Air pollution may underlie the global decline in insect numbers

Wang et al. Short-term particulate matter contamination severely compromises insect antennal olfactory perception. Nature Communications, July 2023.

Communication plays a critical role in the lives of animals, as the loss of communication sways their ability to find food and locate mates to reproduce. Odors are the main source of communication for insects, which use their receptors on the antennae to detect odor molecules to find the location of a potential food or mate. New research shows that particulate air pollution has a detrimental impact on insects. Particulate matter, which is typically released from the combustion of fossil fuels, includes toxic heavy metals and organic substances. While the large particles (>10 micron) can irritate eyes and nose, smaller particles (<2.5 micron) can travel deep into the human lungs as well as accumulate on the antennae of insects shown in this study. The researchers studied the houseflies collected from urban Beijing and rural Australian areas and found that surprisingly both populations had smaller particulate matters accumulated on the antennae of diverse insects, including bees, wasps, moths, and flies. Electron microscopy analyses revealed that these insect antennae contained hazardous materials such as silicate, sulfurate, fly ash and metal particles. The researchers utilized some neural behavior tests and found that exposure to air pollution, even for 12 hours, significantly reduced the strength of odor-related electrical signals in the fly brains and compromised their sense of smell. These results suggest that when insect antennae become clogged with pollution particles, insects will struggle to smell food, a mate, or a place to lay their eggs, and it follows that their populations will decline. Remarkably, insects from remote and comparatively rural habitats have also similar contaminants showing how the particulate material can be carried thousands of kilometers, likely by air currents. Insects play fundamental roles in our ecosystem through the regulation of pests and diseases, pollination, and nutrient cycling. Air pollution is likely to be one key driver of global declines in insect populations, alarmingly calling for new global pollution regulations.

New evidence for an alien life in Mars?

Sharma et al. Diverse organic-mineral associations in Jezero crater, Mars. Nature, July 2023.

All known life in our planet is based on organic compounds, primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen. They’re also present widespread in the universe including Mars and it has been

a big controversy whether the existence of organic compounds can be a signature of life alone. A recent data from Nasa’s Perseverance rover has shed important insights into this question. Since 2021, Perseverance has been investigating the Mars’ Jezero Crater, a giant 28-mile-wide crater, which is thought to be a basin that once housed an ancient lake. Scientists believe that the Jezero crater was created from a meteorite’s impact around 3-4 billion years ago and the conditions in this lake basin may have been favorable to life. The recent evidence was collected using an instrument called SHERLOC, which is mounted on the robotic arm of the six-wheeled rover that enables to carry out the analysis of organic molecules and detailed mapping. Interestingly, the rover detected signatures in the crater floor rocks with a range of diverse organic molecules containing one or two rings of carbon. These classes of organic molecules seemed to occur with different spatial patterns within these compositionally distinct formations, potentially indicating a change in their levels over time. This suggests that there were either several distinct ways of synthesizing these organic compounds or that they were deposited and preserved by water, or in combination with volcanic materials. While scientists are excited about the great volume and diversity in the rocks collected, they are cautious to call this as a sign of alien life. There are both biotic and abiotic mechanisms that can form organic molecules. Infall from meteorites or water-rock interactions can also produce these organics abiotically. On the other hand, it is equally possible that an ancient life could produce these organics as well.  Researchers can’t wait to look at these rocks in earthbound labs to draw more definitive conclusions. Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission is expected to launch from Earth around the late 2020s, but the trip should be obviously worth the wait.

AI-powered robots as a potential remedy for loneliness epidemic

Broadbent et al. Enhancing social connectedness with companion robots using AI. Science Robotics, July 2023.

A recent study suggests that in the era of growing social isolation, companion robots enhanced with artificial intelligence (AI) may one day help alleviate the loneliness epidemic. Loneliness is estimated to affect about one-third of the global population, leading to serious health issues including obesity, dementia, and even early death. Researchers in this study first map some of the ethical considerations for governments, policy makers, tech developers and clinicians, and urges all stakeholders to come together to rapidly develop viable and reliable guidelines for trust, agency, engagement, and real-world efficacy. Second, they developed a patient-rated outcome measure called the “Companion Robot Impact Scale (Co-Bot-I-7)” which aims to establish the impact on physical health and loneliness. Their preliminary results showed that amiable androids help reduce stress and even promote skin healing after a minor wound. The team also highlights that doctors agree with this idea. Among 307 care providers across Europe and US, 69 percent of physicians approved of robots providing companionship to relieve isolation and potentially improve a patients’ mental health. Commercially available companion robots like ElliQ have already demonstrated their ability to reduce stress and loneliness while helping older individuals maintain an active and healthier lifestyles. The team foresees that the newer generations of robots, embedded with more advanced AI programs such as ChatGPT and other generative AI models, hold the potential to establish even stronger social connections with humans by engaging in spontaneous conversations and even mimicking the voices of deceased loved ones. It is believed that with the appropriate ethical guidelines, there is potential to utilize robots in establishing a healthier society. While these robots are not intended to replace genuine human companionship, they serve as valuable tools to enhance well-being and support individuals experiencing loneliness, especially in the elderly demographic.

Our primary concern, regardless of time or place, is to have people rise to the level of true humanity. Only those individuals who are moved by a sense of goodness and are in pursuit of perfection can be of help to humankind, which has been pursuing wrong paths and unable to come to its senses for the last several centuries; only these individuals can show people the ways of becoming “true” human beings. Wherever they go, they will advocate for human values and contribute to the gradual roll-out of the sense of goodness and kindness across society. The work and efforts of these eminent individuals who set their hearts on the well-being of humankind may pave the way for a collective awakening as everyone starts to speak the common language of being human and pursuing the same goal. If such an atmosphere can be established, even those who are unable to stand up on their own will be moved by a collective state of mind to join the same chorus, and they will be saved from being lost to oblivion.

Faith and enthusiasm may not be sufficient to keep people moving forward at all times. Their willpower may occasionally be overcome by carnal desires. The collective enthusiasm in a community where everyone is striving for goodness and kindness may help such individuals to stand upright and get protection against our carnal souls or temptations from Satan. This is similar to how pilgrims inject enthusiasm into one another and psychologically support each other during the hajj at sacred sites like Mataaf, Mina, Muzdalifah, and Arafat. Even if you have lost your fervor, the waves of excitement and enthusiasm in these holy sites will sweep you along, and you will find yourself in a unique spiritual atmosphere.

Yes, it is true that leading a straightforward life depends, to a certain extent, on being part of a righteous community. Therefore, we each should try to be on the path to become al-insan al-kamil (a perfected human being) in our own right while working hard to ensure that other people, too, should work toward that goal at the same time.

It is not always easy to resist the voids and weaknesses of our nature and build the monument of our spirits. Just as the rectitude of society is conditional on well-raised individuals, the righteousness of individuals depends on their living in an upright, righteous society. When they are alone, individuals can easily tumble down, unable to withstand terrible currents of deceit, misguidance, and sin. Yet, if there is a community around to extend a helping hand and support and empower them, it is easier for them to keep going and get protection and patronage.

The stones that make up a dome are able to resist the unrelenting forces of gravity by supporting each other, and this keeps the entire building upright and intact. In the same manner, when people support each other, this will sustain and support both themselves and the entire society. Our future can be secured by establishing a climate in which we can empower each other and make it a convenient setting for us in which to thrive. If this is achieved, when somebody runs out of breath in the hustle and bustle of life due to different reasons, they can refuel from the energy source of their friends. When climbing uphill, if they are exhausted at one point, the positive wind of their friends can push them upward.

Sometimes, we may assume that other people need to learn and benefit from our views, ideas, and values. That may be true. Yet, we, too, need a sound ground, a righteous environment, and a cultural setting where we can freely enjoy and cherish our own thoughts and ideas; this is not easy to realize. If we cannot do this at a broad scale—let’s say in a town or city—then we should at least try to make it happen at a smaller scale, even if it is as small as a village.

With his sagacity and foresight, the Messenger of God, peace and blessings be upon him, established such a social structure soon after he arrived in Medina. He managed to have a say in public affairs there even though there were many diverse communities, such as Jewish tribes and mushrikūn (idol worshippers), in addition to munafiqūn (hypocrites), all living in the same town. Some among these groups were working clandestinely to undermine the Muslim community and continuously plotting against them. They were doing everything to demoralize and harm the believers at every opportunity to finish off the light of Islam in Medina. Despite such challenges, Prophet Muhammad, the Pride of Humanity, established such a positive atmosphere in Medina that, with God’s help and grace, numerous problems were solved over time, the swamps were gradually drained, and hypocrites melted into that righteous milieu.

The very mentality of members of a community shapes the structure and even architecture of that community. For instance, Muslims tend to easily embrace a place where people are endowed with human and Islamic values. Every spot we visit in such a town will boost our enthusiasm. When I first went to Istanbul in the 1950s, I had a chance to visit some of the historical mosques, like Beyazıt, Fatih, Süleymaniye, and Yavuz Selim, as well as the tombs of the Ottoman sultans. As I visited these places, I so enjoyed myself that I felt as if I was in Medina. Surrounded by such signposts and reminders, I assume a person living in such a setting would be away from sin to the highest extent.

Indeed, the cities built at a time when Islam was being cherished to the fullest were making their inhabitants feel as if they were living in Medina. These were our cities with our architecture, places of worship, schools, centers of spiritual development, aesthetics, cleanliness, and beauty. Among their inhabitants were many people whose words were as precious as pearls when they spoke. There were among them individuals who would be filled with so much joy so as to spread wings up into the heavens when they heard somebody call upon “God.” When the inhabitants of these cities were virtuous, the cities would become “virtuous,” too (al-madinah al-fadilah).

The world has come to experience “problems” with human beings. Humans were created with a potential open to all sorts of good and evil due to two major powers entrusted to them: reason and willpower. Certain aspects of human nature and its biological structure are susceptible to evil. We are innately predisposed to certain voids and weaknesses, such as greed, lust, spite, and hostility. No social problem can be solved unless we start solving problems in the individual. If individuals are not elevated to true humanity, the society they will form will be one with flawed, faulty people. What follows is that the general mood of that society will return to be adopted by human beings who are born in that environment. And, of course, in such an environment or society, it would be very difficult for perfected human beings to grow up and survive.

Those who manage to become true human beings will be respectful toward others. They will not interfere with the beliefs, sacred values, or lives of other people. They will refrain from insult or denigration. Thus, tolerance and forgiveness will govern relationships among individuals. Indeed, for many centuries minorities lived among Muslim communities and were able to practice their religions freely.

If people living in the same place are able to agree on certain values, then they will be able to coexist peacefully. In such an environment, everyone will be able to practice their beliefs freely without any obstacle, fear, or concern. No one will interfere and meddle with, or try to oppress, others. In such circumstances, you can make use of the advantages of globalization and existing technological opportunities to bring your values to the agenda of humankind and make quite a headway in this direction.

In doing so, you should properly showcase and promote your precious values, refrain from acts and behaviors that would devalue those values, make sure you treat everyone with tolerance and forgiveness and accept them as they are, stay away from provoking hatred or hostility, and embrace others with compassion and affection. If you can do so, people will embrace you affectionately, and you will have a chance to present your values to the entire humanity and share them with all human beings.

In summary, one of the fundamental duties of the devotees of God is to remind people once again of their humanity and the common values of humanity. They are supposed to show others that belief in God and the Hereafter is a great truth and value that cannot be denied and a great human need as well, thereby ensuring that they are revived in their heart and spirit. If this can be achieved, you will live in a tremendous cascade of enthusiasm and joy wherever you live, and you will see colors, patterns and images from your own world wherever you look.

Yet, our lives are short, and the road we have to take is long: it is better for us to hurry up. If you expedite matters and raise the bar of service to humanity to the highest point, then what you offer to humanity will be greater by God’s leave and grace. We are not running after a utopia. We are aware of realities concerning human beings. We can more or less calculate what should be done to what extent and how. We are also aware of the magnitude of the duty entrusted to us.  If we can fulfill our duty properly, and if the Lord Almighty clears the way for us with His permission and providence, then it is not a dream to form many “virtuous” cities or communities.

Everywhere is in darkness

Eyes are in search of you

People speak

but with words of hypocrisy

Lift the veil on your face

and give us a light

So all the frictions are gone in society

An eclipse has happened, eyes are in sleep

The fall has hit, all the roses have withered

Arrhythmia does not go away,

It feels like, this is it

Satan is the gardener, and the road is steep

Passion and enthusiasm are long gone

My eyes are filled with tears waiting for your dawn

I fear the books will record only our names

The saplings you planted have paled one by one

There is a bleeding wound in the hearts of the faithful

Memories of yesterday occupy my mind

Days longing for you are not bearable any more

Rise in our souls, so alien thoughts are gone

I am a poor one, I cannot endure your absence my Master

My head is at your doorstep, leashed at the neck

Let me die on your path, your name on my lips

How I wish I was your Mus’ab.

I follow closely and with great interest what Western thinkers write and think about the Hizmet Movement, how they evaluate the current conditions affecting the Movement, and how they shed light on its future. One such book that was recently released was “Between Thought and Action: An Intellectual Biography of Fethullah Gülen,” written by the esteemed intellectual and thinker Ori Z. Soltes.

Dr. Soltes’s book is one strong addition to the growing corpus of biographical studies on the Hizmet Movement and Fethullah Gülen. It includes original comments on current issues and interviews with people who have devoted themselves to the Hizmet Movement. The book is a fluent, original, and yet comprehensible expression of the life of esteemed Fethullah Gülen, known by supporters as Hodjaefendi.

In praise of the book, Jon Pahl says, “This book is a gift to anyone who wants to deepen their knowledge and understanding of Fethullah Gülen.” James C. Harrington states, “Ori Soltes provides an eloquent account of Gülen’s spiritual life and intellectual journey, and his service to societies through his social Islamic thought.”

The book has six chapters. While each chapter could likely be a book itself, Dr. Soltes, with his unique narration and style, packs these chapters into a book in a way that does not bore the reader and so takes us on a tour d’horizon, starting from the “small world” of Fethullah Gülen to his becoming a world-renowned Islamic scholar, intellectual, and educator. As its title suggests, Dr. Soltes’s book is a significant contribution differing from several other works in that it not only covers the foundations, development, and history of the Hizmet Movement besides the life of esteemed Gülen, it also, in the fourth chapter, includes interviews on how Gülen’s philosophy and ideas have been incorporated into the Hizmet Movement and how the participants of the Movement and society at large have interpreted them.

Had someone asked me to summarize this book in one sentence, I would have quoted a student from Gülen’s teaching circle who said the following: “Even if I give up on myself, I know he (Gülen) will never give up on me” (p. 174). When you read the life of a person devoted to a sublime mission and meet his objectives and ideals that transcend human horizons, his love and devotion to his community strikes you in the heart, and then you understand why his life, thoughts, and ideals resonate in other people’s hearts.

In the first chapter, we read a short biography of Gülen’s childhood and upbringing in a pious family environment (p. 21) and how these had a lasting effect on his life. In this context, it is emphasized how his soul and realm of thought were shaped from an early age (p. 23), his interest in Western literary classics in addition to the works of Islamic scholars and thinkers (p. 25), how he became a role model for his community through his superior morality and dignity in his personal and social life (pp. 25, 26), and how his deep learning and psychological acuity combined to help him develop a reputation and to expand his following (pp. 25, 26, 31).

In the same chapter, it is also mentioned how Hizmet could reach 170 countries through the immense influence of Gülen’s “positive action” philosophy and became a movement serving every part of the world (pp. 25, 26, 31). It’s also a reminder of how the early periods of the Movement were laborious and agonized like today, and how—with the impact generated by Gülen’s sermons—people became devoted to the ideals he put forward (pp. 25, 26, 31, 32). The chapter also describes how he had to remain fugitive during military junta regimes, during which he continued to encourage his community to expand Hizmet by opening new schools (p. 34). Gülen even had to stay in a cave for a month between 1980 and 1986 when he was wanted by law enforcement and had to survive on bread and water alone (p. 34).

After describing the hardships Gülen and other Hizmet members experienced, the author mentions that Gülen was able to interpret the spirit of the times and introduce new methods for the expansion of the Movement (p. 36). While highlighting several trendsetting methods like opening educational institutions, establishing media organizations and publishing houses, encouraging philanthropists to provide accommodation for students, and the like, the author also highlights the public and inclusive Ramadan fast-breaking dinners and receptions as an example of effective religious jurisprudence in modern times (p. 34), as well as the interfaith dialogue events, including when Gülen visited the Vatican and opened his inter-religious dialogue activities to a wider audience (p. 36).

The second chapter has a short chronicle of Gülen’s world of thought and the author’s thoughts on the sources that shaped Gülen (p. 41) An expert on the history and philosophy of religions and political history, Dr. Soltes briefly evaluates the understanding of religion and God and the belief systems of Jews, Christians, and Muslims, before taking a journey into Gülen’s world of ideas. Soltes believes that interreligious conflicts have been caused by human ego in a place where the paths to God are thought to be unlimited, and that the politicization of the issue has led to such divisions and conflicts (pp. 41-51). After this brief historical introduction, the author explains why Gülen, an authoritative scholar on Islamic jurisprudence, emphasizes and recommends interfaith dialogue around the values of love, compassion, tolerance, science, universal values, and the core values of the Hizmet Movement, which some view as contrary to the general Islamic “tradition.” Soltes highlights this as an inspiration from the Sufi tradition (p. 51) and reveals how the prominent figures of the Sufi understanding—from Rabi’a al-‘Adawiyya to ‘Mawlana’ Jalal al-Din Rumi—influenced Gülen (pp. 52-90). The author also states it is not correct to translate the Turkish word hoşgörü, which Gülen frequently used in his dialogue initiatives, into English as tolerance as hoşgörü is a manner of dealing with others based on equality. Hoşgörü is nearer to acceptance.

In the third chapter titled “From Words to Actions: Dialogue, the Hizmet Movement and the Altruistic Activities,” we read the author’s observations and comments on the Movement’s educational and dialogue activities (p. 93). The author mentions Gülen not only as a theoretician who put forward an educational philosophy and pedagogy but also as a practitioner of educational thought and pedagogy which he applied starting from his years in Izmir and enriches this with the memories of Gülen’s students from that period. He states Gülen’s focus on education is due to his life philosophy: “I prefer to serve rather than to be served” (p. 97), a slight modification of Socrates’ saying, “I prefer to be a victim than to persecute others.”

The same chapter elucidates the pedagogy of education in schools opened by Hizmet volunteers as shaped by a “union of mind and heart” and emphasizes that Gülen synthesized and formulated this from the Nursi-Einstein perspective (p. 104) to improve the effectiveness of the education model. It is also emphasized that the schools serve people of all faiths, which Gülen interprets for the modern world as, “Come, come and join us,” mirroring Rumi’s famous invitation (36). The high academic achievement of the schools is also attributed to the generous, altruistic, humble, and persevering teachers (pp. 111-122) who are so fond of their students.

In the section on dialogue in the same chapter, the author quotes from the Qur’an and the works of Gülen and states that Hizmet’s dialogue activities have Qur’anic foundations, that the Qur’anic verses in this context are rendered closer to understanding through Said Nursi’s and Gülen’s interpretations, and that the ways dialogue activities are carried out in a clime of acceptance have grown into platforms of love, peace, and brotherhood (pp. 269-273).

The fourth chapter, “In Their Own Words: The Followers and Sympathizers of Gülen and Hizmet Speak,” includes interviews conducted with a wide range of people from different age groups, countries, and nationalities. Here is what some of them think:

As a man of religion, Fethullah Gülen, “not only preached, but led by example” (p. 136), and “every morning I have met ‘a new Hizmet Movement and I think, this is the reason why I am here’” (p. 153). In addition, “Gülen’s role model behavior through his actions, rather than simply his words” (p. 155) and his emphasis on “embracing all humanity for universal peace with the assertion that peace depends on the extent of our love for humanity” are resonant and resolute messages that stole my heart as we mostly do not hear such words from other Muslim scholars (p. 159) nowadays.

An authoritative scholar and thinker, Fethullah Gülen also “has an aura and personal appeal by being so kind, generous, and approachable” (p. 160). In time, I noticed this is not only limited to him; almost everyone in the Hizmet is “by default good people, generous and trustworthy” (p. 167).

From a broader perspective, Gülen “is the very person who has brought Turkey to the world arena with a successful education project” (p. 174) and “Gülen’s Islam is a universal, civil Islam.” (p. 179) Thanks to this, “The Gülen Movement is very inclusive: open to the East, open to the West, open to dialogue” (p. 180).

Many fell in love with Gülen’s idealistic worldview—he preached from the pulpit of mosques, “We don’t need to fight, we need to talk” (p. 183). This would introduce Muslims to the world through positive action. Encouraging people to achieve this cause, Gülen always and still emphasizes universal human values, and I consider this noteworthy (p. 195).

As a participant of the Hizmet Movement, “I think what attracts me most is its vision” (p. 195), and I am impressed by the “Hizmet Movement’s openness to dialogue and understanding of people of different faiths” (p. 231). An American friend of the Hizmet Movement says, “in an institution of the Hizmet Movement, among the brochures displayed at the entrance, were also pamphlets in which ideas critical of the Hizmet Movement were quoted,” and “the Hizmet Movement does not hide anything, it discusses these ideas honestly and presents them in a way that is absolutely understandable” (p. 245).

Finally, this section of the book maintains that “Gülen’s life can be explained by five key elements, models or relationships: 1) his emphasis that participation in non-violent activities ensures integrity; 2) his implementation of the code of principled pluralism in all spheres—he demonstrates this frankly in dialogue activities; 3) what I call engaged empathy—a deep feeling for the suffering of the world, and willingness to engage on behalf of alleviating that suffering; 4) his commitment to spiritual and scientific literacy; 5) his success in setting out the institutional model of a social enterprise” (p. 246).

In the same chapter, middle-aged adults and youth were also interviewed, revealing people with diverse backgrounds and from different parts of the world. The author appraises his observations and experiences among the older and younger generations and explains: “Albeit generational gaps between the people we talked to, when it came to the Hizmet culture, they were so similar in evaluating events and incidents from so analogous perspectives.” Soltes also states, “After long observations and witnessing the behavior and lives of the Hizmet participants, you come upon a circumstance so synchronous and harmonious that someone not familiar with the Hizmet Movement might think these people are of a top-talent theater troupe trained at the same acting school” (p. 10).

In the concluding part of the book, the author touches upon current issues in two sections titled “Why does Erdoğan hate Fethullah Gülen so much?” and “Turkey’s July 2016 ‘Coup’—Fake and False, not Failed.” The first part mentions Gülen’s alignment with values and principles and how Erdoğan remains adrift from these. It also mentions that Gülen has never been interested in politics and that the Hizmet Movement has remained a social movement, a stance exploited by the Erdoğan regime to depict the Hizmet Movement as an object of hate to consolidate its own power and avoid justice in the wake of massive corruption (pp. 111-122). In the final section, the author argues that the July 15^th attempt was not a coup d’état. He provides examples from the series of events on that fateful day and similar incidents elsewhere in the world and clearly states that an attempt like the one on July 15, 2016, must have been a fake attempt (pp. 273-278).

De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (On the Structure of the Human Body in Seven Books) by Andreas Vesalius is a collection of books on human anatomy published in Europe during the Renaissance. It can be considered as the most famous book of its kind with quality anatomical pictures and accurate depictions for that time. Hundreds of studies have been conducted on human anatomy since the first edition of this famous book was published in 1543. New atlases of anatomy have been published as more organs are described and depicted in illustrations. Today, modern anatomy books, including Sobotta Atlas of Human Anatomy in particular, are decorated with perfect illustrations, drawings, and descriptions demonstrating that human body is a source of infinite miracles. The science of anatomy has paved the way for many to feel awe in this magnificent creation of God. This was true even during the science’s infancy when it was dealing with organs at a macro level in terms of proportionality, balance, and perfect fitness to their functions. As the science moves deeper into the micro levels, the magnificence of divine art and embroidery increases and helps people attain more profound faith.

Even when people suggest that it is no longer possible to discover a new organ or tissue, new developments in the field are announced, bringing novel purposes into the spotlight. An article published in the journal Science on January 5, 2023, refers to a new “protective shield” discovered by scientists in addition to the existing ones. This shield is like a watchtower, so to speak, for the cells of the immune system.

According to the article, this novel anatomic structure acts as a barrier and serves as a platform for cells of the immune system so that they can watch over and monitor the brain. The study conducted on mouse and human brains found that this protective shield facilitates the cleaning of waste resulting from brain activities and functions as a “sentry tower” for immune system cells that look for signs of infection.

The brain is wrapped by a cerebrospinal fluid that acts as a protective cushion. The ependymal cells that line the four interconnected ventricles in the brain are given the task of producing up to 500 ml of cerebrospinal fluid on a daily basis. The fluid in these ventricles is made to circulate around the brain and the spinal cord so that it can protect the brain from mechanic concussions and clears away waste. This fluid is eventually sucked by capillaries into the blood’s circulation.

This system of removing waste products coming from the cerebrospinal fluid is called the glymphatic system. Studies suggest that this process occurs mostly during sleep. A 2013 article indicated that in mice, the gaps between the cells in the brain expand by 60 percent during sleep, allowing faster removal of amyloid beta (plaques found in Alzheimer’s disease) by the glymphatic system compared to when the mice were awake. One of the reasons for the great importance of sleep is that it helps to clear away this neurotoxic waste via the glymphatic system [1].

The novel discovery reported in the above-mentioned study is that a thin tissue having a thickness of only a number of cells was observed to divide horizontally into two the subarachnoid space of the middle one of three membranes surrounding the brain (namely, the dura mater (thick membrane); arachnoid mater (the membrane resembling a spider web); and the pia mater (delicate membrane)). This space between several different tissue layers located between the inner surface of the skull and the outer surface of the brain is actually not empty, but contains the cerebrospinal fluid, large blood vessels, and a spider web-like connective tissue [2].

This fluid surrounding the brain acts as a shock absorber just like a cushioning inside a bike helmet. This fluid does not stay in the subarachnoid space but circulates through the tubing and cavities inside and around the brain, filtering the waste products and bringing them to the blood’s circulation. The authors of the above-mentioned study believe that the newly discovered “shield” may assist the cerebrospinal fluid in controlling this cleaning function.

Dr. Maiken Nedergaard, one of the authors of the study, notes that the newly discovered anatomic structure that helps to regulate the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid inside and around the brain not only assists the cerebrospinal fluid at flushing away the waste but also plays a very important and strategic role in the protection of the brain by the immune system.

This shield, referred to as the subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane by the authors, separates the space beneath the arachnoid mater into two compartments, one closer to the skull and the other closer to the brain. The experiments on mice showed that the pia mater prevents most proteins from migrating between compartments, allowing only extremely tiny molecules to pass. In addition, tissue samples taken from adult human brains provided evidence of this new tissue.

The studies on the newly discovered membrane-like tissue layer demonstrated the link between the dirty cerebrospinal fluid containing waste products and the amyloid plaques found in Alzheimer’s disease, showing that the cerebrospinal fluid can help to segregate and flush them. However, more extensive studies should be conducted into the functioning of this protective shield in a healthy brain as well as brain defects caused by its dysfunction.

Researchers revealed that numerous and various immune system cells may be embedded into this shield and the number of these cells increased in mice in response to inflammation and advanced aging. This finding supports the view that this tissue serves as an “immunologic observatory” where immune system cells monitor the cerebrospinal fluid for signs of infection and inflammation and call for additional firepower when needed.

The cells of the capillaries that nourish the brain form a boundary called the “blood-brain barrier,” preventing large molecules from entering the sterile inner area of the brain and allowing certain special proteins to carry food and molecules required for the vitality of neurons. If the newly discovered shield is destroyed, the immune system cells coming from the skull’s spongy bone marrow can occupy the brain surface which they cannot normally reach. This explains why traumatic brain injuries usually lead to extended inflammation of the brain and disturbs the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid, but these hypotheses need to be tested.

In addition, there is increasing support to the theory that traumatic injuries to this newly discovered protective shield are linked to increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.

Most of our brain cells are not neurons

The surface of the human brain has a folded structure due to deep crevices called sulci and smaller ridges called gyri. There are approximately 100 billion brain nerve cells (neurons) in this thick layer called the cerebral cortex. This folded surface creates larger space and more processing power inside the limited skull cavity.

The widely-held belief that we can use only 10 percent of our brain power is not correct. Yet, it has recently been demonstrated that neurons constitute only 10 percent of all brain cells. The remaining 90 percent are called glia, meaning “adhesive” in Greek, and these glial cells correspond to approximately half of the brain’s weight. They are not only adhesive cells that keep neurons together but also have important functions such as cleaning excessive neurotransmitters, fortifying the immune system, and ensuring the growth and functioning of synapses.

The more excellent or splendid a work of art, the higher care or diligence is needed to protect it. Indeed, a sculptor will not allow his work to be subjected to rain, wind, or storm after working on it for months. Rather, he or she will secure it with supports from all sides and ensure that it stands on a sound platform and is fastened with ropes, and he or she will drape protective covers and sponges on it. Likewise, the Creator of our body ensures that our brain, the most excellent living organ ever created, is covered with three layers with different characteristics for protection, and a cushioning layer consisting of a special fluid is placed under each cover. It is further placed inside a protective case made of bone and its surface fashioned with a skin. There are still unknown aspects or characteristics of the human body and spirit. Apparently, we will continue to be surprised with new discoveries in coming years.

Footnotes

1. L. Xie et al. “Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain”, Science, Oct. 2018; 342 (6156). 2013, s. 373–373.
2. M. Nedergaard et al. “A mesothelium divides the subarachnoid space into functional compartments”, Vol 379, Issue 6627, 2023, s. 84–88.

Revelation has come to liberate me

From the power of sin

That’s been integrated

As a standard of norm

As a power of hope

To restore justice in the world

Kingdom and power

All they devour

Assuming this life is eternal

False promises are all what they’ve heard of

The largest prime number [1]—discovered by a group of scientists led by Patrick Laroche in 2018—drew considerable interest [2]. To better describe the greatness of this number with 24,862,048 decimal digits, we can give the following example: if we print this number on both sides of A4 papers with standard font sizes, the height of these papers placed on top of each other would be 83 cm. Why did these scientists go to such lengths to make this discovery? Why did such a discovery receive so many awards? These questions will lead us on a voyage into the mysterious world of mathematics.

History of prime numbers

A prime number is a positive number which is evenly divisible only by itself and 1. They start with 2, are followed by 3, 5, and 7, and seem to follow no discernible pattern after that. They have always compelled attention as many scientists have tried to come up with a formula to produce them for centuries. According to the available resources, the oldest study on the matter started with Greek polymath Eratosthenes (BC 276-195) and his famous sieve [3]. The sieve of Eratosthenes systematically eliminates composite numbers—the numbers that are not prime—and defines the remaining numbers as prime, but it is very hard to use for large numbers. In comparison, the Mersenne Theorem [4], developed by French scientist Marin Mersenne (1588-1648) and formulated as  (n is a natural number), helps us to calculate many prime numbers. Although it was later found that 2047 () is composite, all prime numbers calculated by this formula came to be referred to as Mersenne primes. The largest prime number discovered in 2018, too, is a Mersenne prime that satisfies this formula.

Another French mathematician, Pierre de Fermat (1607-1665), adopted a similar approach to Mersenne’s and stated that the formula (m is a natural number) can give us prime numbers—but exceptions to this formula have demonstrated that the formula may not always produce primes [5]. These numbers were called Fermat numbers and worked better than Mersenne numbers [6].

Today, it is generally accepted that there is no formula that can give you all prime numbers. Therefore, mathematicians focus on methods to check whether a number is prime. Researchers have come up with various primality tests including the Fermat, Miller-Rabin, AKS, and Lucas-Lehmer to determine if very large numbers are prime.

In addition to prime numbers, mathematicians also refer to the numbers that are relatively prime, i.e., coprime numbers. Take 21 and 10. Although both of these numbers are not prime, they are relatively prime as the two numbers have only one common divisor, 1. Many composite numbers can be coprime with any other number.

Prime numbers and encryption

We use prime numbers every day without even realizing it. It is possible to give examples of how they are used in many fields including physics, engineering, coding, and diverse technological applications. Cryptography or the practice of cryptography is one of the areas where primes are frequently employed. Deriving from ancient Greek words of “kryptós” meaning “hidden or secret” and “graphein” meaning “to write,” cryptography refers to the study of techniques for secure communication. One of the early applications of cryptography involves the use of the Caesar cipher [7].

Caesar cipher.

The Caesar cipher employs systematic encryption; letters are assigned to numbers:

A=0, B=1, C=2 … Z=29

Then, the message is encoded:

S E L A M

21 5 14 0 15

Using a “key” (for instance, adding 5 to each number), the message is encrypted before it is sent:

26 10 19 5 20

The recipient of the message decrypts it using the rules of modular arithmetic (in this case, by subtracting 5 from the numbers). What is crucial here is to be able to communicate the key to the recipient in a secure manner. During the Second World War, German scientists aware of this problem used the Enigma system, where the key would be changed every day during the war [8]. The British used machines developed by mathematician and logician Alan Turing (1912–1954) to decode the encrypted messages despite the fact that keys were changed on a daily basis, thereby changing the course of the war.

Enigma cipher machine used by Germans.

Prime numbers come to our rescue in solving the security problem in systematic encryption. The communication between the sender and the receiver is established using the method called “asymmetric encryption” without using any key. In 1977, Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman developed the RSA encryption method—the name deriving from their surnames—in which communication is secured between the sender and the receiver by using two primes and a third number obtained by multiplying the primes [9]. The first of these primes is called “open key” which is publicly available. The second prime is the “special key” known to each user. The third number, which may not be prime, is a prime obtained by multiplying the first two numbers. Through special operations, the system matches these prime numbers and the key is encrypted. For example, when you insert your bank card to an ATM machine, your card gives the bank’s publicly available key (prime number) to the machine. Then, the machine asks you to enter your PIN, which does not have to be a prime number, for secure communication with your bank. When you enter your PIN correctly, the system has access to the private key through some special operations in the background and allows you to perform transactions related to your account. This process relies on complex algorithms for ensuring security. Whichever algorithm is used, all encryption and decryption operations are performed using prime numbers. The larger the prime number, the harder it will be to break the code.

As is seen, we frequently use prime numbers in our daily life—often without even being aware of them. There may be undiscovered properties and novel areas of the use of prime numbers.

References

1. “Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search”, www.mersenne.org

2. “Largest known prime number”, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest_known_prime_number

3. “Sieve of Eratosthenes (Eratosthenes’in Eleği)”, tolpp.com/sieve-of-eratosthenes-eratosthenesin-elegi/

4. “Marin Mersenne”, www.mathematik.ch/mathematiker/mersenne.html

5. “Pierre de Fermat”, www.spektrum.de/wissen/pierre-fermat-1607-1608/962953

6. →prime
→prime
→prime
→prime
→composite
→prime
The sequence of Mersenne primes in the binary number system.
→ prime
→ prime
→prime
→prime
→prime
→composite
The sequence of Fermat primes in the binary number system.

7. “Caesar cipher”, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_cipher; “Caesar Cipher Exploration”, en.khanacademy.org/computing/computer-science/cryptography/crypt/pi/caesar-cipher-exploration

8. “Enigma machine”, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_machine

9. “What is RSA encryption and how does it work?”, www.comparitech.com/blog/information-security/rsa-encryption/

A salik (initiate) is a traveler who follows a way to a goal and makes efforts to meet with God. The way of traveling differs according to the capacity, abilities and gifts with which each individual has been favored. Some are extraordinarily attracted and taken by God Himself to the ranks of loving and being loved by God and being pleased with Him and His being pleased with them, without having to observe some of the rules that must be observed during journeying. Such are mentioned as those who are attracted by God. They can reach, through the blessings of the Prophet’s Ascension, in a few minutes, hours or days the states and stations that others can reach after many periods of suffering, and become purified of carnal dirt. Their hearts are refined in the shortest way possible and, reaching their Beloved and Desired One at a speed that is not possible through other efforts, they are able to feel all the spiritual pleasures of being favored with His company. They have reached the horizon of “a perfect human being,” which is regarded as the point where the outward and inward have been united.

These perfect ones, who are attracted by God toward Him, are the hidden treasures of the Divine mysteries, the centers on which the lights of the Divine Knowledge and Existence are focused, and those who offer the water of life to believers for the health of their spiritual life, a water with which they will quench their thirst for eternity. They revive dead hearts with their speeches, open blind eyes with their glance and attentions, and cure the spiritual wounds of those who are in their aura. They live intoxicated with ever new gifts and favors, and cause those around them to experience the most dazzling of observations. With their seeing directed by their insight, and their speaking dependent on their hearts, they are enraptured with the colors and lines which pertain to Him, and which they see in every- thing they look at, and they scatter pearls and coral whenever they open their mouths to speak. Since they are dazzled and enchanted by even a half-seeing of Him, those who do not know them think that they are insane or intoxicated. Ruhi of Baghdad [1] describes their state very well:

Do not think that we are intoxicated with the wine of the grape; we are among the intoxicated from eternity in the past.

If some temporarily go into ecstasies with the initial signs of Him, they immediately come to their senses because of their nature, and they take refuge in wakefulness and self-possession, continuing on their way to meeting God in wakefulness. There is nothing in their feelings, thoughts or acts which causes people confusion; nor are there utterances of pride incompatible with the rules of Shari‘a, nor any affectations, nor relaxed behavior. They advance toward being pleased with Him and His being pleased with them in reliance on Him in the atmosphere of The eye did not swerve, nor did it stray (53:17).

Some others complete their spiritual journey by observing its heavenly rules, reaching the horizon of attraction toward God with the support of Divine help and feeling as if their will-power has been connected to a sacred center of attraction. They con- tinue their future life connected to that center in the manner of those who have let themselves go in the current. You can find in such people, who have taken off toward nothingness and carnal non-existence, neither anxieties, worries, nor grief. They are occupied with the Eternal Friend, they feel His intimacy, and live free from uneasiness and troubles because of the peace they find in His presence. The following verses of Niyazi Misri [2] indicate this horizon in one respect:

Having renounced the worldly worries, and
taken off to carnal non-existence; zealously
flying without ceasing,
I call, “O Friend, O Friend!”

There are still some others who constantly make an effort, from the beginning to the end, and, without expecting any return, sincerely fulfill their duties of servanthood. They neither feel attraction nor are attracted toward God, nor do they display any affectations, nor have any superiority or inferiority complexes or fancies and fantasies. They show great will-power and patience, observing even the least important rules of devotion without any show and being extraordinarily steadfast on His way. They prefer living an Islamic life over wonder-working and pleasures, and never adopt Paradise and what lies beyond it as a goal of their devotion. Regarding believing and devotion as the greatest blessing of the Lord, they live in thankfulness for such gifts in utmost humility and modesty. With his particular style, Mawlana Jalalu’d-Din Rumi describes being favored with this blessing as follows:

Happiness has come and held us by the skirt,
and set up our tent in the heaven.
Yesterday the Beloved asked me: “How do you do with this unfaithful world?”
I answered: “How can one be who, has seen the fortune of the fortunate state?
Thanks that I have found in the bottom of my teeth the sugar that Egypt cannot see even in her dreams.”

The first thing an initiate must do is to turn to God in repentance and contrition, in determination to emigrate to what God is pleased with from what He is not, to what He asks us to do from what He does not, and to a life in the heart and the spirit from a carnal life. So long as their efforts are supported by such a high degree of purification of the carnal soul, refinement of the heart, and good morals, initiates feel that they change both inwardly and outwardly while their horizons become gradually enlightened. To the extent of their sincerity and purity of intention, they begin to present an example of straightforwardness in acting, with the mechanism of their consciousness becoming gradually radiant. With belief developing into conviction, and conviction deepening with increasing knowledge of God, and knowledge of God being transformed into love, and love growing into burning passion, and passion ending in constant wonder, a human being, who has been created of dust, of wet clay, becomes the focus of attention for the inhabitants of the heavens. Those dwelling in the pure realm of the Divine dominion regard it an honor to follow the example of such humans. Whoever turns to them for guidance is guided to the truth, and whoever holds fast to them has grasped a strong rope.

This “greatest copy and pattern of creation”, who has become a source of radiance in the inner depth of his or her self, turns into a center of Divine gifts and a storeroom of favors, becomes a blessed one who offers everyone the water of life. Each of the different mansions which such a traveler passes through during the journey upward is called a “state,” and the relatively stable point to which his or her abilities develop, and which we may describe as the “arch of perfections” of a traveler, is called a “station.” “The gifts and radiance of everyone is in proportion to his or her capacity.”

Every traveler to the Ultimate Truth ends the journey at a certain peak and observes all the worlds, materially and spiritually, from this summit or pinnacle. The final point which every traveler reaches according to his or her capacity is the peak particular to that individual, and therefore each peak is of a relative height. The highest, the only real peak, which separates the mortal from the Eternal or the contingent from the absolutely necessary, which is mentioned in the Qur’an as “or even nearer” in the statement the distance between the strings of two bows (adjacent to or facing each other), or even nearer (53:9), which describes the nearness of God’s Messenger to God, is the one belonging to the master of creation, upon him be the most perfect of blessings. All other heights are defined, in comparison with one another, with such expressions as “lower” or higher” or “greater” or “less” and belong to the godly and those near-stationed to God are relative and in proportion to the capacity-capital of everyone and the Divine gifts with which they are favored.

When the initiates step on their individual horizon of perfection and make their heart into a polished mirror to the sacred Divine gifts, that heart becomes familiar with the Divine look and the breezes of Divine inspiration, and they begin to feel and view creation differently, according to the individual’s level. They burn with the excitement of demonstrating to others what each sees and feels.

Those initiates always think of Him and mention Him as “The One ever-worshipped is He—God”, breathing the truth of “The One ever-sought is He—God”, pondering their inner world and the outer world, respiring with “The One ever-known is He—God” and relating everything to the truth of the Divine Being or Essence around the axis of Names and Attributes, developing their belief, first based on acceptance without seeing what is believed in, into a conviction based on a seeing by the heart, supported by a state of spiritual pleasures. They experience verbal and physical devotion with such delight that it is as if they have entered Paradise and been favored with a vision of God. Haqani [3] says:

What behooves an initiate is to proclaim: We worship but God alone.

They hold back from everything which they think is not approvable in His sight, and think of Him only. They reflect deeply on a profound understanding of the fields that He allows.

Initiates who have come to the end of their journey think only of Him, consider Him, know and concentrate on Him with the title of “He.” They consider and concentrate on Him because of Him and because they must do so, and they consider all else than Him—whether relating to this world or the next—only in accordance with and in proportion to His permission. For one who has focused on Him only and considers all else save Him because of Him, the only thing to be sought and desired is He and His good pleasure. Let us listen to Rumi once more:

O you who are seeking the world; you are like a day laborer in this world; and you, lover of Paradise, are also far distant from truth.
O you, who are unaware of the truth and pleased with the two worlds,
You are excused, for you have not felt
the pleasure of suffering for the Beloved’s sake.

In short, initiates who have determined their goal well and who are aware of the horizon where they are, leave both their bodies and souls, with which others are most concerned, on the bench where corpses are washed for burial, and scatter all their capital of being before the door of their heart. Freed from all concerns of everything save Him that may keep them from their way, they turn to their heart and try to understand its voice. They put their eyes and ears under the command of their insight, they plunge into the pure world of metaphysical considerations. It sometimes occurs that they can transcend space in one attempt, and make their voices heard by the inhabitants of heavens in another.

This point, where the heart turns completely to the invisible speaker in it, is like a launch pad from which initiates can rise to the door of eternity in one leap. A step forward, with their head and feet having met at the same point, the heroes of ascension (to God) and descent (to return to being amidst the people) become like a ring. In such state, where the “bird of petition” should be sent to God, lips and voice fall silent, and only the warm sounds of the heart are heard. The head bends itself down to lean ever increasingly on the heart, and whispers to itself: Worship your Lord until certainty, which is bound to come, comes to you (15:99).

O God! I ask You for Your love and the love for him who loves You, and for the deeds which will cause me to get near to love of You. O God, bestow blessings and peace on Your beloved one and the Messenger, the pure, chosen one, and on his Family and Companions, esteemed, appreciative and faithful.

Notes

1. Ruhi of Baghdad (d. 1605) was one of the important figures in the Ottoman-Turkish classical literature, who usually wrote about moral issues. (Tr.)
2. Mehmed Niyazi Misri (d. 1694) was a Sufi poet who was born in Malatya (Turkey), educated in Egypt and lived in Istanbul and Edirne. (Tr.)
3. Haqani Mehmet Bey (d., 1606) was an Ottoman Turkish poet. He spent his whole life in Hilya (“The Portrait”) and Miftah-i Futuhat (“The Key to Conquests”) are his well-known works. (Tr.)

Scientific positivism assumes history and social events to follow a straight line. In this view, divine revelation and the virtuous life it prescribes are not factored in, for human intellect is accepted as the only source of knowledge. Political, psychological, and sociological factors are seen as the only factors shaping history.

After the Second World War, however, some started questioning this approach, especially as postmodernity started to dominate the public space. Many Muslim intellectuals have also been under the influence of these developments, while many of them have tried to interpret historical events not only through what was recorded, but more so with “wisdom.” Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (d. 1960) was one those. In this article, we will explore Nursi’s wisdom-based commentary about some events that took place among the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).

Several conflicts and battles that brought Companions of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, against one another, are some of the most confusing and heartbreaking events in Islamic history. These conflicts resulted in Muslims splitting into camps that continue until today. Upon being asked about the nature of the battles starting in the time of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Nursi does not immediately jump into an analysis of thousands of authentic, weak, and fabricated narrations (15th Letter). He focuses more on the main inferences from all these narrations and analyzes ideas about the emergence of the Battle of the Camel, Siffin, and Karbala.

According to Nursi, the Battle of the Camel between Ali ibn Abi Talib and Talha ibn Ubaydullah, Zubayr ibn Awwam, and Aisha Bint Abu Bakr, was a struggle between “absolute justice” and “relative justice.” When this debate in search of justice was carried on to the field of politics, conflict became inevitable. It is important to note that this demand for justice by the Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) (sahabah) is evidence to the great progress and sensitivity they achieved in human rights at that time. For a fair judgment, it is also necessary to know about the previous lives of these Companions. While Nursi emphasizes that Ali was right, he refrains from historical details, such as Aisha being in Mecca at that time and not experiencing the atmosphere in Medina, or that she had met and agreed with Imam Ali before the Battle of the Camel. Moreover, Nursi describes other reasons cited by historians as nothing more than “excuses,” i.e., not real reasons.

In all his works, Nursi usually tries to address possible questions that may occupy people’s minds. He does the same in this matter (15th Letter) and also explains why Ali was relatively unsuccessful compared to previous caliphs. His explanations here show that he moves beyond historical details pertaining to the particulars of those events and that he focuses more on universal interpretations and lessons that can be learned through them. We understand from Nursi’s explanations that, alongside visible political actors, there are key figures in history who shape the developments with their thoughts and ideas. Ali was a key figure in history from many angles: he was the Prophet’s son-in-law and being cousin at the same time. He stood at the rare, critical place where perfect representation of both religion and politics was embodied in his person. Throughout his time as the caliph, he demonstrated that in the politics-religion relationship, religion is primary and takes higher priority. Politics feed on ideology. Politics is a carrier. If politics lacks value, it turns into brute force and vanity. Indeed, throughout history, great people from Ali’s lineage have succeeded in keeping the middle path in the relationship between religion and politics, thanks to the lessons they learned from this painful event in history. Nursi says that as a result of this incident, Ali and his family gained “a spiritual reign much higher than those of political actors.”

Nursi sees Ali’s confrontation with Muawiya ibn Abu Sufyan at Siffin as the battle of the “caliphate” against the “sultanate.” In other words, during his reign, Ali was following the groundbreaking principles of Islam on human rights and while doing so he took into consideration the Hereafter, for that is where justice will be served in absolute sense. Muawiya, on the other hand, thought that if he could set up the sultanate system, which would pass from father to son, there would be no fights for the throne, and therefore Muslims would be at peace and no blood would be spilled. The difference in their respective approaches to politics was while Ali was in favor of strict adherence to original ruling (azimah), Muawiya preferred an easier option permissible under certain circumstances (ruhsah).

Nursi theorizes that ​​the struggle of Husayn ibn Ali against the Umayyads, which was the beginning of a great break in history, was the “fighting for religion against nationality.” According to Nursi, the Umayyads kept Arab nationalism as a basis for their ideology and prioritized nationalism instead of relying on Islamic bonds. This was damaging in two ways, especially considering the fact that Islam was rapidly expanding to other nations during their reign: First, this policy damaged relationships with other nations. Second, favoritism emerged because of nationalism, and this resulted in a loss of justice. This was completely against the spirit of Islam which has cut through the racism of the Age of Ignorance (Jahiliyyah); in Islam there is no difference between a noble Qurayshi and an Abyssinian slave (See, Muslim, Imara 53-54; Abu Dawud, Adab 111; Ibn Majah, Fitan 7; Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, al-Musnad 2:488). Therefore, Imam Husayn fought for the freedom given to people by religious bonds in the face of the nationalism he saw in Yazid. He fought rightly in his case and eventually died a martyr.

At this point, Nursi raises some questions, which make sense in a context that values divine revelation: If Husayn was on the right side, why did he fail? Why did the divine Destiny and Compassion allow him to be subjected to such a tragic end? Why were Husayn and his family treated so harshly?

The first part of Nursi’s explanations includes socio-psychological analyses. The second part contains interesting metaphysical analyses from the point of view of destiny. According to Nursi, the idea of revenge against the Arab nation, not because of the close followers of Imam Husayn but because of the wounded national prides of other nations that joined him, damaged the pure and bright careers of Husayn and his followers and caused their defeat.

The wisdom behind this disastrous end, from the perspective of destiny, is that Hasan and Husayn became candidates for a spiritual sultanate as they are the grandsons of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). The perfect harmony of politics with religion in this world is unattainable. This disastrous end showed the ugliness of politics to all the descendants of the Prophet (pbuh). Thus, instead of being ordinary governors, they became the friends of God (awliya).

Nursi also reflects on the problem of evil. According to him, there must be a meaningful explanation to the brutal murder of Imam Husayn and his family who were unable to defend themselves. In civilizations in which divine revelation is upheld, human free will is evaluated together with God’s will. The human is free, but this freedom is within the broad universal will of God. As a rule, God is on the side of the righteous. If the opposite happens, there must be another logical answer. Here, Nursi seeks the answer to this problem.

Nursi says that there were four reasons that caused merciless cruelty during the Umayyad reign. 1) Ruthless politics which adopts, “Persons can be sacrificed for the government’s security and the continuation of public order,” as a principle. 2) Cruel racism or nationality – and the Umayyad reign was based on nationality – which adopts the cruel principle of “Everything can be sacrificed for the good of the race or nation.” 3) The historical rivalry between Umayyads and Hashemites continued with some individuals like Yazid, the son of Muawiya, who treated them with merciless cruelty. 4) The Umayyads viewed the people of other nations as slaves, even if they became Muslims. The fact that these non-Arab people joined the side of Husayn hoping to avenge their wounded national pride provoked the Umayyad’s racial urges, which led to the infamous massacre.

Nursi adds that these four reasons are apparent reasons and explains what will become clear when this sad event is taken into consideration from the perspective of destiny, where all the reasons are aligned at once. “Imam Husayn and his relatives were rewarded with a spiritual kingdom so valuable and a spiritual rank so elevated that the suffering they endured at Karbala pales in comparison and would seem to them easy enough to bear. Consider the rank that privates may attain through martyrdom after an hour’s torture, which others obtain only after a decade of effort. If these martyred privates were asked how God treated them, they would answer that they had earned too much in return for too little a cost.”

Fethullah Gülen elaborates further on the subject. He says that the revolution experienced by the Companions of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), thanks to Islam, brought them to the top in terms of human rights and that there was a conflict with societies that did not reach the same level in this regard. As a result, the Companions, who reached an extraordinary point in defending their rights, came into conflict with the communities that were deprived of the same upbringing.

Gülen also points out the positive aspects caused by those factious events. Just like when you scratch a tree, it alerts and renews itself, these events protected the religion and ensured the systematization of all Islamic sciences. Experiencing these unpleasant events, following the geographical expansion that came at a speed not seen in the history of humanity, taught an incredible lesson in terms of protecting religion by systematizing the Islamic sciences and highlighting the sensitive place of politics, which is the most difficult field of the representation of religion in human life (See, Zihin Harmanı, pp. 154-161; Bahar Neşidesi, pp. 252-260.)

Historical events can be analyzed from many different angles. In this matter, Nursi’s approach teaches us two things: First, it is not easy to find the truth among thousands of narrations in historical events where great conflicts took place. The second is that we should try to see the hidden wisdom behind the events. Unbiased historians can achieve the first, at least to a degree, but being successful at both the first and the second with regards to the Islamic history depends on multiple factors. These factors include knowing the isnad system—which is crucial in the transmission of historical narrations that play an important role in the preservation of religion—looking into the matter comprehensively and with priority to canonical decrees and sound reports, and trying to explore the possible wisdom that lies behind the events as suggested by the Qur’an.

References

• Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, The Risale-i Nur Collection, The Letters (Epistles on Islamic Thought, Belief, and Life), Translated by Huseyin Akarsu, The Light Inc., New Jersey 2007.
• Hilmi Ziya Ülken, Uyanış Devirlerinde Tercümenin Rolü, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul 2020.
• Fethullah Gülen, Zihin Harmanı, Nil Publications, Istanbul 2011; Bahar Neşidesi, pp. 252-260, Sureyya Publications, 2017.

The constant threat to children by conflict and violence globally has led to the formulation of policies and rules to govern and protect children from unnecessary, deliberate, and direct exposure to violence and conflict. Children are beings of social construct, shaped by the environment they find themselves in. They are molded, and their minds instructed, by everyday realities which, during contemporary times, are frighteningly violent. Children, formerly regarded as symbols of peace and innocence, are now often seen as weapons for war and illustrations for conflict. This shift leads to skepticism over the future of sustainable peace. Even when children are not actively involved in conflicts, there is the possibility that they might, due to violent influences during their developmental years, be pre-disposed to conflict. It is with this possibility that this article concerns itself.

Subliminal influences or messages are the ones that affect our minds without us being aware of it. Studies abound on both sides of the spectrum as to whether subliminal influences or messages actually work and to what extent they are effective at affecting behavior or personal development. This is an attempt at exploring the concept of subliminal influences as pertains to conflict and violence in relation to children. It then highlights the peace building potentials of children and the importance thereof, with the possibility of harnessing the potentials of the children maximally, for sustainable peace.

Subliminal Influences

The term subliminal is derived from the Latin words sub (below) and limen (threshold). The threshold, in this case, is the threshold of conscious awareness; the level at which things can be perceived or understood through the senses. Therefore, a subliminal influence could be defined as something that affects the way a person responds to certain stimulus. This “something,” though it operates below our conscious “threshold,” might lead us to act, think, or feel a certain way or affect our mind without our being aware of its effects.

The area of subliminal influences is one of interest to researchers, especially with regards to advertising, and has prompted debates over the years as to whether subliminal perceptions or persuasions exist or work. A 1985 study to assess the effectiveness of subliminal influences in advertising and popular music concluded that they were not effective. Studies, such as that conducted by Theus, K. T. (1994), concluded that subliminal messages actually do affect people. Interestingly, studies that were based upon visual stimuli tended to agree more that there was an effect than those based on audio stimuli (music in particular). It was also suggested that children are more susceptible to being affected by subliminal influences than adults.

This paper aligns with the school of thought that believes that subliminal messaging exists and can significantly influence human motivation and behavior. The theory is that people can be emotionally and behaviorally affected by visual or vocal stimuli whose presence they do not report. The question then is, how does this theory affect children in particular?

Subliminal Influences in children

“The subliminal aspects of everything that happens to us may seem to play very little part in our daily lives. But they are the almost invisible roots of our conscious thoughts.” (Carl Jung)

From 0 to 15 years old, children are reported to be of an impressionable age—an age where they learn or unlearn, as the case may be, behaviors and values that shape who they will turn out to be as adults. For researchers such as Massey (1965), as put forward by Herron, R. (2010),
this is also called the “imprint period.” Between ages 0 and 7, the mind is like a sponge and unconsciously absorbs everything around it with no conscious filters. Between 7 and 14, children develop “heroes.” That is, other adults they look up to apart from their parents, and they consciously begin to emulate or model themselves after their heroes. Thus, Herron is saying that children are very impressionable at the ages identified above. He states that many behaviors are learned behaviors through body language.

It is important to note at this point that it has been suggested—and understandably so—that children are less able to identify subliminal messages for what they are. Ironically, this fact also means that they can be more effectively affected by them. Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) suggested that children in Europe are bombarded with subliminal digital messages regarding (and almost glamorizing) unhealthy foods. These messages often appear seemingly unnoticeable on screens when children play video games or watch television. A 2004 study asserted that “…too many children are watching too much television and the shows that they are watching (even if they are cartoons) have become violent and addictive.” It further asserted that while the violence in cartoons seems downplayed mainly because the characters are not real, some of the scenes may subliminally cause long term damage as the children might start to see the use of violence as acceptable (Choma, S. G et al). Given that this study was conducted in 2004, two decades since then it has become even more challenging for children to know any better for it is not only TV they are exposed to such subliminal messages.

Through the media, body language, and everyday reality, the minds of youth are inundated with imagery of violence, conflict, and war. They are subliminally exposed to fighting, suffering, and death. This is not to say these activities are unreal, but the problem is the fact that continuous exposure to this kind of imagery leaves children desensitized and unsympathetic to these realities.

Television shows of pain and suffering are often some of the most watched. This is worrisome, as many youth might begin to believe that violence is a normal way of addressing conflict, and that pain and hurt can be funny. They may begin to develop the notion that conflict is funny, and, unless it happens to them, it is none of their business. Often, this happens through subliminal influence.

Children as Potential Peace Builders

It goes without saying that children are potential peace builders. Indeed, if one were to accept the notion that they are not, what future could we have? Children are not merely hapless victims of conflict. To begin with, if children do not begin to participate in peace building, their needs will be ignored during any peace building exercise. Also, children that lack any form of peace education, may eventually become obstacles to sustainable peace.

Children with deliberately devised peace education would be armed to think critically, identify positive role models, and manage conflict without resorting to violence. Children are often found to be resilient. They devise ways of staying safe during conflict. It is important that these children are involved in discussions about peace building. Children may raise awareness for peace; promote social values necessary for peace; and mend bridges and repair damaged social relationships. They can do this by:

1. Organizing youth meetings where they can share about how to live together and survive;
2. Preparing advocacy material on children’s rights and peace;

• Promoting conflict transformation and dialogue as well as supporting peer advice, counselling, education, and support;

1. Encouraging all children to get an education including those that might have been actively involved in conflict;
2. Speaking against discrimination, violence, corruption, and other vices in both school settings and within the community; and
3. Promoting youth participation in school and local governance.

Although children have actively participated in peace building with some levels of success in Uganda, Nepal, Guatemala, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, there is still a lot to be done. Their successes are limited by factors such as societal perceptions of the role of a child; prejudices, which they often “learn” from people of influence; discrimination on the basis of class, gender, etc.; and education. Many of these factors could be affected by subliminal influences.

Subliminal Influences and the Capacity of Children as Peace Builders

Values and beliefs are the core of our thoughts and behaviors. They form the driving force behind what we do, and why we do them. The older generation is therefore obligated to impart the right values, including the ethics of “humanism, tolerance, diversity, democracy and critical thinking,” to the next and much younger generation (Degesys, 2008).

Because most behaviors are learned, they can equally be unlearned and replaced with behaviors associated with non-violence and peace building. Degesys remarks that as education systems can sustain conflict within schools, they can also liberate it. Just as racism, sexism and xenophobia (concepts that are sometimes more primordial in nature than we think), can be subliminally learned through certain curriculums, the same power structures can be unlearned and replaced through transformative learning, which encourages students to engage and participate (in peace building) as conscientious citizens using transformative methods necessary to change their attitudes towards conflict.

The family (immediate and extended) is the first circle of influence and needs to begin to understand how to better train children to deal with current issues—and especially conflict. Parenting styles need to be adjusted to accommodate changes in our present reality. Children’s mindsets need to be re-engineered. Just as the mind might have been “poisoned with violence” through subliminal messaging and influence, it can be reconstructed and reshaped toward peacebuilding. Children need to learn how to handle their emotions and learn social arts and graces as well as personal responsibility.

Schools and other educational institutions form the second circle of influence. It is imperative for an increase in peace education resources targeting the 0-13 age bracket in schools. The younger youth receive a peace education, the better, because what they learn at this stage will be very difficult to unlearn as they grow. Therefore, they should be taught the positives rather than have them absorb the negatives. Just as people are taught to walk, they can be taught to be peacemakers and peace builders. Most of the education children get today is targeted at incidents that occur after conflict—that is, post conflict education. We need to teach them how to avoid conflict.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The concept of peace building is wider than the idea of state building and reconstruction. It is a core component of the conflict resolution process. Because it is part of a process, we take it for granted that it should be the first stage of the process and not the last. Peaceful habits and education need to be mainstreamed into our minds and our lives—and especially into children’s development from as early an age as possible. Peace education needs to be part of the educational curricula at every level, not just secondary and above. Nursery and primary schools need to adopt peace education, too. Teaching peace building is everybody’s business.

Specifically, in terms of subliminal influences, there is need for parents, and indeed the authorities, to pay attention to the content in children shows and other children-targeted media. As mentioned above, subliminal messages are sometimes tucked away innocently within seemingly harmless content. If children are continuously exposed to such content, it will have dangerous consequences for global peace and security.

There is also the need to thoroughly screen school curricula to flag any content that has the potential to subliminally influence children to respond with violence, prejudice, or other negative stimuli. More importantly, teachers should be trained on how to ensure that they do not project any personal biases or prejudice unto the children in their care.

References

• Anyadike, Z. and Ikelionwu, N. (2019) Nigeria’s Peace Initiatives: Chapter 13: Subliminal Influence and Nigerian Children: Implications for Sustainable Peace. 2019.
• Bornstein, R. F. (1989). “Subliminal Techniques as Propaganda Tools: Review and Critique. Journal of Mind &amp; Behaviour, Vol. 10(3), 231-262.
• Degesys, A. (2008) Transformative pedagogy in conflict resolution as an alternative route to peacebuilding – roads less explored, in T. Woodhouse, ed., Peacebuilding and Security in the 21^st Evanston, II: Rotary Centers for International Studies.
• Egermann, H. et. al (2006). “Is There an Effect of Subliminal Messages in Music on Choice Behaviour?” Journal of Articles in Support of Null Hypothesis, Vol.4(2)
• Fiernstein, C., et al (2010): Children participation in armed conflict and post-conflict peacebuilding in B. Percy-Smith and N. Thomas (2010): A handbook of children and young people’s participation perspectives from theory and practice. Oxford: Routledge.
• Herron, R. (2010). “Proactive Parenting: Through Conscious Communication.” Xlibris Publishing Company.
• Kaplan, E. (2005) “Child Soldiers Around the World” Council on Foreign Relations. Available at www.cfr.org/backgrounder/child-soldiers-around-world. Assessed May 14 2019.
• Ramsbotham, O., Woodhouse, T., Miall, H. (2011): Contemporary Conflict Resolution – The prevention, management and transformation of deadly conflicts.
• Theus, K. T. (1994). “Subliminal Advertising and the Psychology of Processing Unconscious Stimuli: A Review of Research.” Psychology &amp; Marketing, Vol.11 (3), 271-290;
• UNICEF: https://www.unicef-irc.org/article/1059-from-victims-to-peacebuilders-children-and-youth-in-the-digital-age.html
• study.com – Subliminal Influence: Definition and Overview.
• visualmeditation.com – Subliminal Messages: How They Work and How They Affect Us.
• psychologytoday.com – Hidden Persuaders: The Psychology of Subliminal Perception.
• https://www,unicef-irc.org/article/1059: From victims to peacebuilders. The 1990 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. 2000. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict Security Council Resolution 1460.