A mysterious object discovered in the Milky Way

Barr DE et al. A pulsar in a binary with a compact object in the mass gap between neutron stars and black holes. Science, January 2024.

Astronomers using the MeerKAT Radio Telescope have made a groundbreaking discovery in the Milky Way—a mysterious object with a mass greater than the heaviest neutron star yet lighter than the smallest black hole. The object, identified near a rapidly spinning neutron star or millisecond pulsar called PSR J0514-4002E, was found within a dense globular cluster of stars about 40,000 light-years away. The MeerKAT, equipped with 64 antennas in South Africa, detected the dense stellar remnant. If the companion was a black hole, it would have formed a coveted radio pulsar-black hole binary system, offering a unique opportunity to test Einstein’s theory of gravity. The pulsar, rotating at an astonishing 170 times per second, was observed through faint radio waves. Changes in its regular pulses revealed an orbiting object with incredible density, likely the remnant of a massive collapsed star. The pulsar and the mystery object orbit each other every seven Earth days at a distance of 5 million miles, falling within the black hole mass gap. Neutron stars and black holes are born when massive stars exhaust their nuclear fusion fuel. The collapse of the star’s core leads to the formation of neutron stars or black holes. The newly discovered object challenges the existing understanding of the black hole mass gap, as it has more mass than any known neutron star but less than any known black hole.

The researchers propose that the object may have been created through a collision between two neutron stars in the crowded globular cluster NGC 1851. However, the nature of the companion—whether it’s a neutron star, black hole, or a previously unidentified cosmic object—remains unknown. The newly discovered system serves as a unique cosmic laboratory, offering insights into extreme conditions and promising a turning point in our understanding of neutron stars, black holes, and the enigmatic black hole mass gap. This discovery opens new avenues for studying the behavior of matter and physics in the universe’s most extreme environments.

Dietary restriction slows brain aging and extends lifespan

Wilson KA et al. OXR1 maintains the retromer to delay brain aging under dietary restriction. Nature Communications, January 2024.

Scientists have discovered a crucial link between caloric restriction and healthy brain aging, shedding light on the mechanisms behind the positive effects of limiting calorie intake on lifespan and brain health. While dietary restriction is known to enhance health and longevity, its impact on the brain has been less understood until now. This new study identifies the OXR1 gene as essential for the lifespan extension associated with dietary restriction and for promoting healthy brain aging. The study, conducted in fruit flies and human cells, unveils a detailed cellular mechanism through which caloric restriction can delay aging and slow the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. The team found that the OXR1 gene generates a neuron-specific response that mediates the neuroprotection observed with dietary restriction. Strategies like intermittent fasting or caloric restriction, which limit nutrients, may boost levels of the OXR1 gene, thus exerting protective effects on the brain. OXR1 protects cells from oxidative damage, and its loss in humans leads to severe neurological defects and premature death. The research delved further into the retromer, a protein complex crucial for recycling proteins and lipids in cells. OXR1 was found to influence the retromer, preserving its function and playing a key role in protecting neurons during dietary restriction. Dysfunction in the retromer has been linked to age-related neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. By understanding the connection between OXR1, dietary restriction, and brain health, the study provides insights into why individuals respond differently to diets and opens avenues for potential therapeutic targets to slow aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Overall, the findings suggest that a healthy diet has a profound impact on various bodily processes, supporting efforts to follow dietary practices that positively influence overall health and longevity.

Unraveling Human Memory and Imagination Using Generative AI

Spens and Burgess. A generative model of memory construction and consolidation. Nature Human Behavior, January 2024.

Human memory plays critical roles in diverse cognitive processes, contributing significantly to our capacity to learn about the world, remember about past experiences, and generate entirely new scenarios for imagination and planning. A recent study introduces an AI (Artificial Intelligence) computational model – also known as a generative neural network — to simulate how neural networks in the human brain reconstructs past events and imagines new scenarios.

The model features networks representing the hippocampus and neocortex, the parts of the brain that are known to work together during memory, imagination, and planning, to investigate how they interact. The hippocampus is instrumental in memory formation and spatial navigation, while the neocortex is associated with computations related to attention, thought, perception, and episodic memory. Researchers exposed the model to 10,000 images, enabling rapid encoding of scenes by the hippocampal network. Subsequently, the generative neural network in the neocortex was trained by replaying scenes. Analyses showed that the hippocampus rapidly absorbed scenes and replayed them, instructing the neocortex through repetitive exposure. The neocortex, in response, learned to reconstruct scenes by organizing information, focusing on crucial elements like the arrangement of walls and objects. This efficiency allows the brain to remember scenes and generate novel ones without storing every minute detail.

Research suggests that replaying memories during rest helps the brain discern patterns from past experiences, aiding in future predictions, such as avoiding dangers or locating food. This study explains how the brain generates new events during imagination and future planning, highlighting the role of memory reconstruction in these processes. It also provides insights into why existing memories often exhibit distortions, where unique features are generalized and remembered more in line with features from previous events.

One of the Jewish prayers says: “Ah, what is man that you should keep him in mind, the son of man that you care for him. Yet you have made him little less than a God you have crowned him with glory and splendour” (Psalm 8:4-5).

Each human life indeed, is meaningful and precious in God’s eyes. Life matters. The tragedy of life today is that human beings have lost sense of the divine. This gives rise to various crimes, wars and killing happening almost every day in different corners of our planet as depicted in media headlines. If only we would rediscover the dignity and value of human life through the lens of our Creator, our world would have been a paradise where the sound of weapons and bombs of all kinds are not heard. But only the sound of peaceful music and cheerful dance!

In one of his books, Anselm Grün says: “God wants to pronounce something into this world that He can only make known by me, as I have been made and have become. Each human person is unique. He or she is an image of that which God desired for him or her. And my calling is to allow that unique particular image of God to shine forth in this world” [1]. 

The story of Joseph is quite enriching and embarrassing at the same time. It is related in such a way that it captures the attention of everyone who is interested in learning about the meaning of life and the truth contained in the dreams. The main personage in this story is Joseph, the son of Jacob. It is worth noting that the Qur’an recognizes both Joseph and Jacob as Prophets. However, the focus of my reflection is on the role played by the shirt of Joseph as his story is related in the Qur’an. Surprisingly, the story of Joseph upon him be peace, revolves around three types of shirts which play different roles in the Qur’an. However, in the Bible, Joseph is presented with one tunic which is brought to his father Jacob with false blood on it as a proof of Joseph’s death (see Gen. 37:31).

Shirt 1: The shirt returned with false blood

In an actual sense, the shirt of a person symbolises his dignity. It is an outer garment; it covers the nudity of a person, it protects the person against cold, and other dangers. It is essential for the body as well as being intimate to the body.

This means that Joseph is deprived of his human dignity by his own blood brothers. With this deprivation he stands on behalf of all those human beings, whose dignity has been constantly violated – victims of human trafficking, domestic abuse, harassment of all forms, victims whose dignity is often taken away by their fellow kinsmen, and their fellow women for their selfish interests, pleasure and satisfaction.

Taking off a person’s dignity is equal to taking a person’s life. Joseph’s brothers tried to strip him of his shirt, to reduce him to the state of nature, “état de nature.”

The action of Joseph’s brothers expresses their intention. In fact, they had planned to kill him as we read in verse 15 of Surah Yusuf: “and so they went away with him and decided to put Joseph in the depth of the well.” Likewise, in the Bible, it is stated that his brothers upon seeing Joseph said to themselves: “Here comes this dreamer, come now let us kill him and throw him into one of the pits, then we shall say that a wild beast has devoured him and we shall see what will become of his dreams” (Genesis 37:19-20).

A similar verse is found in the Qur’an stating that Joseph’s brothers said: “Our father! We went off racing with one another, and left Joseph behind by our things, then a wolf devoured him. But we know that you will not believe us even though we speak the truth” (Qur’an 12:17).

This murderous intention of Joseph’s brothers explains the aspect of the false blood on the shirt of Joseph which they take to their father Jacob. To support their lie, they dumped the shirt in goat blood.

The false blood on Joseph’s shirt

Etymologically, the word “blood” is from proto- Germanic word, “blodam.” Blood is a fluid which circulates in the arteries and veins. It goes without saying that blood is the symbol of life. Several countries across the globe where valiant citizens and heroes fought for the independence up to the shedding of blood, have adopted the colour red in their flags as a vivid symbol of honouring those who gave up their lives for the freedom of their countries. Hence Joseph’s brothers bring a message of his death to their father Jacob. In doing so, they implicitly killed themselves as well in the heart of their father who was an old man, for a popular adage says, “blood is thicker than water.”

Similarly, the Bible portrays this episode of false blood, stressing the fact that Joseph’s brothers lied to their father about the death of his beloved Joseph: “Then they took Joseph’s robe, slaughtered a goat, and dipped the robe in the blood” (Genesis 37:31).

Furthermore, Joseph’s brothers wanted to kill the love of Joseph in their father’s heart through bringing him the shirt with false blood. But instead, they killed themselves in their father’s heart. They wanted to kill the name for Joseph and cut it off from their family and father’s mind, instead, they made it more known far beyond their family and country not less far than Egypt.

The fact is that Joseph’s brothers through their evil conspiracy made him known to the Ishmaelites, to the Midianite and later to the Egyptians, as reported in Genesis 37:27-28. A similar verse in Surah Yusuf captures the same message that: “God had full knowledge of what they were doing” (Qur’an 12:19). Hence, God is always in control of time in history. He’s the Omniscience, the All-Seer, the Omni-Present.

Nevertheless, the love Jacob had for Joseph did not die. Regardless of the envy, jealousy, malice and hatred of Joseph’s brothers to kill him, he remained alive in the heart of his father Jacob, he still had the same place and love he had before in the heart of Prophet Jacob, upon him be peace. Hence, love is stronger than death; nothing can kill love not even death of the beloved.

Shirt 2: The shirt torn from the back

In the Qur’an it is quoted that Joseph was so handsome that the woman of his master desired to lure him. Moreover, other ladies upon seeing Joseph would cut their fingers as the Qur’an portrays: “She gave to each of them (ladies) a knife and said to Joseph: ‘come out before them!’ When they saw him they were so stricken with admiration of him that they cut their hands exclaiming: ‘God save us! this is no human mortal; he is but a noble Angel’” (Qur’an 12:31). Prior to this episode, we have the story of the woman of his master who in trying to force Joseph to have relations with her ended up tearing his shirt as we read: “So they raced to the door, and she tore his shirt from the of back, and they met her master (husband) by the door” (Qur’an 12:25).

This metaphor of Joseph’s shirt torn from the back is very fascinating. I suggest two possible kinds of interpretations from what happened: lust of the woman and the honesty and faithfulness of Joseph.

The danger of lust

Lust is a very disordered desire. If it is not well channelled, lust can lead one to cause scandals. In fact, in Catholic tradition, lust is listed among the capital sins along with (envy or jealousy, anger, sloth, gluttony, pride and greed) [2]. The incident of the woman of Joseph’s master captures well the danger of lust. Just like the brothers of Joseph, the wife of his master wants to take the dignity of Joseph by stripping him of his shirt. Lust for someone cute and attractive is the expression of human reality, human nature. Actually, lust for the opposite sex is one of the three powers that God has equipped humankind with. As human beings, we have lust for the opposite sex, lust for earning, lust for the comforts of life, and lust for offspring.

Three major powers human beings have

Every human being is endowed with three powers inherent to our human nature: “the power of lust; the power of anger to protect yourself and one’s values; and the power of the intellect” [3].

These three powers are by nature fallible, forgetful, neglectful, fond of disputing, obstinate, selfish, and envious. They need to be disciplined and channelled into virtues in order to attain happiness as social beings, both in the individual and collective life, in the world and in the hereafter, and to rise to higher ranks of humanity. For instance, obstinacy can be channelled into steadfastness, in right and truth, and envy into the feeling of competition to do good things.

It is noteworthy that the key to happiness and the perfection of individuals lies in their effort to overcome the negative aspects of their nature. This involves either limiting these negative traits or transforming them into virtues, along with cultivating positive qualities. By doing so, individuals can evolve into virtuous, worshipping servants of God, and useful members of society.

Honesty and faithfulness

There are good qualities for one to cultivate in life. An honest and faithful person is never afraid of anything, not even their opponents. Joseph is saved by his shirt having been torn from the back, against the accusation from the wife of his master. Joseph is honest in saying the truth. Honesty sets a person free. It makes one trustworthy. Honesty saves and consoles the owner. Hence, the shirt torn from the back saves the life of Joseph. It saves him from the malice and evil plan of the woman, wife of his master as she exclaimed: “What should be the recompense of him who purposes evil against your household, except imprisonment or a grievous punishment” (Qur’an 12:25).

However, God was in control of everything, and Joseph was a God-fearing man. Following the false accusation by the wife, one of those who was witnessing the event observed the torn shirt at the back of Joseph and said: “But if it is torn from the back, then she is lying, and he is truthful” (Qur’an 12:27). Unlike the first incident where a shirt declared Joseph dead, this torn shirt at the back becomes the evidence that saves Joseph’s life.

Shirt 3: The healing power of Joseph’s shirt [4]

After the brothers of Joseph had come to Egypt to look for food and met with Joseph who had made himself known to them and forgave them, he commissioned with his own shirt the healing power of restoring sight to his old father, Prophet Jacob, upon him be peace. “Go with this shirt of mine and lay it over my father’s face, and he shall recover his sight; and come to me with all your people” (Qur’an 12: 93).

There are three things to single out from this episode: first and foremost, Joseph gives and sends his shirt to his father out of his own free will. Secondly, this shirt of Joseph carries the healing power of recovering his father Jacob’s sight, and lastly, the shirt of Joseph brings about the redemption of the entire household of Jacob.

When his father Jacob smells the shirt, he will soon discover that his beloved Joseph is alive. Through this shirt, Joseph sends back his dignity to his beloved father. In contrast to the first shirt given to his father by his brothers, which conveyed a message of Joseph’s death, this third shirt is offered willingly by Joseph with the intent of rectifying the damage caused by the initial garment. Unlike the bloody first shirt, this one carries with it the healing power of restoring Jacob’s sight.

The healing power of the third shirt: Jacob’s recovery of sight

Prophet Jacob, upon him be peace, who had been waiting patiently and trustingly to see his beloved son Joseph one day, as soon as he received the shirt, “laid it over his face and he regained his sight.” (Qur’an 12:96)

Here, once more, the omniscience, omnipresence and omnipotence of God is revealed and confessed by Jacob: “Did I not tell you that I know from God what you do not know? (Qur’an 12:96). Indeed, the prophet Jacob, upon him be peace, had been actively patient, waiting for this day. His patience and serenity amidst challenges and frauds brought about by his children gained him the sight to see his son Joseph, fully alive and a master of all Egypt.

The redemption of the household of Jacob

From that moment onward, Jacob and his entire household departed from their land to Egypt, where Joseph graciously provided them with a comfortable dwelling. It is recounted in Genesis 47:11 that “Joseph settled his father and his brothers and granted them a holding in the land of Egypt, in the best part of the land, in the land of Rameses, as Pharaoh had instructed.”

Conclusion

Life is sometimes full of challenges of many kinds. Some of these challenges may come from those closest to us. We usually find ourselves being let down by the events that occur in our life depending on how we have placed our confidence in them. Like the brothers of Joseph, envy and jealousy can push people to destroy you in life. Reflecting on the story of Joseph’s reported death, Jacob took the time to meditate and consider, sensing that something was amiss. He remained calm, trusting that one day the truth about Joseph would be revealed.

What is important is to fight our ego and try to go beyond our limitations to overcome the complexities of human relationships.

Therefore, it is up to each individual to find out the hidden meaning of his or her own life and be useful to your family, your society and to the whole of humanity like Joseph did. The way to reach this new reality, as Joseph did to his brothers, is forgiveness that heals, that is tolerant and builds up new relationships. In fact, Fethullah Gülen remarks, “the greatest gift that the generation of today can give their children and grandchildren is to teach them how to forgive. Forgive even when confronted by the worst behaviour and the most disturbing events” [5].

Notes

1. Marcel G. Neels, Come closer to yourself, (UK: AuthorHouse, 2013), 10.
2. These are referred to as capital sins because when they aren’t overcome in ones’ life, they easily lead to other sins.
3. Ali Ünal, The Qur’an with Annotated interpretation in Modern English, (USA: New Jersey, 2006), 477.
4. This designation is a personal title given to the shirt that Joseph sends to his Father through his brothers. In fact, this marks the shirt 3 of Joseph just after the two previous ones. The designation “Healing power of Joseph’s shirt” is inspired by the Qur’an 12:93 “Go with this shirt of mine and lay it over my father’s face, and he shall recover his sight; and come to me with all your people.”
5. Fethullan Gülen, Toward a Global Civilization of love and Tolerance, (USA: New Jersey, 2006,) 29.

It was believed that globalization would lead to the diminishing of cultural differences, dilute individual and group identities, and suppress nationalist sentiments. The expectation was that as the world turned into a global village, enhanced communication and transportation, coupled with the rise of pluralistic views, would erase the distinct cultural symbols, traditions, and practices of different societies. There was even speculation that people’s connections to their religions, traditions, customs, and practices would weaken. The concept of global citizenship began to be discussed. However, these forecasts did not materialize as expected. Not only did differences persist, but tolerance for them did not increase. Instead, issues such as racism, xenophobia, bigotry, and other forms of discrimination intensified. This escalation was largely due to the neglect of human and societal psychology in these predictions.

Just as the human body instinctively combats harmful microbes and bacteria, it similarly resists unfamiliar and potentially threatening foreign ideas, especially those perceived as assaults on one’s values. Many contemporary societies, concerned that globalization, modernization, and pluralism might undermine their ethical standards and value systems, reacted defensively, reinforcing their national unity and identity. Certainly, some repressive measures taken under the guise of modernization exacerbated these reactions. Faced with such pressures, people became increasingly protective of their values, constantly vigilant. It’s important to recognize that reactionary movements often lack balance, with extremes begetting further extremes. Consequently, those who viewed globalization as a threat did not merely embrace their national and religious values more tightly; they also veered towards chauvinism, racism, and xenophobia.

It’s crucial to remember that achieving any significant outcome without considering an individual’s innate characteristics, material and spiritual needs, emotions, feelings, and cherished values is unfeasible. Introducing new concepts to humanity must be done with respect for human values. Disregarding someone’s beliefs, philosophies, national, and religious sentiments only fosters disdain for the message being conveyed. Particularly, adopting a superior stance, looking down on others, and perceiving them as needing correction, invariably breeds hostility and hatred. In today’s global village, transforming identities and belongings from sources of conflict into opportunities for enrichment requires accepting everyone as they are, respecting their unique positions.

A Positive Form of Nationalism

Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, who was part of Arab society but brought a message for all humanity, exemplified model behavior in all aspects, including how he dealt with diverse cultures and nationalities. This approach is a key reason why Islam rapidly gained acceptance not only among Arab tribes but also among various races and cultures. The Prophet’s message initially spread within the Quraysh tribe, then to other competing or warring tribes, and eventually reached the vast populations of the then-superpowers, the Byzantine and Sassanian Empires. Importantly, the Messenger of God employed nationalism in a balanced manner, advocating for a positive form of nationalism that respects the national sentiments of different tribes and peoples, as opposed to a negative, exclusionary nationalism. He rejected the idea that lineage and race are bases for superiority but did not deny their existence. Instead, he used these identities and the emotions tied to them to protect and nurture the religion, faith, and society he was establishing.

Similarly, the Ottoman Empire’s long-standing success in unifying and effectively ruling diverse cultures and nations under one state is attributed to these dynamics. Following the Prophet’s companions, the Ottomans created a nearly perfect state system, adopting an inclusive governance style that allowed them to sustain peace among numerous nations for an extended period. In promoting their values, they neither belittled others nor disrespected, attacked, or oppressed other cultures, languages, or religions. These groups were able to be present as they wished to be, and nobody was disturbed from this self-presence. They avoided racism, did not turn national feelings into chauvinism, did not look down upon other races, nor did they exert undue pressure on them.

Fostering unity: “being a unifier”

For centuries, Islam has functioned as a super-identity, bringing together numerous nations under a single umbrella. It has tempered ideologies like tribalism, racism, and nationalism, acting as a remedy against divisive and fragmenting forces, thereby fostering unity. However, the contemporary landscape has shifted. There are many who are not just indifferent but are extremely intolerant towards religious values, to the point of being unable to bear the mention of religion. In striving to be a unifier, it’s essential to consider the sentiments of such individuals.

Religion serves as a crucial means of preventing conflicts and unifying people globally. When channeled correctly, the formidable influence of Islam can mitigate, soften, or even eradicate issues like racism, radicalism, violence, anarchy, and terrorism. This is substantiated by the extensive historical experience of Muslims. However, it is critical that those representing Islam do so accurately and present it to humanity appropriately. In today’s world, where methodology and communication styles are pivotal, if not handled carefully, religion can sometimes produce effects contrary to its intended purpose in society. If believers are not mindful of their words, concepts, language, and style, they risk causing unintended distress. Thus, employing a communication style that avoids provoking negative reactions and conveying messages through universally accepted values is extremely important.

Likewise, one may hold the Ottoman Empire in high regard for its mission and contributions to Islam. Its successful governance over diverse nations for four centuries, especially in contrast to today’s complex global issues, might be seen as remarkable. The effectiveness of the Ottoman legal and administrative system in creating a relatively problem-free environment can be a subject of admiration.

Respecting and acknowledging identities and Belongings

In today’s world, almost every country is home to various political and non-political movements and factions, each representing their own national and religious values. For the attainment of peace and harmony in a world free of conflict and discord, it is crucial for everyone to act in a balanced way when representing and expressing their beliefs. People can harbor love for their nation and cherish it. The key is not to perceive oneself as superior to others or to define oneself through antagonism towards others. This involves respecting the sentiments, emotions, and thoughts of others, and acknowledging their identities and belongings. Likewise, these factions and movements should not aspire to seize others’ lands or territories, nor should they advocate for the dominance of one race over others. Without sensible and balanced actions, there is a risk of self-destructing we may cause to our world. The countries that have turned into bloodbaths are stark examples of this.

There is much to discuss on these topics. However, echoing Jules Verne’s sentiment at the conclusion of Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, humanity may not yet be ready for such an exploration. Intellectuals, or those perceived as intellectuals, might not be prepared to listen to and comprehend certain truths. In this context, it might be wise to leave some matters to time. Rushing into actions could inadvertently provoke new reactions and ignite fresh conflicts. If we aim to address the issues of our time, our responsibility lies in reaching a state where we can directly engage with the problems and challenges of our era, achieve a position where we can meaningfully contribute to humanity, and elevate ourselves to a level where our actions are exemplary and our integrity is unquestionable.

Fasting has been practiced for thousands of years throughout the history of mankind, driven by various motives such as spiritual cleansing, cultivating a stronger connection with God, reaping health benefits, and engaging in acts of charity.

The utilization of dietary therapies for health purposes also boasts a rich historical foundation. Notably, Hippocrates, a revered figure in medical history, is quoted as saying, “Let food be thy medicine, thy medicine shall be thy food.” In his work “Sacred Disease,” he delved into the concept that the body of an epileptic patient was considered “polluted,” and dietary modifications played a role in purification.

The practice of fasting for health reasons is prevalent across different religions. In the King James Version of the Bible, a significant event unfolds as an epileptic child is brought to Jesus, who declares, “This kind can come forth nothing except by prayer and fasting.” Muslims globally observe a month-long (month of Ramadan) fast annually as prescribed in the Qur’an. God’s mandate is clear, stating, “Fasting has been prescribed for you as it was for previous nations, fostering God-consciousness” (2:183). Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, reinforces the benefits of fasting with the affirmation, “Fast, and you will attain health” (Ibn Majah, Tabarani).

Fasting and epilepsy

In modern literature, the use of fasting as a medical therapy for neurological disorders was first mentioned by two French physicians, Guelpa and Marie, who published a report detailing their use of fasting to treat epileptic seizures. In their study of 26 patients, six showed a reduction in the severity or occurrence of seizures [1]. At the 1921 American Medical Association convention, Geyelin presented a controlled study that involved 36 epileptic patients who fasted for up to 25 days, using water only. The reported cure rates were 90% for juvenile patients and 50% for adults [2]. Due to the perceived challenges associated with fasting, different forms of the ketogenic diet have been developed to replicate its effects. These dietary therapies involve high-fat, adequate-protein, and low-carbohydrate approaches.

The primary emphasis of contemporary epilepsy treatment has largely centered on developing medications, attributed to the perceived difficulties in sustaining fasting therapies. However, the 1997 movie “First Do No Harm” portrayed the real-life experience of a young patient with refractory epilepsy and his family. Having encountered uncontrolled seizures and adverse side effects from numerous medications, the family discovered the ketogenic diet as an alternative therapy at Johns Hopkins University. The child became seizure-free, inspiring and challenging the scientific community’s perception of epilepsy treatment.

Since then, research on fasting and dietary therapies like the ketogenic diet in epilepsy has flourished. Strong evidence-based research, including at least 12 good-quality randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and several systematic and meta-analysis review articles, supports the effectiveness of diet therapies in childhood epilepsy treatment [3,4,5]. While the evidence in adult treatment is not as robust, it is still considered clinically significant [6]. Further human studies should be considered to explore dietary treatments for epilepsy in adult patients.

How do ketones have an anti-epileptic effect?

Seizures happen when our brain cells become overly excited, a state known as neuronal hyperexcitability. Both fasting and the Ketogenic Diet (KD) have demonstrated effectiveness in seizure control. During fasting, the body produces substances that calm the excited brain cells. The KD, characterized by low carbohydrate and high-fat intake, has been shown to increase these calming substances (such as GABA) and reduce the ones (like glutamate) contributing to brain cell hyperexcitability. This diet also boosts ATP production, protecting brain cells from seizure-induced damage. Ketones, produced during fasting, activate a protective mechanism, enabling brain cells maintain resilience and withstand the stresses of seizures [7].

What else do ketones do in our brains?

It is well-known that during fasting, our glucose sources in the blood and liver are depleted, leading to the utilization of fat for energy production, resulting in the production of ketones. The ketogenic diet mimics fasting by consuming minimal amounts of carbs and protein, making fat the primary energy source, leading to the production of ketones in the body.

Neuroscientists theorize that ketone production makes neuronal cells more resilient to stressful environments, such as seizures, strokes, and neurodegenerative disorders, by involving various cellular and molecular pathways. This protection helps prevent neuronal hyperexcitability. When neuronal cells use ketones instead of glucose, it triggers alarm systems for cell protection, energy production, and cleansing processes [8].

A recent publication demonstrates that exposing neuronal cells to ketone bodies not only prevents neuronal death but also triggers autophagy, a cellular cleansing process [9]. Another review publication suggests that the protective mechanisms for neurons during intermittent fasting include robust mitochondrial regeneration and the production of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) [10]. BDNF is recognized for its role in neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, and neuronal protection. Together, these intracellular processes collectively aid cells in overcoming stressful conditions such as stroke, seizures, and neurodegenerative disorders [11].

Intermittent fasting and Alzheimer’s Disease

In Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), the accumulation of excessive B-amyloid and tau proteins (misfolded and unprocessable proteins) inside cells leads to neuronal death. Intermittent fasting may combat Alzheimer’s and other neurogenerative disorders through similar cellular mechanisms. Improved autophagy in neuronal cells is assumed to aid in clearing extracellular and intracellular matter [9]. A recent study further supports this idea, demonstrating that ketone bodies enhance B-amyloid clearance in human in vitro blood-brain barrier models [12]. This finding is supported by many animal disease models, illustrating how ketones can reduce B-amyloid and tau pathology [13]. Additionally, recognized cardiovascular risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension, and obesity are also well-known contributors to neurodegenerative disorders like dementia. Intermittent fasting has been proven effective in reversing diet-induced diabetes, improving cardiovascular health by reducing hypertension, and assisting obese patients in losing weight [14].

Most of our theories are based on animal and molecular studies, but a recent study in Malaysia, involving nearly 100 patients with mild cognitive impairment, showed that intermittent fasting, specifically on Mondays and Thursdays (a fasting recommendation by Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him), reversed mild cognitive impairment in patients [15]. In another study conducted in Houston during Ramadan, around 14 healthy subjects participated. The study measured amyloid precursor protein levels at the end of Ramadan, revealing a decrease. This reduction in amyloid precursor protein is theorized to be one of the mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative disorders [16].

Intermittent fasting and other neurological disorders

Beyond its impact on vascular risk factors, intermittent fasting has shown clear protective effects against strokes or heart attacks, as evidenced in numerous animal models. Ongoing research explores the influence of intermittent fasting on stroke models in laboratory settings. Dr. Arumugam et al. demonstrated that animals subjected to one month of intermittent fasting experienced decreased stroke severity and improved mortality compared to those with the same vascular occlusion causing strokes [17]. Given the significant roles and mechanisms of intermittent fasting that may ameliorate various other neurological disorders, a recent review publication in Nutrients discusses these disorders. The publication includes a table explaining the strong evidence supporting intermittent fasting in alleviating underlying pathophysiology in animal models of epilepsy, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and multiple sclerosis [18].

Conclusions

In conclusion, the potential therapeutic benefits of fasting or the ketogenic diet in neurological disorders are supported by significant evidence in theoretical frameworks and animal studies. However, human research in this area remains limited. Despite this limitation, the existing body of literature highlights promising avenues for further exploration and underscores the importance of rigorous clinical investigations to validate these findings within human populations.

References and Recommended Read of Literature on the Subject

1. 7. Guelpa G., Marie A. La lutte contre l’epilepsie par la desintoxication et par la reeducation alimentaire. Revue de Therapie Medico-Chirurgicale. 1911;78:8–13.
2. Geyelin H.R. Fasting as method for treating epilepsy. Med. Rec. 1921;99:1037–1039. 
3. Martin-McGill KJ, Jackson CF, Bresnahan R, Levy RG, Cooper PN. Ketogenic diets for drug-resistant epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Nov 7;11(11):CD001903. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD001903.pub4. Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Jun 24;6:CD001903. PMID: 30403286; PMCID: PMC6517043.
4. Li HF, Zou Y, Ding G. Therapeutic Success of the Ketogenic Diet as a Treatment Option for Epilepsy: a Meta-analysis. Iran J Pediatr. 2013 Dec;23(6):613-20. PMID: 24910737; PMCID: PMC4025116.
5. Henderson CB, Filloux FM, Alder SC, Lyon JL, Caplin DA. Efficacy of the ketogenic diet as a treatment option for epilepsy: meta-analysis. J Child Neurol. 2006 Mar;21(3):193-8. doi: 10.2310/7010.2006.00044. PMID: 16901419.
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Memorization is an important tool in human development. We memorize for school, learning languages, or for stage performances. Despite criticisms that memorization often comes without understanding and lacks proper contextualization, there is a consensus that it has a role in the preservation of knowledge. Below, we explore two divergent worlds of fiction – the dystopian universe of Fahrenheit 451 and the enchanting reality-bending journey in Yesterday. This is followed by a section on the practice of memorizing classics and holy scriptures given as examples to unearth the common thread that binds these narratives to the essence of memorization.

Fahrenheit 451, penned by Ray Bradbury, thrusts us into a society where books are outlawed, and knowledge is sacrificed at the altar of conformity. Guy Montag’s rebellion against book-burning parallels a timeless struggle to preserve wisdom, echoing the sentiments of those who commit the Quran to memory amidst adversities. Meanwhile, Yesterday introduces Jack Malik, who grapples with reconstructing the Beatles’ legacy from the recesses of his memory. This cinematic exploration mirrors the efforts of those dedicated to safeguarding the Quran’s verses, reminding us of the enduring power of memorization in preserving cultural and religious treasures.

Fahrenheit 451

Fahrenheit 451 is a 1953 novel by the US science-fiction writer Ray Bradbury. It has twice been made into a film, in 1966 and 2018. It is a dystopian novel, meaning one describing a fictional future state which is the opposite of utopia. It is a future American society in which the masses are pleasure-seeking and anti-intellectual. Reading books is banned, as it may lead to critical thought. The central character, Guy Montag, is employed as a “fireman.” However, in this dystopian future, “fireman” means “book-burner.” The purpose of the fire service is not to put out fires; it is to start them in order to burn books. The punishment for reading books, or for having them in your house, is to be sent to a mental hospital. The books are burned “for the good of humanity.”

This central element of the plot of Bradbury’s book was inspired by the book-burning of Nazis in 1933. Books that did not conform with Nazi ideology were destroyed. It had a precedent in 18^th century CE Germany. Germany was, at that time, a collection of individual states. Those people demonstrating for a unified Germany – especially students – burned books which they considered anti-national or anti-German.

The novel’s title Fahrenheit 451 refers to the supposed temperature at which book paper spontaneously combusts, although in fact the temperature is around 450°C, much higher.

Drugs are administered to the people, and they are fed information by huge television screens. In this way, the government ensures the people fall in line with its policies.

One day, while the fire service are searching the house of an old lady, before finding books and then burning them, Montag glances at some pages of a book and, on a whim, steals it. Over the next year, he steals dozens of books and hides them in his own house. He reads them and tries to memorize them in order to preserve their contents, before the physical books are burned.

He enlists the help of Faber, a former English teacher, and from him learns the way books attempt to describe and explain human existence.

The fire chief eventually learns that Montag has been hiding books, and leads a crew to Montag’s house, where they find the books, and burn the house down. As a result, Montag starts to question the government policy of book-burning. Having been exposed as a book-hoarder, he has the choice of returning to his job or fleeing.

Knowing the consequences of being caught, he escapes to the countryside, where Faber lives. There, he meets like-minded people who spend all day memorizing and reciting books, so that they are preserved and it does not matter if the printed copies are burned.

Yesterday

Yesterday is the title of a 2019 film, written by Richard Curtis, and based on a story by Jack Barth. The plot revolves around the character of British Indian Jack Malik, who is a struggling singer-songwriter. He is about to give up singing in clubs, but his manager and childhood friend Ellie tries to persuade him to persevere.

One night, after a freak cycle accident with a bus during a mysterious global blackout, he finds that he is the only person who knows who the Beatles were. It is as if the Beatles and all their music had never existed.

This is of course music to Jack’s ears. Jack racks his brain to try to remember all the songs on all the Beatles albums, and their lyrics. His first source for research is, of course, Google. However, in this alternative world, a search for “Beatles” only finds the insects – beetles. He googles for the title of their 1967 record Sergeant Pepper, but only finds capsicum peppers. He is seen trying desperately to piece together the dense lyrics of the Beatles classic Eleanor Rigby. He frantically tries to remember whether it is Eleanor or Father McKenzie who was darning socks.

Nevertheless, he reconstructs enough of the Beatles’ catalogue to become a smash hit overnight playing their songs to audiences who have never heard them before.

Eventually he meets two elderly Beatles fans who say that they know that the Beatles – not Jack – wrote all the songs. Nevertheless, they are happy that Jack is keeping the songs alive, albeit in a stripped-down voice-and-guitar version.

Ultimately, Jack decides that he needs to tell the truth, and confesses, during a performance at Wembley Stadium, that he did not write the songs.

The fact that Jack can reconstruct most of the Beatles’ songs shows their popularity. John Lennon of the Beatles claimed in a 1966 newspaper interview that the Beatles were more popular than Jesus. His exact words are often misquoted:

“Christianity will go. It will vanish and shrink. I needn’t argue about that; I’m right and I’ll be proved right. We’re more popular than Jesus now; I don’t know which will go first – rock ‘n’ roll or Christianity. Jesus was all right but his disciples were thick and ordinary. It’s them twisting it that ruins it for me.”

This prompted a backlash in the USA – but not in the UK – where Christians protested by burning copies of the Beatles’ records. It is debatable whether the statement – that the Beatles were more popular than Jesus – was true in 1966. According to one source¹, the world population in 1966 was 3.4 billion, with 1.2 billion Christians. However, what Lennon and everyone else overlooked was that Jesus is and was a revered prophet of God in Islam, with 577 million Muslims in 1966.

Memorizing the classics

It is appealing to speculate how much of the classics of the arts could be reconstructed if all physical archives – written, painted or recorded documentation of them – were lost. This is essentially what a lot of science fiction is about – asking the question: “What if?”

Many plays could probably be reconstructed, if all copies were burned, from the memory of actors who had appeared on stage in those plays (although any one actor may not have memorized all the parts of any play).

Similarly, people often memorize favorite poems, and give recitals of these, and those poems could perhaps be reconstructed from people’s memories.

Musicians like Jack Malik regularly play songs and, as in Yesterday, could reproduce many of them. Similarly, orchestral conductors, players and opera singers could reconstruct classical music.

Art students are often taught by being made to reproduce works of art in galleries, as part of their instruction.

Less likely to be reconstructed are whole books, as they are not performed. People often like to memorize favorite extracts from books, in the same way that they memorize poetry. However, it is rare for anyone to memorize a whole book.

Memorizing the Quran

In the tapestry of religious practices, memorization stands as a vital thread, weaving the fabric of devotion for many who follow a certain faith tradition. For Muslims, beyond mere rituals, it extends to the profound task of committing the entire Quran to memory, a pinnacle achievement recognized by the title “hafidh.”

The Quran is the one book where we could be certain that there are enough people in the world today who know it by heart in order to be able to reconstruct a written version of it.

The Quran was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) by the Angel Gabriel (Jibril) in pieces over a period of 23 years. He lived in 7^th century CE Arabia in a time when many people were not literate, and it is widely accepted that Muhammad himself could not read or write.

The Quran was preserved in two ways. First, the Arabs preserved their histories, genealogies, and poetry by memory alone. Muhammad would memorize the verses as they were revealed. In this sense, we can say that Muhammad was the very first hafidh (person who has memorized the whole Quran). When Muhammad repeated the verses of the Quran, his followers naturally preserved the words by memorizing them, and thus his followers were the earliest hafidhs. Memorization required no expensive raw materials (in an age when there was no paper in the Muslim world). Memorization was also considered more secure – a manuscript could easily be destroyed (as in the science fiction of Fahrenheit 451), but if the Quran was to be memorized by many hafidhs, it would never be lost.

The Arabic word hafidh means both “memorizer” and also “guardian,” a reference to the fact that the original Quran is being guarded by being memorized by so many people. In the Quran, God (Allah) states that the Quran will not be corrupted: “Surely We revealed the Message, and We will surely preserve it” (15:9).

“Those who reject the Reminder when it has come to them – it is an invincible Book. Falsehood cannot approach it, from before it or behind it. It is a revelation from One Wise and Praiseworthy” (41:41-2).

Second, the Quran was preserved through writing. Whenever any revelation took place, it was written down at once on tablets, palm branches, or animal skin, primarily by Zaid bin Thabit, who was the main scribe out of the 42 scribes of the revelation. Muhammad set the order of the chapters under the guidance of Gabriel and ordered his companions to maintain that order. Abu Bakr, the first caliph of Islam, compiled the Quran, and Uthman, the third caliph, made numerous copies and sent one copy to each state capital. Two of these original copies still exist: one in the Topkapi Museum, Istanbul, Turkey, and the other in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Even after Uthman collected and organized a written version of the Quran, recitation (from memory) of the Quran was still honored and encouraged.

Hafidhs

Hafidhs are highly respected within the Islamic community, and are tested on their knowledge. For example, in one test they are asked to continue the recitation of a passage taken randomly from the Quran. As they do not know which passage will be chosen, they must know the whole text in order to be sure of passing. In another test, a would-be hafidh might be asked to recite verses containing a specific word or phrase. Most hafidhs have studied as children in Islamic schools (madrasahs), being instructed in tajwid (rules of recitation) and vocalization as well as committing the Quran to memory. Indeed, the ending of Fahrenheit 451, where people are trained and checked in their memorization of books bears a striking resemblance to Quran classes in madrasahs.

During the holy month of Ramadan, tarawih prayers are read in mosques every evening. Tarawih prayers include Quran recitation. Any hafidh who stumbles is sure to be corrected by another hafidh.

It is impossible to give a precise figure for the number of hafidhs in today’s world. One figure often quoted is 10 million. Over the past centuries, it must run into many millions.

Conclusion

In the intricate mosaic of Islamic devotion, the art of memorization emerges as a profound practice that transcends linguistic and cultural barriers. Whether reciting surahs, embracing duas, or embodying the Quran in its entirety, the commitment to memory stands as a testament to the depth of faith. In the footsteps of Prophet Muhammad, hailed as “the walking Quran,” countless individuals embark on the journey of becoming hafidhs, not merely as guardians of words but as beacons illuminating the path of righteous living.

1. Christianity in View (2022). Statistics and forecasts for world religions: 1800-2025. Christianity in View. http://christianityinview.com/religion-statistics.html

Also known as the perfect man (al-insanu’l-kamil), the universal man is the brightest mirror of God’s Acts, Names, Attributes, and even His Essential Qualities that qualify Him as God. There is a rule that when an attribute is men­tioned without it being specified who the one or ones that have it are, then such an attribute belongs to the one who has it at the most perfect level. So, when we talk about the universal man, we mean, first of all, Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings. Then come other Messengers and Prophets, and the greatest spiritual guides who are known as “means of Divine help” (ghawth) and “pole” or “axis” (qutb), and “those near-sta­tioned to God” (muqarrabun), and godly ones (abrar), and other saintly people, each according to their rank or degree.

Each group being based on their particular considerations, philosophers, theologians, and Sufis approach the universal man by a different rubric. In the language of philosophers and some theologians, he is the first intellect, the universal intellect, the comprehensive word, the encompassing point, the point of unity, the Divine mystery, the mirror of the Divine mystery, the great­est means, and so on; while he is mentioned by some Sufis with titles such as the guide, the one rightly guided, the one leading to truth, the perfect scholar, the perfecting one, the mature and per­fect, and the greatest cure, etc. All these definitions or titles can be summed up in a single sentence, which is that the universal man is the mirror of the Divine Existence and the two worlds. Being the essence, juice, voice, and translator of existence, he not only demonstrates “the Hidden Treasure” in all realms of existence and connects everything to the Divine Being, but he is also an articulate expression of the Being that is in the depth of his consciousness and the richness of his nature.

The universal man is such a polished mirror that God’s Essential Qualities qualifying Him as God are reflected in him at almost every moment, beyond all concepts of modality, and the earth becomes more valuable than the heavens because it is his residence. The universal man functions in effect as the intellect, heart and spirit of existence, without whom nothing can be understood correctly, no information can be developed into knowledge about God, and the mystery of the life of anything cannot be perceived. The whole physical realm when not viewed from his perspective is devoid of spirit, and any part of time which is not enlightened by him is in darkness. So, those who live in such a realm and at such a time are deprived of the light and the true life with respect to the heart and spirit, and cannot develop their human nature to its true and full potential.

People have only been able to continuously turn to God without failure by means of universal men. Masses have discovered their true goals under their guidance and interpreted things and events correctly by means of the lights that they have dissemi­nated. For this reason, those who have found and followed them have found the truth and those who have been able to penetrate their inner world have observed the Beauty of the Ultimate Truth to the extent of the transparence of their heart and spirit.

The universal man is an example in the name of religion and religious life. Belief, Islamic life and perfect goodness constitute his way; obtaining God’s good pleasure, his goal; loving God and making Him loved by others, his duty; Paradise and God’s vision are the surprising fruit of his thought, belief and life, provided ser­vanthood and worship should be made dependent on these.

The universal man always pursues a way to help others and to increase his knowledge of God. Since he lives in accordance with good morals, he always displays good and excellence. He always sees things from a beautiful perspective and therefore as beautiful, he thinks and acts beautifully, and speaks beautiful, useful things. In quest of God’s approval and good pleasure in all his acts, words, and manners, he always feels His company and He thinks of Him, mentions Him, speaks about Him, reminds others of Him with all his attitudes and expressions, and lives as the most articulate voice of truth. The greatest of the universal men, the pride of humankind, was foremost in having every good quality that could be found in a universal man. See­ing him once was enough for an unbiased one to be able to dis­cern the Divine mystery lying in the essence of Islam. As stated by ‘Abdu’l-Karim al-Jili, there has never been nor ever will be a second one qualified with human perfections to the degree of Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace and blessings.

If perfection lies in refining the spirit and purifying the car­nal soul with the Divine Revelation and inspiration, and in developing the human faculties, overcoming bodily appetites and animal impulses, and attaining subsistence by the subsis­tence of His particular blessings in utmost submission and obedience to Him, so as to become thereby the most polished mirror to the Divine Names, Attributes, and Essential Qualities, then the only one who was able to achieve all these without the least imperfection, and whose servanthood or devotion was at the lev­el of “the distance between the strings of two bows or even near­er,” is the master of creation, upon him be the most perfect of blessings and salutations. He is foremost and unparalleled in perfection and, in the words of Bediuzzaman, the pride of humankind and the whole of creation, and the seal of Propheth­ood.

In the language of Sufism, the universal man is a substance or an essence which has combined in his being without any con­tradiction the spiritual or metaphysical and physical realms of existence, as well as its original and the shadowy or reflected, and its particular and universal, and its substantial and accidental dimensions. According to Sayyid Sharif al-Jurjani, the holy per­son who is the pride of humankind was such a mysterious and precious book, and such a missive containing the truths related to Divinity and creation, that no one other than the fortunate who have been able to be purified of all corporeal dirt can perceive and recognize him perfectly. We see the universe as the macro­cosmos, but in truth and in God’s sight, humanity is greater than the universe. In the words of ‘Ali, the Fourth Caliph, his nature is more sublime than even the angels, with the worlds hidden in it. The fact that the universal man is a comprehensive mirror to God’s Existence and Essential Qualities, that the inner side or dimension of his being is the focus of the manifestation of all the Divine Names, Attributes and Essential Qualities, and that the outer dimension of his being, with all its words, lines and para­graphs, is a summary or index of all existence, in part explicitly, and in part allusively. As the Holy Existence is manifested on him in the universal, detailed form, that is, as he carries a line or a word from everything, even if in a very abbreviated form, every being is in one respect immanent in the mirror of his being. He finds the Divine Being in his heart as a hidden treasure. It is high­ly probable that one of the reasons why angels were commanded to prostrate before the first universal man—Prophet Adam—was because of the rich attributes he had in his being. Such richness as this required that the one endowed with it should respond with serious devotion. This was manifested as religion and religious life, which is a representation of the Divine way of acting and of His laws in the universe. God attaches special importance to us, and in return, we should try to please Him by practicing Islam in all its dimensions throughout our lives.

With respect to his relation with existence and events, the universal man is the vicegerent of God on the earth, who observes and knows the meaning of His Acts and orders, and is His witness. God looks at His creatures through his eyes, hears them through his ears, and gives them support through his hands. He is a man of perfect compassion, who embraces every­one in need of attention, support and maintenance. He feels com­passionate toward everyone, and like blood circulating in all the veins and arteries, his compassion is present in the body of soci­ety, keeping an eye on it to protect it against all harmful things and to meet its needs, controlling all its activities like the soul. As declared in the Qur’an, We have not sent you but as a mercy for all the worlds (21:107), and We have not sent you but as a bearer of good tidings and a warner for the whole humankind (34:28), God’s Messenger, who is the greatest of the universal men, upon him be peace ad blessings, is a mercy for all creation, living or non-living, and a guide and leader for all humankind, and a bearer of good tidings (in return for belief and good deeds) and a warner (against the consequences of deviations in belief and evil deeds). As for other universal men, each of them is, in adherence to the Messenger, also a mercy for all creation, and a guide and leader for humankind.

The universal man views things and events from the perspective of the Divine laws operating in the universe, and radi­ates the spirit of people, enlightening them concerning their nature and the nature of things, teaching them how things, events and Divine speeches recognize God, guiding them to the truth, refining their spirits and purifying their carnal souls, and awakening their faculties to the Ultimate Truth. People find their “direction” through him, and know their goals in life and advance straight to them with his guidance. He leads to perfec­tion the souls that have aptitude for perfection. Anyone who is favored with recognizing him and entering his aura will have entered the way leading to God, closing up the distances in their nature between them and Him. Everyone who overcomes their corporeality by such guidance, feels at heart His nearness beyond all concepts of modality, and according to their capacity are able to taste the pleasure of the “seeing” of Him with their insight, attaining His friendship with their spirit. Although everyone who has the necessary capacity and aptitude can feel certain degrees of pleasure of nearness to and friendship with Him, only the universal man favored with the universal manifes­tation of Him can be a perfect, spotless and bright mirror to Him.

As all conscious beings feel the mysteries of Divinity in the universal man, the Divine Being, in a particular sense, also observes all His manifestations in the other mirrors in that one polished mirror. This means that the universal man is such a comprehensive mirror that reflects the All-Permanent One among mortal beings that one who sees him knows what it means to have seen the Ultimate Truth, one who loves him knows what it means to love the Ultimate Truth, and one who follows him knows what it means to be on the way of devotion to the Ulti­mate Truth. We should point out once again that all these distinc­tive excellences belong, first of all, to God’s Messenger in the universal, perfect form. All other universal men can be favored with them in his footsteps in particular forms and degrees. They are heirs to God’s Messenger in learning, knowledge and in their love of God, in zeal, in feeling, in attractiveness to others and their attraction to God. Being called by the Messenger to the table where all these Divine blessings are offered, they call others to join them.

God always observes Himself and has others to observe Himself in different mirrors on the earth. Since the universal man is the most comprehensive and brightest mirror that perfectly reflects the Acts and Essential Qualities of the All-Merci­ful, he functions as one who “sees” and causes others to “see” Him. The places where and the times when there is not a univer­sal man are orphaned in one respect. For this reason, every time and space need the universal man as much as it needs air and water. Since God manifests Himself in the most comprehensive way in the universal man, it is extremely important for existence that a universal man should be present in every time and place. For such a one is the mirror of the Divine Being, with his knowl­edge being a ray of His Knowledge and himself being a mysteri­ous key to His secrets.

One who finds the universal man and shares the same atmo­sphere with him attains many mysteries and lights that others cannot, and becomes a source of lights for others. The universal man is aware of his position and task. He sees himself like a mirror reflecting the Divine lights, and never attributes to him­self his abilities and merits, or the tasks he performs. He attri­butes to God his every accomplishment in sincere conviction of the fact, You did not kill them but God killed them (8:17), and feels deeply in his consciousness the meaning of When you threw, it was not you who threw, but God who threw (8:17). Not merely attributing to God all his accomplishments, merits, and abilities, he rather regards them as His extra favors, saying:

That which I have—I am not worthy of it;
This favor and grace—why are they bestowed on me?

He never deviates into believing such doctrines as union and incarnation. In fact, in order to assert such doctrines, there must be two independent, self-existent beings, whereas, the universal man is not a self-existent being independent of God. The Divine Being is absolutely independent and Self-Existent, while all oth­er existing beings exist and subsist by the lights of His Existence and Self-Subsistence. Regarding any created, mortal being as God’s incarnation or as one united with Him in the name of exalting that being is sheer deviation.

The universal man is perfectly conscious that he is one cre­ated by God and is extremely aware of his being a servant. He never utters words of pride because of the favors he receives, nor does he fall into the error of regarding himself as being iden­tical with God because of his being a mirror to Him. He regards, feels and experiences whatever blessing he is favored with as a manifestation of the Divine Names or Attributes and is humble to the utmost degree before God. This is the state of his annihila­tion with respect to the carnal soul and egoism and the attain­ment of a new existence in heart and spirit. We can regard this as one who is not self-existent tasting the true existence by His Existence. In his Diwan, Mawlana Jalalu’d-Din Rumi says about the heroes of this favor:

In that station, one who exists has seemed to me as non-existent,
and another one who does not exist as existent.
Beyond the world which has the characteristic of a soul,
I have seen many dazzled and intoxicated with love of Him,
all of whom are beings of pure faithfulness and delight.

The presence of language stands as a defining human characteristic, setting us apart from other species. Even in early infancy, infants show positive responses to their exposure language’s melodies and tend to withdraw from those speaking a different dialect or language (Kinzler, Shutts, DeJesus & Spelke, 2009). Across the globe, people communicate through a diverse tapestry of approximately 7,000 languages, each imposing distinct demands on its speakers (Boroditsky, 2011).

Consider this: conveying that my aunt gave five blue gloves to her friend varies dramatically across languages. In Mian, the verb choice indicates whether the event occurred recently, yesterday, or in the distant past. Indonesian verbs don’t specify if the event happened or is forthcoming. Turkish verbs reveal whether I was present or heard it from someone else. Russian requires details about the shade of blue. Mandarin necessitates clarifying the aunt’s relation by blood or marriage and her maternal or paternal side. In Arabic, I have to indicate the gender of her friend. In Pirahã, expressing “five” is impossible; they use words for “few” or “many” instead of exact numbers. Despite these language differences, variations in speech don’t necessarily equate to different ways of thinking. How do we ascertain if speakers of Mian, Turkish, Russian, Indonesian, Mandarin, Arabic or Pirahã genuinely perceive, remember, and reason about the world differently due to their spoken languages?

The relation between language and thought

Many hold the belief that thought and language are inseparable, assuming that thinking occurs “in” language, implying that without language, thought itself ceases to exist. Helen Keller’s account (1955) of recognizing the signed symbol for “water” sparking thought and emotions previously absent supports this view. Numerous intellectual figures echo similar sentiments: “The limits of my language are the limits of my world” (Wittgenstein, 1922), and “The ‘real world’ is largely built upon the language habits of the group” (Sapir, 1941, as cited in Whorf, 1956, p. 75). According to this perspective, without language, many thoughts may be inaccessible, and different languages might lead to different modes of thought among various human communities. But is this indeed the case?

In a practical sense, language significantly shapes thought by facilitating the transfer of ideas between minds. According to the Whorf-Sapir hypothesis, individual languages heavily influence the conceptual frameworks available to their speakers, limiting or guiding mental activities like categorization, memory, reasoning, and decision-making. This view suggests that linguistic structures act as a blueprint for an individual’s mental processes. Exploring diverse linguistic systems could shed light on the varied modes of thinking cultivated or influenced by these languages. Slobin’s thinking-for-speaking framework (1996, 2003) suggests that speakers tend to conceptualize events in a way that aligns with their language’s structure, eventually adopting thinking patterns similar to their speech or writing habits over time.

We start with an influential example of language shaping perceptual categories: the phenomenon of categorical perception of phonemes. Initially, children can discern all acoustic-phonetic properties used by languages to convey meaning (Eimas, Siqueland, Jusczyk & Vigorito, 1971). However, around the time when language acquisition begins, infants, approximately a year old, start to lose sensitivity to phonetic differences that aren’t phonemic (i.e., don’t influence higher levels of linguistic structure) in the language they’re exposed to (Werker & Tees, 1984).

Let’s explore Pormpuraaw, where the Kuuk Thaayorre language takes a unique approach to spatial directions. Unlike English, which uses terms like left and right, Kuuk Thaayorre relies on absolute cardinal directions (north, south, east, west, etc.). While English uses cardinal directions mostly for larger scales, Kuuk Thaayorre incorporates them at every level. This means phrases like “the cup is southeast of the plate” or “the boy south of Mary is my brother” are common. In Pormpuraaw, constant orientation is necessary for proper communication.

Stephen C. Levinson’s groundbreaking research over the past two decades revealed that speakers of languages reliant on absolute directions excel in spatial orientation, even in unfamiliar environments. They surpass individuals in similar settings who don’t speak these languages, surpassing what scientists thought humans could achieve. Their languages cultivate and enhance this cognitive skill. Differences in spatial perception can also extend to temporal thinking. For instance, Alice Gaby and colleagues tested Kuuk Thaayorre speakers’ ability to sequence shuffled photographs depicting age progressions, growth, or consumption, observing unique approaches to arranging these images to reflect correct temporal order. They conducted two tests, with each person positioned in a different cardinal direction. In this task, English speakers typically arrange the cards from left to right, reflecting the progression of time. Hebrew speakers, on the other hand, tend to organize the cards from right to left, aligning with their writing direction. However, the Kuuk Thaayorre approach time differently. They arranged the cards from east to west, adjusting their arrangement based on their seated direction—facing south, the cards progressed left to right; facing north, it was right to left; facing east, it moved toward the body, and so forth. This unique spatial orientation was employed spontaneously without any external cues about their facing direction.

Time representations exhibit diversity globally. For instance, English speakers envision the future as “ahead” and the past as “behind.” In 2010, Lynden Miles and colleagues observed that English speakers tend to lean forward unconsciously when contemplating the future and backward for the past. Conversely, in Aymara, a language spoken in the Andes, the past is referred to as “ahead” and the future as “behind.” Interestingly, Aymara speakers’ gestures align with their language; research by Raphael Núñez and Eve Sweetser in 2006 noted that Aymara speakers gesture in front of them while discussing the past and behind them when discussing the future.

In certain languages, the organization of color categories and terms differs significantly from English. For instance, in Berinmo (spoken in Papua-New Guinea) and Himba (spoken in Namibia), there aren’t distinct terms for green and blue; instead, a single word is used to encompass both colors. Research by Roberson et al. (2000, 2005) explored the phenomenon of categorical perception (CP) of color among speakers of English, Berinmo, and Himba. CP refers to the enhanced discriminability of colors that cross a category boundary compared to those within a color category. During the study, participants were shown a colored target and had to identify which of two stimuli presented five seconds later matched the target. Across each language group, performance improved when the target and distractor stimuli had different color names (e.g., in English, a blue target with a purple distractor) compared to when they shared the same name (e.g., two different shades of blue in English). Results indicated CP among all three participant groups, but specifically at color boundaries explicitly marked in their respective languages. Critically, there was no CP effect at the proposed universal boundary between green and blue for speakers of Himba and Berinmo, whose languages do not distinguish between these colors.

Languages differ in how they categorize substances, like distinguishing between mass nouns and count nouns. In many languages, including English, count nouns are commonly used for countable items and appear in both singular and plural forms, allowing enumeration. On the other hand, mass nouns (e.g., sand and dirt) cannot be counted in the same manner and don’t have singular or plural contexts (*some sands and *two dirts). However, in languages like Yucatec Mayan, nouns lack the specification for individuation. Instead of indicating a unit, they refer simply to the substance or material of an object. For instance, rather than saying two candles, they might express “two units of long thin wax.” Lucy (1993) conducted a study with Yucatec Mayan and English-speaking participants. They were shown an object and asked to determine which of two options were most similar, one resembling the original in shape and the other in substance. The study revealed that while English speakers favored the choice that matched in shape, Yucatec Mayans divided their preferences between the two alternatives.

In a study by Boroditsky and colleagues (2003), German and Spanish speakers were asked to describe objects with gender assignments in their respective languages. The descriptions given aligned with the predicted grammatical gender. For instance, when prompted to describe a “key”—a masculine word in German and feminine in Spanish—German speakers tended to use words like “hard,” “heavy,” “jagged,” “metal,” “serrated,” and “useful,” whereas Spanish speakers leaned towards “golden,” “intricate,” “little,” “lovely,” “shiny,” and “tiny.” Conversely, for a “bridge,” feminine in German and masculine in Spanish, German speakers used descriptors like “beautiful,” “elegant,” “fragile,” “peaceful,” “pretty,” and “slender,” while Spanish speakers used “big,” “dangerous,” “long,” “strong,” “sturdy,” and “towering.” Remarkably, these differences persisted despite all testing being conducted in English, a language without grammatical gender.

Evidentiality, a linguistic feature, discloses the source of information regarding past events—whether it’s from direct sensory experience, hearsay, or inference. In languages like Turkish, evidentiality is grammatically embedded, requiring speakers to specify their information source. However, in languages like English, this is more flexible and optional, expressed through vocabulary rather than grammar. In a study by Tosun, Vaid, and Geraci (2013), Turkish speakers were proficient in recognizing firsthand information, similar to English speakers. But when it came to second-hand information, Turkish speakers lagged behind English speakers. Bilingual Turkish-English individuals performed like Turkish monolinguals in Turkish tests and akin to English monolinguals in English tests. However, late Turkish-English bilinguals continued to resemble Turkish monolinguals even in English tests, showing lower accuracy in recognizing second-hand information compared to firsthand details.

Research demonstrates that altering language impacts cognitive processes. Introducing new color terms or altering temporal expressions can shift individuals’ abilities to perceive colors or conceptualize time. This aligns with the Turkish saying ‘one language, one person,’ suggesting that each language learned shapes a distinct cognitive perspective. Considering this, when I encounter the following verses from the Quran, I interpret the purpose behind God’s creation of diversity as a means for us to understand one another better and strive towards personal growth and improvement.

And among His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the diversity of your languages and colors. Surely in this are signs indeed for people who have knowledge (of the facts in creation and who are free of prejudices). (30:22)

O humankind! Surely We have created you from a single (pair of) male and female, and made you into tribes and families so that you may know one another (and so build mutuality and co-operative relationships, not so that you may take pride in your differences of race or social rank, and breed enmities). Surely the noblest, most honorable of you in God’s sight is the one best in piety, righteousness, and reverence for God. Surely God is All-Knowing, All-Aware. (49:13)

References

• Boroditsky, L., Schmidt, L. A., & Phillips, W. (2003). Sex, syntax, and semantics. Language in Mind: Advances in the Study of Language and Thought, 22, 61-79.
• Boroditsky, L. (2011). How language shapes thought. Scientific American, 304(2), 62-65.
• Boroditsky, L., & Gaby, A. (2010). Remembrances of times East: absolute spatial representations of time in an Australian aboriginal community. Psychological science, 21(11), 1635-1639.
• Eimas, P., Siqueland, E., Jusczyk, P., & Vigorito, J. (1971). Speech perception in infants. Science, 171, 303-306.
• Keller, H. (1955). Teacher: Anne Sullivan Macy. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
• Kinzler, K. D., Shutts, K., DeJesus, J., & Spelke, E.S. (2009). Accent trumps race in guiding children’s social preferences. Social Cognition 27:4, 623-634.
• Levinson, S. C. (2003) Space in language and cognition: Explorations in linguistic diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Lucy, J. A. (1993). Metapragmatic presentationals: reporting speech with quotatives in Yucatec Maya. Reflexive Language: Reported Speech and Metapragmatics, 91-125.
• Miles, L., Nind, L., & Macrae, C. (2010). Moving through time. Psychological Science, 21(2), 222.
• Núñez, R. E., & Sweetser, E. (2006). With the future behind them: Convergent evidence from Aymara language and gesture in the crosslinguistic comparison of spatial construals of time. Cognitive Science, 30(3), 401-450.
• Roberson, D., Davidoff, J., Davies, I. R., & Shapiro, L. R. (2005). Color categories: Evidence for the cultural relativity hypothesis. Cognitive Psychology, 50(4), 378-411.
• Roberson, D., Davies, I., & Davidoff, J. (2000). Color categories are not universal: replications and new evidence from a stone-age culture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129(3), 369.
• Sapir, E. (1941). In L. Spier, Language, culture and personality: essays in memory of Edward Sapir. Menasha, WI: Memorial Publication Fund. Cited in Whorf (1956, p. 134).
• Slobin, D. (1996). From ‘thought and language’ to ‘thinking for speaking’. In J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity, 70-96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Slobin, D. (2003). Language and thought online: Cognitive consequences of linguistic relativity. In D. Gentner & S. Goldin-Meadow (eds.), Language in mind: Advances in the investigation of language and thought, 157-191. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Tosun, S., Vaid, J., & Geraci, L. (2013). Does obligatory linguistic marking of source of evidence affect source memory? A Turkish/English investigation. Journal of Memory and Language, 69(2), 121-134.
• Werker, J., & Tees, R. (1984). Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 49-63.
• Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, Thought and Reality. Ed. by J. Carroll. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Ed. by D.F. Pears.

A holistic perspective on the universe reveals one common feature at all levels of existence: cooperation. From cells and tissues in our body to communities helping one another, cooperation is a key dynamic in biological life and for the survival of our society. In this article, we will see some examples of how this phenomenon unfolds in nature and in our lives.

Cooperation in our body

Let’s start with what is nearest to each of us: our body. The body comprises cells, and tissues consist of cells that perform similar functions. The term “tissue” originates from a Latin word meaning “to weave,” as cells making up tissues are sometimes interwoven. When groups of tissues collaborate, they form organs. Examples of organs include the heart, lungs, skin, and stomach. When organs work together, they constitute systems. For instance, the heart, lungs, blood, and blood vessels collectively form the circulatory system. The human body encompasses eleven systems: muscular, respiratory, digestive, integumentary (skin), skeletal, circulatory (or cardiovascular), excretory (or urinary), reproductive, nervous, lymphatic, and endocrine systems. Each system has a distinct function, contributing to a complex system where countless organs and tissues work harmoniously for survival and well-being. The specific functions of each organ are interdependent, akin to a well-coordinated orchestra relying on each instrument playing its part.

The remarkable functioning of the human body is a testament to the incredible cooperation among its organs. Each organ plays a specific role, and their interdependence ensures the body’s survival and well-being. From the circulatory system delivering life-sustaining resources to the liver’s detoxification efforts, the kidneys’ fluid regulation, the lungs’ oxygen exchange, the immune system’s protection, to the brain’s control center role, every organ contributes to the intricate symphony of the body.

Organ systems are now well understood to be tightly interlinked, responding coordinately to internal and external demands, dynamically maintaining the body’s homeostasis. Homeostasis, a self-regulating process, allows the organism to maintain internal stability while adapting to changing external conditions. Close interactions among systems are crucial for protecting organs and promoting health. While such interactions are beneficial, they may also contribute to pathologies affecting multiple organs.

Communication between organs primarily occurs through two main systems: blood vessels and nerves. Nerves can directly establish connections between organs, while signaling factors transferred through the blood circulation can selectively affect specific organs expressing specific receptors or due to the organ’s proximity to the blood vessel connection. Analogously, diverse human communities should have appropriate communication methods to understand each other better and in the correct way.

Most physiological functions originate from the communication between organs. While studies have focused on reciprocal interactions between pairs of organs and diseases affecting them, crosstalk between two organs may involve mechanisms beyond those two organs. Systemic homeostasis maintenance and responses to nutritional and environmental challenges require the coordination of multiple organs and tissues. For instance, communication between the heart and kidneys in cardiorenal syndrome may involve the brain, adrenal glands, and bone marrow. Mechanisms facilitating organ crosstalk operate at the system, tissue, cell, and molecular levels. Although vital organs generally function in coordination and harmony, dysregulation of these communication lines contributes to human pathologies, including obesity, diabetes, liver disease, and atherosclerosis. Sudden or chronic dysfunction of one organ can cause disorder in another organ. For example, kidney dysfunction can adversely affect the hematological system, and acute kidney injury leading to uremia can result in a hepatorenal syndrome. Similarly, when there is a problem between two communities, other communities should be involved to solve the problem, and the interaction should start at the smallest part of the community from each human.

Cooperation in society

Our planet hosts a diverse and continually expanding global population. Nearly 8 billion individuals inhabit 195 countries, marking an unprecedented level of interconnectedness. While this diversity enriches our world with cultural exchange, it also presents a host of intricate problems. The world grapples with a multitude of complex and interlinked issues, including climate change, poverty, inequality, political instability, global health crises, migration, displacement, resource scarcity, education, access to information, the rise of nationalism, and wars. The diversity among nations, each with its distinct identity and challenges, serves as a testament to humanity’s capacity to establish unique societies and governance structures. Despite many obstacles arising from diversity, we have to find ways to promote global cooperation and resolve common problems.

One good example of such cooperation took place in my neighborhood when the war first broke out in Ukraine. The Ukrainian church hosted an event and I participated with my other Muslim friends to show solidarity for the difficult times they were going through. As we donated our aid materials, they were very pleased with our presence, and we, in turn, experienced the relief of sharing people’s concerns. After some time, there was a massive earthquake in Turkey, and many people were injured or died. There was a great need for many aid materials. During that period, even though we didn’t make any requests, our Ukrainian brothers and sisters managed to collect as much aid as they could among themselves and brought it to us in a truck. Later, when the war broke out in the Middle East, an interfaith dialogue program was organized in a synagogue, seeking to understand the harsh realities of war and promoting unity among the Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities. We also participated in that event. During the gathering, individuals from diverse religious backgrounds discovered common ground in their shared aversion to war, death, and conflict. The prevailing theme centered around unity, solidarity, and a collective yearning for peace.

Here is an anecdote from history which narrates a good example of solidarity. It is told that the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II once went to the marketplace in disguise early in the morning. His purpose was to witness first-hand how his people were doing in real life. He entered one of the shops and ordered a few things. The shopkeeper didn’t recognize him, and he brought only one of the desired items. He said to the Sultan “Sir, I have made my morning sales, and my neighbor has not sold anything yet. Please get the others from him.” The Sultan then entered the neighboring shop; again, one of the requested items is prepared, and the shopkeeper asked the Sultan to go to the shop next door to finalize his purchases, because his neighbor had not yet made a morning sale.

As a child, I used to labor in the village fields, with each family’s plot situated adjacent to one another. Simultaneously, everyone engaged in the same tasks, tending to their individual sections. After completing the work in their respective fields, families promptly lent assistance to their neighbors, collectively finishing the tasks. Progressing seamlessly from one plot to another, the community endeavored to complete the work together. I recall the joy I felt when neighbors came to aid us, momentarily overshadowing the challenges of the labor.

“The analogy of believers in their affection, mercy, and compassion for each other is like that of a body. When any limb aches, the whole body reacts with sleeplessness and fever,” says Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, which beautifully captures the essence of unity, compassion, and interconnectedness he expects from his community. Similar to how our body responds to health problems, people are urged to react similarly when one of their members is in distress. This unity should go beyond mere words; it embodies the practical responsibility of the community to stand together during difficult times and provide support. Additionally, the Prophet emphasized the principle that “None of you will have faith until you love for your brother what you love for yourself” [al-Bukhari]. This statement inclusively applies to all, emphasizing the essence of unity by bringing together individuals from diverse backgrounds through love and respect. We see the example of sympathy and sense of responsibility in Fethullah Gülen’s teachings on peace, dialogue, and altruism. Contrary to the understanding that “fire burns where it falls,” Gülen says “Wherever fire falls, it burns me” symbolizing a selfless commitment to service and compassion. Gülen envisions a world where the suffering of others is deeply felt and responded to with compassion. This perspective goes beyond mere sympathy; it entails an active and selfless commitment to help those in need, regardless of their background or circumstances.

In conclusion, just as the body cannot operate efficiently when its components are in discord, we cannot realize our full potential if our society is divided into irreconcilable camps. Unity fosters a sense of togetherness, promoting love, harmony, and generosity among people like among each organ of the body at the time of a disease. By acknowledging our common challenges and working towards unity, we can collaboratively strive to build a more sustainable and just world for everyone. As believers, we can utilize unity as a foundation to extend kindness to others. It is imperative to genuinely spread kindness to our family, friends, humanity, and the world at large, beginning with those closest to us such as family members, coworkers, and neighbors.

References

1. Sahih Muslim 2586a.
2. Sunan Ibn Majah 66.
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area
4. https://www.britannica.com/browse/Cells-Organs-Tissues
5. Oishi Y, Manabe I. Organ System Crosstalk in Cardiometabolic Disease in the Age of Multimorbidity. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2020 Apr 28;7:64. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2020.00064. PMID: 32411724; PMCID: PMC7198858.
6. Armutcu, F. Organ crosstalk: the potent roles of inflammation and fibrotic changes in the course of organ interactions. Res. 68, 825–839 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00011-019-01271-7

Physics is one major scientific discipline that helps us understand the universe. While classical Physics is more about the world and things we can observe, we study the matter at the atomic and subatomic level with quantum physics. Quantum physics (or quantum mechanics) is best known as probabilistic as opposed to being deterministic. Classical Physics, or any branch of science for that matter, is deterministic in the sense that we can predict the results of an experiment accurately provided we have all the available information. For instance, when throwing a ball into the air, I can, with certainty, predict the trajectory of the ball if factors such as initial speed, wind velocity, and air resistance are known. However, this certainty fades away within the realm of quantum mechanics, not due to limitations in our knowledge or measurement capabilities, but as an intrinsic quality of quantum entities.

Subatomic particles, referred to as quantum objects, include entities like protons, electrons, and atoms. While quantum mechanics’ principles theoretically extend to sizable objects, their effects become imperceptible, primarily owing to a phenomenon physicists call decoherence. Decoherence emerges from interactions with the many particles in the environment, effectively erasing quantum behavior, a process likened to the “washing out” of quantum features. If we could isolate an atom perfectly from its surroundings, we would be able to see quantum behavior; but in everyday large objects there exist a huge number of particles which renders the observation of quantum behavior practically impossible.

To begin, let’s delve into the concept of probability. In the realm of quantum mechanics (QM), a particle has the potential to exist in a linear combination or superposition of multiple states. To simplify and sidestep technical jargon, let’s consider the “color” property of a quantum object, such as an electron. While electrons don’t possess color in the conventional sense, the analogy applies to measurable physical attributes like position, velocity, or spin. When measured, the color of an electron is always either a red or a blue. Classical logic asserts that an object’s color is an unchanging, fixed property, unaffected by observation. However, QM challenges this notion, proposing that the object exists as a blend of red and blue until subjected to observation or measurement. There is a certain probability of getting red, and getting blue; however, we cannot tell which one. Let’s assume these probabilities are 50% each. This would mean if I measured the color of an electron, I would get red or blue with a 50% probability for each. The math of QM can calculate the probabilities with accuracy but dictates that the color was in a superposition state going back and forth between the two prior to observation. Suppose the measurement reveals the color red. The intriguing question then arises: “Was it red before the observation?” Although specific probabilities are linked to each color in an observation, certainty about the revealed color remains mysterious. The act of observation leads to the phenomenon termed the “collapse of the state,” signifying the transformation from a two-state mixture (superposition) to a definitive state of either red or blue.

The renowned double-slit experiment is a typical illustration demonstrating the concept of superposition. Here, we will provide a concise description of the double slit experiment without delving into technicalities. Imagine sending electrons through a double-slit configuration one at a time. Once through, the electron strikes a screen positioned beyond the slits. Each electron leaves a mark on the screen like a point particle. As we send more electrons, one at a time, a pattern gradually builds up on the screen generated by the many marks left by the electrons. The pattern is exactly a copy of what a wave would do. So, the outcome is that the electrons collectively behave as a wave – much like a water wave that would pass through both slits simultaneously and hit the screen. This is what physicists call wave-particle duality: when an electron behaves like a particle as it leaves a point mark on the screen, but the collective behavior is one of waves (not many particles). To explain the wavy pattern formed at the screen, we are compelled to accept that the electron is just like a wave passing through the two slits simultaneously. In the language of QM, the electron is in a superposition state of being at both slits at the same time. Things get even more interesting once we devise an experiment to measure which slit it “really” goes through. Experiments like this have undoubtedly confirmed that if we have the “which slit” information, the superposition state collapses: the electrons are observed to pass through one of the two slits and, moreover, they form a pattern on the screen that particles would generate. The overall inference is that until we observe which slit an electron goes through, we must treat the electron as being in a state of superposition, i.e. going through both slits simultaneously. However, an observation will make it collapse to a state of passing through only one slit.

The mathematical framework was clear: before we make an observation, a quantum particle or system is in a superposition state lacking well-defined properties that preclude assertions about its physical attributes. The particle manifests a specific property only after an observation. This quantum behavior has been confirmed countless times especially with experiments involving electron spins and photons (light particles). In summary, QM essentially argues that every tiny particle is in a mixed state consisting of all possible realities until subjected to observation. Since every entity, living or nonliving, is made up of tiny quantum particles like protons, electrons and neutrons, this should apply to any object in the universe. It is the act of observation that brings out the reality; no inherent “real property” existed prior to measurement.

During the initial stages of its development, the idea of superposition was taken with skepticism notably by the famous Albert Einstein. Einstein acknowledged that the observations are explained by this new weird mathematical framework of QM; however, he believed there is more to unravel. Einstein basically argued that a particle must always have a definite property even before the measurement. To him, the notion that a particle lacked a “real” value in the absence of observation seemed illogical. Einstein is reported to have said, “I would like to think that the Moon is still there even if I do not look at it.” This stance aligns with the concepts of “localism” and “realism,” suggesting a persistent, definite reality irrespective of observation.

At this juncture, the issue becomes more philosophical than scientific. The pivotal question emerges: did the electron have a real and definite color prior to observation? (In lieu of color, the experiments would measure physical properties like spin or position). QM will respond “no, it exists in a superposition state.” In contrast, classical logic or Einsteinian viewpoints would say “yes, of course! It has always had a definite color; we just did not know it.” This debate is deeply related to measurement theory as well. To put it from a different standpoint, measurement in classical logic discloses an object’s property, while in QM, measurement forces the object to assume one of its potential and observable properties.

In opposition to this idea of QM, Einstein and his colleagues published the renowned EPR paper titled “Can Quantum Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?” In this article, Einstein argued that even though the Math of QM is accurate, QM is insufficient in addressing the measurement problem. The authors basically argued that there is more to the story and postulated the existence of “hidden variables” (HV). According to this perspective, these hidden variables serve as the “genes” of a particle, akin to an inaccessible genetic code. Though beyond our reach, the realist viewpoint, or the HV theory, asserts their existence, containing information about a particle’s measurement outcome. Take, for instance, the spin property of an electron, which can be up or down when measured along a certain axis. If not observed, the electron exists in a superposition/mixed state of up and down according to QM principles. Only upon observation, it takes on either one of the values (up or down); and we cannot know which one. In contrast, the EPR paper proposes that the particle has a HV that actually dictates what the measurement outcome is which also means it has always had a definite, real property since its creation. This HV is currently inaccessible and beyond our human scope.

So, how can we test the EPR idea or the HV theory? In 1964, John S. Bell, an Irish Mathematician published an article demonstrating that measuring the spin of entangled particles could, in principle, serve as a decisive test for the existence of hidden variables. In the absence of hidden variables, the spin (or any property) of a particle would genuinely exist in a peculiar superposition state encompassing all potentialities. The initial experiments utilizing Bell’s ideas were carried out by John Clauser [Freedman, Stuart J.; Clauser, John F. (April 3, 1972). “Experimental Test of Local Hidden-Variable Theories”. Physical Review Letters. 28 (14): 938-941] at Columbia University in 1972. In his experiments Clauser employed photons and measured their “polarization.” Polarization is a directional physical property of light akin to the spin of an electron. His results strongly refuted the HV theory, thereby aligning with the QM perspective. In the coming years, physicist Alain Aspect carried out more sophisticated experiments that ruled out possible imperfections (loopholes) in Clauser’s initial experiments. The cumulative outcomes of these experimental studies not only enhanced the QM viewpoint but also unequivocally ruled out the hidden variables. Remarkably, J. Clauser and A. Aspect were two of the three experimental physicists honored with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2022 for their groundbreaking investigations with entangled particles, persistently supporting quantum mechanics.

In contemplating the broader context outlined so far, we find ourselves compelled to acknowledge the inherently ambiguous nature of reality in the quantum realm. Particles exhibit properties that are in a superposition state leaving us only with uncertain claims and talking in terms of possibilities. This is equivalent to attributing wave-like properties. (For instance, a wave is extended and stretched and does not have a distinct position – it is in many places.) Yet, upon observation, the property becomes one of the possible realities and remains in that state. In other words, the wavy behavior goes away, and we now have a particle after the observation. This mind-blowing inference makes us ask what reality is. Is it a state of possibilities that only reveals itself only after we make an observation? Then, is it the act of observation that plays the critical role here? One is even tempted to say a reality exists solely through our perception. The interpretation of quantum mechanics is the topic of an ongoing debate. The experimental facts and the accurate mathematical description stay intact, but fundamental questions persist. Questions like “how does it make sense?”, “what does this all mean?” still temper with the minds of many philosophers and scientists. There are several interpretations of these quantum mechanical principles which we will only name here such as Many Worlds, Ensemble Interpretation, or Objective Collapse.

Beyond these various interpretations, a realization emerges from all this: our human understanding and knowledge remains fundamentally limited. Regardless of the advancements we make, there is a limit within the universe that puts us in a blind position. It is as if an imperceptible barrier restricts the boundary of human knowledge cautioning “no entry beyond this point.” It is as if “the keys of the unseen” is with God only (Qur’an 6:59), and that He creates every moment (Qur’an 55:29).

Another point to contemplate is the power of observation which in a sense showcases the significance of willpower. Our observations can change the reality in the quantum world. Extrapolating from this principle one may even argue that “if you really desire an outcome, visualize it, contemplate it, put in all your effort, and it will happen.” These are actually ideas that have widely been used by people in the field of self-improvement.

A third point is the wavy behavior we encounter in the quantum realm. An electron is like a wave until observation, after which point it becomes a “particle.” This prompts us to ponder: could the essence of everything be rooted in wave-like structures, suggesting a universe composed of foundational waves permeating all aspects of existence?

Note

1. Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2007. Al-Mathnawi al-Nuri (Seedbed of the Light), The Light Inc. NJ. p. 68. The Turkish original is “Nazar ve niyet mahiyet-i eşyayı tağyir eder.” “Nazar,” originally from Arabic, means eyesight, vision, viewpoint, perspective. We preferred to use “observation” here to make a better connection with the article. Already done with vision and from a viewpoint, “observation” is not a false translation.

In 2017, a Harris County Assistant District Attorney in Texas became involved in a case of mistaken identity after a woman with the same name posted racist remarks about African American women on Twitter. In the following weeks, Facebook and Twitter users continued to share a series of messages from several months prior, from a user named Courtney Rosen. Twitter and Facebook users linked the tweets to Harris County Assistant District Attorney (ADA) Courtney Rosen, who shares the same name as the original poster. Rosen was subjected to a flood of abuse on social media, prompting her supervisors to investigate the matter, in which a case of mistaken identity was revealed. Her office then published a statement defending her soon after (Barned-Smith, 2017). The user who actually made the derogatory posts subsequently had his or her account suspended, but the damage had already been done to ADA Rosen.

What is Cancel Culture?

Cancel culture is a social phenomenon characterized by the public rejection or withdrawal of support from individuals or entities, often celebrities or public figures, due to perceived objectionable behavior, statements, or beliefs (Vogels, 2021). In the ever-evolving digital age, cancel culture has emerged as a potent force, influencing how individuals are perceived and treated within society. With its swift judgment, condemnation, and the subsequent exclusion of individuals for perceived wrongs, cancel culture has cast a pervasive shadow on the well-being of those ensnared both within and beyond its reach (Vus, 2018).

While it’s crucial to acknowledge that cancel culture has played a role in holding abusive individuals in positions of power accountable, we should also take into account its broader impact on society. According to Pew Research Center data on cancel culture, 58 percent of Americans say that calling someone out on social media holds them accountable for their acts, while 38 percent believe it punishes those who do not deserve it. Similar data has found that 1 in 4 people fear losing their jobs over making a mistake, holding opposing political views, or simply going against the grain of the established norms (Vogels, 2021).

Cancel culture has a tendency to oversimplify and stigmatize and has therefore created a landscape where individuals are defined by their worst moments, fostering a climate of fear and apprehension. This scrutiny and fear of being canceled, coupled with the public nature of this phenomenon, have given rise to a host of mental health and social challenges. Individuals are now navigating an era where a single misstep can lead to public censure. The fear of facing public condemnation and the potential ramifications of being canceled permeate the daily lives of those caught within its grasp. Teenagers and adolescents, for example, are extremely vulnerable to the judgments of their peers, so cancellation is particularly harmful to this age group. According to a review of research on media and teenage brain development, teens are especially vulnerable to social influences since the regions of their brains responsible for social elements of life are still forming (Crone & Konjin, 2018). Brain imaging studies have shown that social rejection and cancellation literally hurts as it activates the same areas of the teenage brain that physical pain activates (Kross et al., 2011).

The negative impacts of cancel culture extend to both cancelers and onlookers. Teens who cancel others may do so because they hold strong moral beliefs, which is a positive thing. However, teenage cancel culture allows kids to disregard empathy and compassion in favor of being right. Rather than learning to debate matters on which they differ, cancelers just block those they believe are wrong. Individuals on the sidelines frequently experience anxiety and concern that they will be next, as well as guilt for not sticking up for someone who was abruptly canceled.

“The world is messy…People who do really good stuff have flaws” Former President Barack Obama (2019).

The dynamics behind the rise of cancel culture in the digital age

The emergence of cancel culture in recent years can be attributed to the disruptive effects of the digital age, notably the widespread influence of social media platforms. These platforms provide a speedy and expansive mode of communication, allowing users to express their thoughts and rally support for causes rapidly. The growing visibility of public personalities, spurred by the interconnectedness of the online world, has raised expectations of accountability, with previous actions or words coming under closer examination. The empowering of marginalized voices via digital platforms has played an important role in drawing attention to injustices; but, it has also contributed to the quick and, at times, severe consequences of cancel culture.

Polarization and ideological divisions play an important role in influencing cancel culture in contemporary discourse. The politicized character of societal issues may lead to the use of cancellation as a tactic to silence dissent or hold individuals accountable for breaking from established norms in their communities. The lack of complexity and context in evaluating acts or remarks is worsened by the constraints of social media platforms, where character limits and fast-paced exchanges can prevent a thorough understanding of a given incident.

Cancel culture, motivated in part by a genuine desire for social reform, seeks to hold individuals accountable for perceived detrimental actions or views. Advocates claim that accountability is critical to building a more inclusive and just society (Vus, 2018). Yet, the challenge lies in striking a balance between holding individuals accountable and providing opportunities for personal growth and repentance. As cancel culture continues to evolve, ongoing debates center around finding this delicate equilibrium while addressing the complexities inherent in swift online judgments.

Cancel Culture in History

Cancel culture, while appearing to be a creation of the digital age, has historical precedents in which individuals faced criticism for questioning conventional norms, fell victim to rumors and gossip, and were isolated for new ideas and approaches. As such, today’s cancel culture, with its immediate and frequently severe penalties for perceived breaches, is a modern embodiment of a long-standing trend.

Socrates, the prominent ancient Greek philosopher, faced a sort of societal censure that is similar to features of today’s cancel culture. His “cancellation” took place within the complex dynamics of political and cultural life in ancient Athens. Socrates was known for challenging existing cultural and religious assumptions which earned him both admiration and hatred. Accusations of corrupting youth arose as a result of his support for critical thinking and questioning traditional conventions. Socrates underwent a court trial, and despite his passionate defense and pledge of allegiance to the gods of Athens, he was convicted (Nash, 2022).

Another example can be seen in the life of Aisha, the wife of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) when she fell victim to unjust social condemnation. The event revolved around an incident, in which innocent circumstances gave rise to malicious rumors of impropriety between Aisha and another male companion. The subsequent gossip and speculation harmed both her individual and broader societal harmony and peace. This incident shares parallels with modern cancel culture, where individuals face severe consequences based on unfounded rumors or false narratives. Aisha’s exoneration through Quranic revelation illustrates the dangers of unchecked allegations and the potential for deceptive narratives to harm others, underlining the ongoing importance of discernment and justice in the face of society judgment (Haylamaz, 2016).

As displayed by both of these historic examples, the act of cancelation often involves the removal of individuals from social circles. This isolation, in conjunction with the loss of support networks, can lead to a profound sense of loneliness and despair. Be it public or private, this then isolates individuals from their communities, leaving them grappling with a sense of rejection and social alienation.

But, what about examples of times where people were in the wrong, admitted their mistakes, yet were unable to find a path to redemption? Comedian Kevin Hart for example, withdrew from hosting the 2019 Oscars after past tweets containing homophobic remarks resurfaced. While the tweets were offensive, some argued that the context of the tweets being comedic in nature, having occurred when Hart was much younger, and that Hart had addressed his error and apologized for the remarks in the past should have been considered before the swift cancellation. Chrissy Teigen, similarly, was called out on social media for bullying comments she made in the past. Teigen was remorseful, she apologized, and took time for personal reflection and growth, yet was withheld from the possibility of public redemption for quite a long time. If this is happening to celebrities openly, we can be sure it is happening to all types of people on a regular basis. Imagine what it would be like to make a mistake and have no path to redemption. So, the question then becomes, how do experts suggest we appropriately hold people accountable in a responsible manner when they make a mistake?

Calling In Rather Than Calling Out

In a 2020 study by the British Journal of Social Psychology, researchers found that pedagogical and therapeutic experts recommend the following steps for holding people accountable without resorting to public shame and cancellation:

1. Clearly define the specifics of the situation and explain why they are troublesome using factual evidence.
2. Communicate directly with the individual or entity concerned whenever possible.
3. Provide an opportunity for the opposing party to voice their viewpoint. If an apology is delivered and a plan for resolution is agreed upon, there is the possibility of going forward when all parties are prepared.
4. The focus should stay on resolving the current issue without excessive escalation.

Adopting a “calling in” approach, as opposed to “calling out,” is useful in holding individuals with damaging attitudes accountable while avoiding cancel culture. Experts emphasize the significance of convincing people to accept responsibility for their acts rather than publicly blaming them. They contend that gently illustrating the harmful consequences of their words and actions, with compassion and sympathy, frequently leads to individuals acknowledging and accepting responsibility for themselves. However, if canceling becomes a public display of virtue signaling or control, the person being canceled may refuse accountability, impeding positive growth and development (Woods & Ruscher, 2020).

In recognizing the profound impact of cancel culture has on society, a compelling need emerges for a transformative shift in perspective—a shift grounded in hope, forgiveness, and redemption.

Seeking Guidance Through Faith

“But indeed, I am the Perpetual Forgiver of whoever repents and believes and does righteousness and then continues in guidance” (Qur’an 20:82).

In the face of cancel culture’s impact on society, Islamic teachings, alongside Christian and Jewish traditions, provide a resilient foundation rooted in hope, resilience, and the transformative power of faith. Central to these Abrahamic faiths is the concept of forgiveness, with Islam emphasizing tawbah—a pathway for seeking forgiveness, learning from mistakes, and embracing personal growth (Gulen, 2006). This aligns with the teachings of Christianity that underscore the role of forgiveness, compassion, and the possibility of redemption through repentance, as well as Jewish traditions that focus on teshuvah, emphasizing repentance and positive transformation (Eichler Berkun, 2003).

Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) statement, “Each of you is the mirror of his brother, so if he sees a fault in him, he should wipe it away from him” (Tirmidhi), resonates with the Christian emphasis on supporting and forgiving one another, bearing one another’s burdens, as well as the Jewish emphasis on communal responsibility and mutual support.

This paradigm shift in thinking and approaching the mistakes of others is not a distant ideal but a tangible call to action—an invitation to challenge the perfectionist narrative often propagated by cancel culture. It involves recognizing the human capacity for mistakes, acknowledging them not as endpoints but as opportunities for profound growth. The above-mentioned teachings all highlight the importance of fostering supportive communities that uplift individuals in their journey, providing a counterbalance to the isolating nature of cancel culture. Rather than exclusion and judgment, encouragement and the creation of supportive communities that uplift individuals in their journey should take central importance. The shared principles of forgiveness, redemption, hope, and resilience found in these religious traditions collectively offer a wisdom that transcends religious boundaries, presenting a holistic approach to countering the adversarial aspects of cancel culture and fostering a more compassionate and understanding societal discourse.

Bibliography

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