free will and leave and ignore the apparent causes. The Sufi scholars are of the opinion that the verse, (8:17), You did not kill them but God killed them, and when you threw, it was not you who threw, but God who threw, besides clearly mentioning a miracle of God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, alludes to this rank.

O God! Include us among Your servants sincere (in faith and practicing the religion), and endowed with sincerity, and God-revering, pious, and abstinent from all forbidden things big or small, and among those of ascetism and those near-stationed to You, and who are pleased with You and pleasing to You. And bestow blessings and peace on our master Muhammad, the leader of the God-revering, pious and the leader of those endowed with sincerity, and on his Family and Companions, those of ascetism and those near-stationed to You, and who are pleased with You and pleasing to You. Amen!

A pandemic (from Greek, pan, “all” and demos, “people”) is an epidemic of an infectious disease that has spread across a large region, for instance multiple continents or worldwide, affecting a substantial number of people. A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale that crosses international boundaries, usually affecting people on a worldwide scale. A disease or condition is not a pandemic merely because it is widespread or kills many people; it must also be infectious. For instance, cancer or other chronic diseases such as diabetes or hypertension are responsible for many deaths, but they are not considered a pandemic because the disease is neither infectious nor contagious.

How about the solutions to the pandemic? While protective measures at the individual level are crucial, real solutions come with collective action. Pandemics affect “all people,” so should the solutions be. “Every sheep is hung by its own leg,” says the Turks, meaning that everyone pays for their own mistakes, not for the mistakes of others. In the case of pandemics, mistakes are paid for by all. Nevertheless, when the threat is big and resources are limited, individuals, as well as nations, may choose to act on their own instead of globally.

There is a tale which gives many lessons to us based upon this proverb. Bahlul Dana was a well-known judge and scholar who lived at the time of the mighty Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Bahlul advised people to avoid doing wrong things and invited everyone to be kind and wise. Some people did not like his warnings and they went to Harun al-Rashid. They complained about Behlul Dana and said that “My sultan, tell him to leave us alone and not to warn about everything. Each sheep is hung by its own leg.” Upon these complaints, Harun al-Rashid summoned him to his court and warned him not to disturb people with his warnings. Bahlul Dana left the palace without saying anything. He slaughtered a few sheep and hung them from their legs on a corner of the street and told people not to touch them. As days passed, the hanging carcasses started smelling very bad. When the smell became unbearable, the same people went to Harun al-Rashid again. “We cannot stop the smell of the sheep Bahlul hung. It bothers us very much. Tell him to dispose of them!”

Harun al-Rashid wondered why Bahlul did such a thing. “Bahlul, why did you do such a strange thing? He answered: “I did not do anything. I just hung each sheep by its own leg. But it seems that even if each sheep is hung by its own leg, it still disturbs the whole environment and harms everyone. A villain does not hurt only himself; he harms everyone.”

The story gives an important lesson: Sometimes the consequences of our ignorance and selfish behaviors may harm other people first, and we may choose to ignore them; however, as selfish as it is, we rarely can do away with selfish behaviors, not least when the consequences are global as in a pandemic. When we look at the pandemics throughout the history, we can see the same perspective. During human history, there have been a number of pandemics which have affected millions of people and which probably could have been curbed if people could have acted collectively.

Pandemics in history

Antonine Plague (165 AD): The Antonine Plague (Plague of Galen) was an ancient pandemic that affected Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece, and Italy, and is thought to have been either Smallpox or Measles. This unknown disease, which was brought to Rome by soldiers returning from Mesopotamia around 165 AD, was the cause of high death toll: 5 million people dead and the Roman army was literally decimated.

Justinian Plague (541-542): The Plague of Justinian was an outbreak of the bubonic plague that affected the Byzantine Empire and Mediterranean port cities. It was carried over the Mediterranean Sea from Egypt. The plague decimated Constantinople and spread like wildfire across Europe, Asia, North Africa and Arabia, killing an estimated 25 to 100 million people, perhaps half of the world’s population. It was spread was by infected fleas and perhaps body lice. Its mortality rate was around 10% with treatment, up to 90% without.

The Black Death (1346-1353): Another outbreak of Plague was seen in Europe, Africa, and Asia, with an estimated death toll between 75 and 200 million people between 1346-1353. In the 14th century the world’s population was estimated to be 443 million. That means the Black Death killed between 17-45% of the entire global population. This plague is estimated to have resulted from the increased rat populations and fleas.

Ports were major urban centers at the time and they were the perfect breeding ground for these rats and fleas. To stop the spreading of the disease in the Venetian-controlled port city of Ragusa, they decided to keep newly arrived sailors in isolation until they could prove that they weren’t sick.

At first, sailors were held on their ships for 30 days, which became known in Venetian law as a trentino. The Venetians increased the forced isolation to 40 days or a quarantino, which is the origin of the word “quarantine” after which its practice started in the Western world.

Third Cholera Pandemic (1852–1860): There have been seven cholera pandemics in history and the third cholera pandemic has been considered the deadliest one. It lasted from 1852 to 1860 and it originated from India, spreading from the Ganges River Delta to Asia, Europe, North America and Africa. Around one million people died during this pandemic.

Flu Pandemic (1889-1890): The “Asiatic Flu” or “Russian Flu” was thought to be an outbreak of the Influenza A virus subtype H2N2 or Influenza A virus subtype H3N8, which are subtypes of influenza A viruses. These viruses are divided into subtypes on the basis of two proteins; hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), which are present on the surface of the virus. There are 18 known HA subtypes and 11 known NA subtypes. Many different combinations of HA and NA proteins are possible and different subtypes of influenza viruses caused many pandemics during history.

The first cases of this pandemic were observed in 1889 in three separate and distant locations: Bukhara in Central Asia (Turkestan), Athabasca in northwestern Canada, and Greenland. Rapid population growth of the 19th century in urban areas helped the spread of the flu, resulting a death toll of about one million people.

Sixth Cholera Pandemic (1910-1911): It originated in India and killed over 800,000 people. It had spread to the Middle East, North Africa, Eastern Europe and Russia. It was the last American outbreak of cholera between 1910–1911. American health authorities quickly took precautions and isolated the infected. By the end of the pandemic, only 11 deaths occurred in the US, which showed the importance of precautions and preparedness.

Spanish Flu (1918): Between the spring of 1918 and the summer of 1920, a deadly outbreak of influenza tore across the globe, infecting over a third of the world’s population (500 million) and ending the lives of 30-50 million people. The mortality rate was estimated at 10% to 20%, with up to 25 million deaths in the first 25 weeks alone. It was caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus and transmitted by airborne transmission from coughing, sneezing, and breathing. Although previous flu pandemics killed juveniles, the elderly or already weakened patients, Spanish flu affected completely healthy young adults. Modern advancements in transportation and troop movements during World War One helped its spread. The true origin of the virus could be France, England, China, and the United States and it is estimated that the virus originated in birds, and either jumped to humans directly or used pigs as an intermediary before jumping to humans.

Asian Flu (1956-1958): It originated in China in 1956 and lasted until 1958. In these two years, the Asian Flu traveled from the Chinese province of Guizhou to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the United States. It was a pandemic of Influenza A of the H2N2 subtype and World Health Organization believe it caused approximately 2 million deaths, around seventy thousand in United States alone.

Hong Kong Flu (1968): The flu pandemic in 1968 was caused by the H3N2 strain of the Influenza. The first case was reported on July 13th, 1968 in Hong Kong, and it took only 17 days before outbreaks of the virus were reported in Singapore and Vietnam. Only after three months it was seen in the Philippines, India, Australia, Europe, and the United States. Although it had a low mortality rate (0.5%), it still resulted in the deaths of more than a million people, including 500,000 residents of Hong Kong, approximately 15% of its population at the time.

Recent pandemics

Swine flu (2009-2010): It was an infection caused by one of several types of swine influenza viruses. This virus is any strain of the influenza family of viruses that is endemic in pigs. Transmission of the virus from pigs to humans is not common and does not always lead to human flu, often resulting only in the production of antibodies in the blood. If transmission does cause human flu, it is called zoonotic swine flu. People with regular exposure to pigs are at increased risk of getting infected by swine flu.

It is estimated that in the 2009 flu pandemic, there were 18,449 confirmed fatalities from swine flu. However, in a 2012 study, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) estimated more than 284,000 possible fatalities worldwide, with a range from 150,000 to 575,000 deaths. In August 2010, the World Health Organization declared the swine flu pandemic officially over.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS): It is a viral respiratory disease caused by a SARS-associated coronavirus. SARS was first reported in Asia in February 2003. The illness spread to more than two dozen countries in North America, South America, Europe, and Asia before it was contained the same year.

SARS is an airborne virus and can spread through small droplets of saliva in a similar way to the cold and influenza. It was the first severe and readily transmissible new disease to emerge in the 21st century and showed a clear capacity to spread along the routes of international air travel. SARS can also be spread indirectly via surfaces that have been touched by someone who is infected with the virus.

Most patients identified with SARS were previously healthy adults aged 25–70 years. A few suspected cases of SARS have been reported among children under 15 years. The case fatality among persons with illness for probable and suspected cases of SARS is around 3% and 770 people died from SARS. No cases of SARS-CoV have been reported worldwide since 2004. As of 2020, SARS is considered eradicated in humans, but considering that the virus also infects animals it is possible that it will re-emerge in the future.

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD): EVD is a rare and deadly disease seen in humans and animals like bats, monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees. It is caused by viruses located mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. People can get EVD through direct contact with an infected animal or a sick or dead person infected with Ebola virus.

The disease was first identified in 1976, in two simultaneous outbreaks: one in South Sudan and the other Democratic Republic of the Congo. EVD outbreaks occur intermittently in tropical regions of sub-Saharan Africa. From 1976 to 2012, the World Health Organization reports 24 outbreaks involving 2,387 cases with 1,590 deaths. The largest outbreak to date took place in West Africa from December 2013 to January 2016, with 28,646 cases and 11,323 deaths. It was declared no longer an emergency on 29 March 2016.

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS): It is an illness caused by a virus (more specifically, a coronavirus) called Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). It is a virus transferred to humans from infected dromedary camels (zoonotic virus). It is contactable through direct or indirect contact with infected animals. MERS-CoV has been identified in dromedaries in several countries in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia. Health officials first reported the disease in Saudi Arabia in September 2012. A total of 27 countries have reported cases since 2012, leading to 858 known deaths due to the infection and related complications. About 3 or 4 out of every 10 patients reported with MERS have died.

Zika: Zika virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that was first identified in Uganda in 1947 in monkeys. It was later identified in humans in 1952 in Uganda and Tanzania. From 2007 to 2016, the virus spread eastward, across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas, leading to the 2015–2016 Zika virus epidemic. In 2015, and strongly intensified throughout the start of 2016, with more than 1.5 million cases across more than a dozen countries in the Americas. The World Health Organization warned that Zika had the potential to become an explosive global pandemic if the outbreak was not controlled. Zika is spread mostly by the bite of an infected mosquito. Zika can be passed from a pregnant woman to her fetus, and an infection during pregnancy can cause certain birth defects. There is no vaccine or medicine for Zika yet but there are several clinical trials going on.

Ongoing pandemics

Although we are primarily focused on the COVID-19 pandemic nowadays, there is another major pandemic that has been going on for many years.

HIV/AIDS: HIV originated in Africa and spread to the United States via Haiti between 1966 and 1972. AIDS is currently a pandemic in Africa, with infection rates as high as 25% in southern and eastern Africa. In 2006, the HIV prevalence among pregnant women in South Africa was 29%. Currently there are between 31 and 35 million people living with HIV, the vast majority of those are in Sub-Saharan Africa, where 5% of the population is infected (21 million people).

Since its clinical discovery in 1981, approximately 32 million people died from HIV/AIDS – around 865,000 people on average each year – ranking it as the fourth-leading cause of death. Although extensive research on HIV has been conducted there is unfortunately no vaccine yet.

COVID-19: Coronaviruses have been known to exist for many years, but a new strain of coronavirus was first identified in the city of Wuhan, China, in December 2019. It has caused a cluster of cases of an acute respiratory disease, which is referred to as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). It was characterized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11^th, 2020. As of February 26, 2021, more than 113 million people were infected and nearly 2,5 million people lost their lives.

When COVID-19 first started, it spread rapidly worldwide within months between people because no one on earth had any immunity to Covid-19. It was a novel virus that took the entire world by storm. Now after a full year, and after a number of vaccines have been introduced by the end of 2020, many nations still impose measures like social distancing and stay-at-home orders as schools and businesses are mostly closed.

Although several vaccines are in the market and have started to be administered, it is still hard to predict the consequences of this pandemic at the time of writing this article. But we can learn from pandemics in history to determine our best courses. The main goal is to achieve herd immunity, which means that enough people in a community are protected from getting a disease because they have already had the disease or they have been vaccinated. Herd immunity makes it difficult for the virus to spread from person to person, and it even protects those who cannot be vaccinated, like newborns. The percentage of people who need to have protection in order to achieve herd immunity varies from disease to disease, and at this point we still don’t know this percentage for COVID-19 – this means we may have long way to go.

Every shortcoming or failure to comply with measures only brings more harm towards our collective health. We have to keep in mind that we are living in a global world that is akin to a village now. National crisis plans are not enough, and international collaborative plans should be available for the management of any pandemic. Nations need to collaborate by taking precautions jointly, and countries who are under the heavy effects of the pandemic should be supported. A fair distribution of vaccines or other possible treatment options is necessary. We can overcome this type global threats if we can act collectively with all nations.

• WHO Statement Regarding Cluster of Pneumonia Cases in Wuhan, China”. WHO. 31 December 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
• Stawicki, Stanislawp; et al. (2020). “The 2019–2020 novel coronavirus (Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) pandemic: A joint american college of academic international medicine-world academic council of emergency medicine multidisciplinary COVID-19 working group consensus paper”. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases. 12 (2): 47–93. doi:4103/jgid.jgid_86_20
• https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic
• https://www.visualcapitalist.com/history-of-pandemics-deadliest/

Gülen as Spiritual Master

In recent years, much has been written about the thought of Fethullah Gülen and the activities of the “Gülen community” [1] from diverse perspectives. Some have focused on his pedagogical principles and methods in an effort to understand the success of the schools and other educational ventures founded and administered by those in the community associated with Gülen’s name. Others have analyzed the social programs and institutions inspired by his ideas. Still others have focused on Gülen’s vision as the philosophical motor behind a social movement that is working to produce social change and renewal in Turkey, in the worldwide Islamic umma, or in modern societies in general. Others have underlined Gülen’s call for universal love, fellowship, and tolerance and consequently his encouragement of interreligious dialogue as an essentially Islamic obligation.

In this paper, I will concentrate on the theological dimension of Gülen’s thought that underlies his role as spiritual director and teacher of internalized Islamic virtue. I will attempt to look at the specific understanding of Islamic faith that Gülen communicates to the young scholars and teachers, businessmen, and householders who make up the community formed by his vision. It is this theological perspective that guides Gülen’s role as spiritual master whose counsel has guided individual Muslims and formed a coherent and workable community life among his disciples. It may well prove in the long run to be the area of his deepest and most enduring influence.

Roots in Qur’an and Sunna

Every religious tradition, whether we are speaking of Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, or others, provides a wealth of doctrinal teaching, theological reflection, and spiritual experience so vast that it goes beyond what any individual believer, including the theologian, is able to integrate personally and hand on to others. Even the greatest scholar or mystic is able to assimilate, build upon, and communicate only a relatively small part of the whole tradition. This means that every religious teacher is constantly making choices, selecting some elements of the scriptural and communitarian tradition upon which to comment, elaborate, and emphasize while passing over other elements in silence.

Since no one can communicate the whole of tradition, an individual thinker’s choices reveal much about that person’s own theology and spirituality. In the case of Fethullah Gülen, it is not surprising that his most important model and teacher is the Prophet Muhammad himself.  His teaching is not so much natural philosophy as it is commentary on the Qur’an and hadith. Gülen’s “prophetology” holds that although it is possible to arrive at a certain limited knowledge of God by reason, particularly by means of reflection on nature, much of human existence can only be known through prophetic revelation. He writes,

“Although we can find God by reflecting upon natural phenomena, we need a Prophet to learn why we were created, where we came from, where we are going, and how to worship our Creator properly. God sent Prophets to teach their people the meaning of creation and the truth of things, to unveil the mysteries behind historical and natural events, and to inform us of our relationship, and that of Divine Scriptures, with the universe.” [2]

On this basis, it is not surprising that the vast majority of Gülen’s references are to the teaching of the Qur’an and his practical examples taken from the sunna of the Prophet. Gülen holds that the sunna (Prophet’s actions, words, and things he approved) was God’s gift to Muslims so that they would know how to live according to God’s will in a way pleasing to the Creator. “The sunna, the unique example set by the Messenger of God for all Muslims to follow, shows us how to bring our lives into agreement with God’s commands and obtain His good pleasure” [3]. Moreover, the sunna is the source for the humane qualities that Gülen as a spiritual guide wants to instill. Character traits such as tolerance, piety, forgiveness, and peacemaking are rooted in the divine teachings proclaimed by, and exemplified in, the life of the prophets, particularly Muhammad. For example, in speaking of tolerance, Gülen notes that the quality is not of human origin but is derived from prophetic teaching. “Tolerance is not something that was invented by us. Tolerance was first introduced on this earth by the prophets whose teacher was God” [4].

Forbearers in the Islamic tradition

The emphasis that Gülen places on the Qur’an and sunna underlines the “orthodox” nature of Gülen’s teaching and the community’s practice. Some observers of the movement have asked whether Gülen’s theology is to be located within the mainstream of Islamic doctrine. If it is true, as many scholars hold, that there is more than a single mainstream of Islamic theology and practice, into which current does Fethullah Gülen fit? This question can perhaps best be answered by looking at those Muslim scholars and pious forbearers with whom Gülen can be seen to identify himself.

Gülen’s writings are replete with references to the words of earlier Muslim scholars and mystics. He frequently cites those whom he calls “the lovers,” [5] that is, predecessors as Jalal al-Din Rumi, Yunus Emre, Ahmad Yasawi, and Said Nursi. All of these figures are more or less associated with the Sufi tradition. Rumi [6] and Yasawi were poets and founders of tariqas (spiritual orders), and Yunus Emre was a wandering folk poet not associated with any tariqa. Moreover, those ulama to whom Gülen refers, such as Ghazali, Junayd, and Shah Waliullah, are scholars who have close connections to the broader Sufi tradition. Even among those modern figures whom Gülen holds up as “heroes of thought and action” he includes Sufis and Sufi-oriented writers like Ahmet Hilmi, Ferid Kam, and Necip Fazıl Kısakürek [7].

Gülen’s theology can be located best in this broad “humanistic current” of Muslims who stress the interior dispositions to be fostered in the believer in response to the revealed Qur’anic message and in imitation of the prophetic example found in the sunna. In this interpretation of Islam, faith is “virtue-oriented”; these Muslims stress internal qualities such as sincerity, patience, peace, tolerance, forgiveness, compassion, respect for others, and acceptance of differences, and encourage humble lives characterized by deeds of goodness, love, and service.

This current, while closely related to the Sufi tradition, antedates Sufism as such and finds its origins in the pious, ascetic community of early Muslims centered in the Madina Mosque who came to be called the ahl al-suffa. These early scholars eschewed commercial and military pursuits and devoted their lives to studying and teaching the religious usul (sources). Rıfat Atay [8] sees Gülen as reviving the ancient tradition of the suffa in two ways, firstly by embodying in his own life four of the typical characteristics of the early phenomenon (single, simple, humble, and pious), and secondly, by carrying on a consistent pattern of spiritual and theological formation for a select number of dedicated students.

Gülen’s relationship to the Sufi tradition

The suffa movement can be seen as a “pre-Sufi phenomenon, a precursor of tendencies that later developed into Sufism. While the similarities of the modern “Gülen movement” with the early ahl al-suffa are undeniably strong, the question remains of Gülen’s relation to historical Sufism. Zeki Saritoprak has called Gülen “a Sufi in his own way” [9]. Employing a term coined by Fazlur Rahman, I have referred to Gülen, and to Said Nursi before him, as “neo-Sufis” [10]. Mustafa Gökçek notes that Gülen did not begin to write about Sufism until the 1990s, when he was over 50 years old [11]. His earlier sermons and writings focused mainly on basic elements of Islamic faith and moral prescriptions, although he often included examples from the lives of earlier Muslim mystics and ascetics. However, in 1990, Gülen began to include a brief insert in the magazine Sızıntı that in each monthly issue elaborated a different concept of Sufi terminology. These articles became the basis for Gülen’s masterwork, Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart, of which four volumes have now been published in English [12].

The twentieth-century scholar Said Nursi would seem to provide the closest model for Gülen’s personal relationship to Sufism. Nursi, while showing respect for the Sufi tradition and affirming many of their insights, always distinguished himself from the Sufis. Nursi distinguished his theological method from that of the Sufis by means of his praxis-oriented approach, what he called the “way of reality,” in which he abstained from contemplative speculation in favor of practical guidance for his disciples’ individual and communitarian lives. He states: “However, since our way is not the Sufi path but the way of reality, we are not compelled to perform this contemplation [of death] in an imaginary and hypothetical form like the Sufis” [13].

Like Said Nursi, Gülen belongs to no tariqa and follows no pir. He explicitly rejects the idea that he is trying to found some new type of Sufi Order. He describes his complex relationship to the Sufi tradition as follows: “I have stated innumerable times that I’m not a member of a religious order. As a religion, Islam naturally emphasizes the spiritual realm. It takes the training of the ego as a basic principle. Asceticism, piety, kindness and sincerity are essential to it. In the history of Islam, the discipline that dwelt most on these matters was Sufism. Opposing this would be opposing the essence of Islam. But I repeat, just as I never joined a Sufi order, I have never had any relationship to one” [14].

Common concerns with the Sufi masters

On the other hand, Gülen shares many concerns with the exponents of the Sufi tradition and praises Said Nursi for “pouring down on us all the wealth of our schools and Sufi lodges (takka, zaviya, maktab, madrasa)” [15]. Like the Sufis, and like Said Nursi before him, he places the primacy in Islam on love, which he regards not only as a gift of the Creator God, but as the bond that unites humanity and can overcome disunity. “God Almighty has not created a stronger relation than love, this chain that binds humans one to another” [16]. Gülen’s theological vision focuses on many of the same themes founding the writings of the Sufi Masters. He elaborates, in the context of the demands of the Islamic community today, such typical Sufi concepts as ikhlas (sincerity or purity of intention), ma’rifat (knowledge), sabr (patience), and taqwa (piety).

Where Gülen’s theological vision departs from that of the Sufis is his emphasis on communitarian dimension of selfless service. While he affirms the importance of solitude and retreat (halwat) to purify one’s spirit, [17] he rejects any spirituality that supports an individualistic mystical flight to union with God that characterizes much Sufi theory and practice. He is similarly disinterested in the kind of metaphysical speculation that preoccupied so many of the Sufis.

For Gülen, spirituality must always be oriented towards service of God and of others. He states: “Individual projects of enlightenment that are not planned to aid the community are doomed to fruitlessness… Just as plans and projects for individual salvation that are independent of the salvation of others are nothing more than an illusion, so too, the thought of achieving success as a whole by paralyzing the individual awakening is a fantasy” [18].

The emphasis that he places on communitarian service of humanity is a quality that distinguishes the community inspired by the thought of Fethullah Gülen both from that of the Sufi practitioners and from that of the Nur cemaat who follow more strictly the teaching of Said Nursi. For Nursi, transformations of Islamic societies, and eventually civil societies, will come about through the personal transformation of the individual Muslim achieved through the study of the Risale-i Nur, Nursi’s 6000-page commentary on the Qur’an. While members of Gülen’s community also study the Risale-i Nur, Gülen hopes to bring about societal transformation through the establishment of institutions (e.g., schools, media instruments, dialogue centers) to promote the desired transformation. For Gülen, the way to God is by serving others. He states: “This path passes through the inescapable dimension of servanthood to God by means of serving first of all our families, relatives, and neighbors, then our country and nation, and finally humanity and creation” [19]. The community commonly refers to its activities simply as “The Service” (Hizmet).

Among the common concerns that Gülen shares with proponents of the Sufi tradition like Mevlana Jalal al-Din Rumi is the importance of concepts dealing with the “interiorization” of religious practice. In particular, he focuses on two of these Qur’anic elements, which can be said to form the conceptual basis of Gülen’s theology. These are the notion of ikhlas, which may be translated “purity of intention” or “sincerity,” and that of ‘ibada (worship), with its related concepts of ‘ubudiyya (servanthood) and ‘ubada (devotion).

Because of their centrality to the thought of Fethullah Gülen and the extent to which they shape and characterize the motivation and attitudes of the community inspired by his ideas, ikhlas and ‘ibada can be said to be the cornerstones or pillars of Gülen’s theology. I have written about the topic of ikhlas elsewhere, [20] but because the concept is so basic to Gülen’s theological perspective and so essential for the unity of Hizmet cemaat, I will take up once again key points of the topic in the next issue.

Notes

1. Fethullah Gülen and those Muslims inspired by his thought dislike the terms “Gülen movement” and “Gülen community,” which imply that Gülen dictates and directs everything done by the community (cemaat in Turkish). They refer to the community’s activities as the Hizmet, “the Service.) However, since the former terms have entered both scholarly and popular usage, I will employ them in this paper.
2. Fethullah Gülen, “Prophethood and Muhammad’s Prophethood,” in Essentials of the Islamic Faith, Somerset, NJ: Tughra Books, 2009, p. 163. (Originally published as İnancın Gölgesinde, Nil Yayınları, 1961)
3. Fethullah Gülen, Muhammad the Messenger of God, Clifton, NJ: Tughra Books, 2010, p. 327.
4. Fethullah Gülen, Speech to Visiting Scholars, 13 January 1996. Reprinted in Toward a Global Civilization of Love and Tolerance, Somerset, NJ: The Light, p. 82.
5. , p. 163. Cf. my analysis of Gülen’s appropriation of these figures in “Fethullah Gülen: Following in the Footsteps of Rumi,” in Peaceful Coexistence: Fethullah Gülen’s Initiatives in the Contemporary World, London: Leeds Metropolitan University Press, 2007, pp. 183-191.
6. More than any other individual, Rumi seems to epitomize for Gülen the characteristics he seeks to form in modern Muslims. “They call everyone to their embrace and to the truth, like Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi, and they tolerate every improper behavior toward themselves.” M. Fethullah Gülen, Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart, Somerset: NJ: 2009, III: 270.
7. Fethullah Gülen, The Statue of Our Souls: Revival in Islamic Thought and Activism, Somerset, NJ: 2009, pp. 68-72.
8. Rıfat Atay, “Reviving the Suffa Tradition,” in Muslim World in Transition: Contribution of the Gülen Movement, London: Leeds Metropolitan U.P., 2007, pp. 459-472.
9. Zeki Saritoprak, “Fethullah Gülen: A Sufi in His Own Way,” Turkish Islam and the Secular State, Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2003, pp. 156-169.
10. Thomas Michel, “Der türkische Islam im Dialog mit der modernen Gesellschaft. Die neo-sufistische Spiritualität der Gülen-Bewegung,” Concilium, Dezember, 2005. See also, “Sufism and Modernity in the Thought of Fethullah Gülen,” The Muslim World, 95/3: 2005, pp. 341-353.
11. Mustafa Gökçek, “Fethullah Gülen and Sufism: a Historical Perspective,” Muslim Citizens of the Globalized World: Contributions of the Gülen Movement, pp. 183-193.
12. Fethullah Gülen, Key concepts in the Practice of Sufism: Emerald Hills of the Heart, Vols. I-IV, Somerset, NJ: Tughra Books, 2009-2010.
13. Said Nursi, Risale-i Nur, Twenty-first Flash, p. 217.
14. Fethullah Gülen, cited in Lynne Emily Webb, Fethullah Gülen: Is There More to Him than Meets the Eye?, Paterson, N.J.: Zinnur Book, n.d., p. 80.
15. Fethullah Gülen, The Statue of Our Souls: Revival in Islamic Thought and Activism, p. 77.
16. Fethullah Gülen, The Horizon, Istanbul: Nil, 2000, p. 34. Reprinted in Toward a Global Civilization of Love and Tolerance, p. 37.
17. Gülen, Key Concepts in the Practice of Sufism, III: 27.
18. Fethullah Gülen, The Horizon, Istanbul: Nil, 2000, p. 192. Reprinted in Toward a Global Civilization of Love and Tolerance, p. 62.
19. Fethullah Gülen, Essays – Perspectives – Opinions, Somerset NJ: The Light, 2002, p. 90.
20. I delivered a paper entitled “The Wing of the Bird: Gülen on Sincerity” at an academic congress on the thought of M.F. Gülen held in Potsdam, Germany, in May, 2009, and a revised version of the paper at a similar congress held in Munich, Germany in February, 2010. The paper has been published in German in CIBEDO Beiträge, (Frankfurt, 3/2009) as “Der Flügel des Vogels: Gülen über Aufrichtigkeit (Frankfurt, 3/2009), pp. 99-102.