To attain happiness and to avoid mood disorders, which should we pursue

The messages of modern society are all too familiar to us: buy more, eat more, sleep more, take more pictures, and care less about the effects of our actions. We are encouraged to maximize pleasure while avoiding anything that inconveniences us. We cloister ourselves with our material goods and social media habits, promoting self-centeredness. This induces a fluctuating happiness in which phases of pleasure and displeasure repeatedly alternate, which can result in various mood disorders and has been linked to decreases in well-being. In this article, we are going to analyze self-centeredness and its consequences and also interpret its role in a variety of mood disorders and various areas of life.

The Self-centeredness / Selflessness Happiness Model (SSHM) is a theoretical model proposed by Dambrun et al. in 2011 [1]. This model represents different sorts of happiness that are dependent upon the self, particularly the structure of the self. They claim that self-centered psychological functioning derives from how someone perceives themselves and the belief that they are powerful, permanent, and independent. This functioning causes fluctuating happiness and afflictive affects which are also the roots of many mood disturbances. This is heavily contrasted by the perception of the self as flexible which leads to selfless psychological functioning and is a crucial factor at attaining more authentic/durable happiness [1].

After proposing this model, Michael Dambrun conducted a study in 2017 that built upon this model. According to this research, self-centered psychological functioning allows individuals to fluctuate between joy and sorrow, a vacillation that results in afflictive affects. Conversely, selfless psychological functioning gives the individual more emotional stability and feeling of harmony with the environment. They tested these hypotheses in two studies consisting of a heterogeneous sample of citizens (n=547). Analyses of these two studies indicate that self-centeredness (measured by egocentrism and materialism) and selflessness (measured by transcendence and connectedness to others) were two different psychological constructs rather than strict oppositional ideas.

In addition to showing the distinct functioning, these analyses also revealed that self-centered functioning is significantly associated with fluctuating happiness that is the root of afflictive affects. However, selflessness is linked to authentic/durable happiness, which is the result of perceiving the self as flexible and harmonious with the environment and universe. These associations are mediated by distinct psychological processes. For self-centeredness, afflictive affects play a crucial role in the correlation with fluctuating happiness in self-centered individuals.

In contrast, selfless individuals attain authentic-durable happiness that is partially mediated by emotional stability and perceiving themselves as harmonious with others and the universe (2). In our view, individuals who are more concerned about their happiness are more susceptible to mood fluctuations and disorders, while individuals who have more significant interest for the happiness of others attain more robust and durable emotions.

These studies also suggest that self-centeredness causes problems in society; as such, we will to analyze the results later.

Fluctuating happiness in the self-centered individual

The idea of the self as a real, permanent entity with its distinct boundaries results in self-centered psychological functioning. Laborit’s [3] study suggests that each organized structure in the form of an entity seeks gratifications that positively reinforce it and avoids things that risk its homeostasis. The hedonic principal is a major ruler in self-centered functioning and is deeply associated with egoism, egocentrism, an exaggerated importance given to the self, and ego inflation (through material possessions, for example) (e.g. Higgins,1997) [4].

The hedonic principle and its associations are also correlated with some personality disorders, particularly narcissistic personality disorder [5]. This principle induces the individual to focus on attaining pleasure and avoiding displeasure. Feelings of temporary happiness, joy, and gratification are the result of impulsive actions for attaining pleasure and avoiding displeasure. However, only the presence or absence of certain stimuli reinforce the individual and only give temporary pleasure and happiness (Wallace & Shapiro, 2006 [6]). The experience of pleasure depends on circumstances, is an unstable condition that may soon become neutral or may be displaced with displeasure. (i.e., hedonic adaptation, e.g., Brickman, Coates & Janoff-Bulman, 1978; Lyubomirsky, 2011 [7]). Focusing on attaining more pleasure and avoiding displeasure lead an individual to recognize and realize the impossibility of attaining valued objects, durable pleasure, and cause them to repeatedly vacillate between pleasure and displeasure and the arising affects such as frustration, nervousness, anger, hostility, or jealousy, all of which damage their well-being and health (e.g., Miller) [8]. Contrarily, altruism, also called selflessness or focusing on others’ happiness, is significantly associated with a higher quality of well-being, health, and longevity [9].

Self-centeredness cause depressive symptomatology

A self-centered lifestyle may cause not only mood disorders but also social problems that also increase the prevalence of different mood disorders. Loneliness is a big problem in contemporary society, though we mostly live in crowded cities adorned with skyscrapers. As the title describes, a study conducted in 2017 shows loneliness and self-centeredness have a reciprocal effect that cause depression and various mood disorders, as well as health and social problems [10].

Loneliness increases not only the motivation to repair or replace deficient social relationships, but also the implicit motivation for self-preservation. John T. Cacioppo et al. reported a cross-lagged analysis of 10 waves of longitudinal data (n=229) on loneliness and self-centeredness (as gauged by Feeney and Collins’s measure of choric self-focus) in a representative sample of middle-aged and other adults. Loneliness increases the implicit motivation for self-preservation, and loneliness in the current year anticipates self-centeredness in the following year beyond what is reasoned by current-year demographic variables, self-centeredness, depressive symptomatology, and overall negative mood and emotions. Their study also revealed that self-centeredness in the current year foretells loneliness in the subsequent year, a reciprocal relationship that could potentially contribute to the maintenance of loneliness [12].

Generation Me and its consequences on human mood

An increase in narcissism with some indicators of increased self-focus in Americans born after 1970 leads authors to describe that generation as “Generation Me” [5, 12]. This narcissism and self-focus are also intimately related to self-centered psychological functioning since both are formed by an exaggerated importance given to the self, ego-inflation, and so on. We think self-centered psychological functioning may also be considered as a part of this dynamic, thus being a member of Generation Me may be one of the major risk factors for narcissistic personality traits and disorder [2, 12].

Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is a personality disorder in which there is a long-term pattern of abnormal behavior characterized by a grandiose self-view, unrealistic sense of entitlement, exaggerated feelings of self-importance, and a lack of understanding of others’ feelings [13, 14]. Narcissists who consider themselves to be superior to others, and also have unrealistic expectations for the future, become angry and aggressive when in trouble, take more resources for themselves and leave less for others, and value money, fame, and image over family, helping others, and community. Though narcissism has some benefits, like public speaking, it has lots of adverse effects on human mood and behavior and comorbidities with psychological disorders [15].

Selfless functioning

The principle of “harmony” has a primary role in the selflessly functioning individual; harmony directs all mental activities (conation, motivation, attention, emotion, cognition, behavior). Harmony and emotional stability are associated with empathy, benevolence, compassion, and deep respect; all of these have a beneficial effect on behavior and a reduction of psychological distress [2]. Many studies have revealed the results of altruism on happiness and health and have consistently found a deep and intimate connection between altruism and current and future health and well-being.

References

1. Dambrun, M., & Ricard, M. (2011). Self-centeredness and selflessness: A theory of self-based psychological functioning and its consequences for happiness. Review of General Psychology, 15 (2), 138-157.
2. Dambrun M. Self-centeredness and selflessness: happiness correlates and mediating psychological processes. Hung T-M, ed. PeerJ. 2017; 5:e3306. doi:10.7717/peerj.3306.
3. Laborit (1979) Laborit H. L’inhibition de l’action: biologie, physiologie, psychologie, sociologie. Edition Masson; Paris: 1979.
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5. Jean M. Twenge The Evidence for Generation Me and Against Generation We Vol 1, Issue 1, pp. 11 – 16,First published date: March-01-20131177/2167696812466548
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8. Miller et al. (1996) Miller TQ, Smith TW, Turner CW, Guijarro ML, Hallet AJ. A meta-analytic review of research on hostility and physical health. Psychological Bulletin. 1996;119:322–348. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.322. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
9. “altruism (n .)”.Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
10. Cacioppo JT, Chen HY, Cacioppo S. Reciprocal Influences Between Loneliness and Self-Centeredness: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis in a Population-Based Sample of African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian Adults. Pers Soc Psychol Bull.2017 Aug;43(8):1125-1135. doi: 10.1177/0146167217705120. Epub 2017 Jun 13.
11. Twenge JM. Generation Me: Why today’s young Americans are more confident, assertive, entitled—And more miserable than ever before. New York: Free Press; 2006.
12. PubMed Caligor, E; Levy, KN; Yeomans, FE (May 2015). “Narcissistic personality disorder: diagnostic and clinical challenges.”. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 172 (5): 415–22. PMID25930131. doi:1176/appi.ajp.2014.14060723
13. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5(5th ed.). Washington [etc.]: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp. 645, 669–72.
14. Cai H, Shi Y, Fang X, Luo YLL. Narcissism predicts impulsive buying: phenotypic and genetic evidence. Frontiers in Psychology. 2015;6:881. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00881.
15. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5(5th ed.). Washington [etc.]: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp. 645, 669–72.

Being a native Indian tree, the Moringa also grows in tropical countries, such as Nigeria. Although its leaves have long been eaten or brewed for health benefits, its effectiveness has not yet been recognized in other parts of the world. Often called the “miracle plant,” there has been a significant amount of research done on the therapeutic properties of the moringa, and this research will hopefully spread knowledge of its healing qualities.

The literature mentions its antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties. Its leaves contain high-quality protein, and the seeds have lipid (fat) in abundance [1]. That is why moringa has a great deal of calcium, potassium, sodium, and iron [2]. It is claimed that moringa has twelve times more vitamin C than oranges, ten times more vitamin A than carrots, seventeen times more calcium than milk, nine times more protein than yogurt, and twenty-five times more iron than spinach.

Moringa is used to treat more than 300 illnesses, especially in Africa. The ancient Egyptians used it as skin cream. Since then, more and more of its cosmetic benefits have been discovered, and it has found a unique place among health-care products today [3]. Moringa is used to accelerate hair growth; treat illnesses such as excessive hair oil, dandruff, and inflammation of the scalp; treat skin wrinkles, blackheads, and pimples in the skin; and to manage eczema and psoriasis. To determine the plant’s ultimate effectiveness, more research and lab work are needed.

After oil extraction, moringa’s seeds and leftovers are used as an organic fertilizer which increases farming efficiency [4]. The seeds, leaves, oil, sap, shells, roots, and flowers are also used for cooking and treatment. The leaves of the plant can be brewed as tea and can be eaten raw as a vegetable.

More than 400 studies carried out over many years have looked into moringa’s effects on illnesses [5]. The significant findings can be summarized as follows: it has been shown to strongly reduce [6] cholesterol and blood fat as well as the atherosclerotic plaques; this effect can even be achieved with the oral consumption of the plant. When peeled, the moringa fruit’s shell reveals a soft white seed, like a chickpea-sized cotton. The seed can be consumed by swallowing it. The moringa’s roots and branches can be grounded and used as powder.

The studies have also revealed that moringa’s usage can help with improving numerous conditions, including but not limited to liver infections such as hepatitis [7], lowering the glucose levels in blood in patients with Diabetes Type-2 [8], various gastrointestinal problems, increasing milk production in nursing mothers, regulating kidney functions, Parkinson’s disease [9], and atopic dermatitis [10].

Some of the studies carried out examine how safe moringa is. People have a general inclination towards consuming natural plants without paying attention to how much they intake. Unfortunately, there are many life threatening and poisonous plants – and other plants that can be dangerous when taken in large quantities. Trying to identify the safety range of moringa, a study that lasted for 14 days examined the effects of it on mice that had depression and used anti-depressants. Researchers found out that moringa does not cause toxicity, provided that the dose does not exceed 2 grams per 2.2 pounds of weight [11]. It would be wise to utilize this plant after the testing process has been completed on humans, and a guide is prepared to show the types of illnesses and the corresponding doses.

Illness is a fact of life. Thankfully, the universe has been created with plants like moringa, which can be used to ease our pains and illnesses. We owe it to ourselves, and to other humans, to study all facets of the universe, including the moringa plant.

References

1. Stohs SJ, Hartman MJ. Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Moringa oleifera. Phytother Res. 2015 Jun;29(6):796-804.
2. Raimunda S, Nogueira B, Jamille AS et al. Research advances on the multiple uses of Moringa oleifera: A sustainable alternative for socially neglected population. Asian Pac J Trop Med 2017;10:621-30.
3. Fahey J. Moringa oleifera: a review of the medical evidence for its nutritional, therapeutic, and prophylactic properties. Trees Life J 2005;1:1-33.
4. Emmanuel SA, Emmanuel BS, Zaku, SG, Thomas SA. Biodiversity and agricultural productivity enhancement in Nigeria: Application of processed Moringa oleifera seeds for improved organic farming. Biol J N Am 2011;2:867-71.
5. Matic I1, Guidi A2, Kenzo M3, Mattei M2, Galgani A2, Investigation of medicinal plants traditionally used as dietary supplements: A review on Moringa oleifera. J Public Health Afr. 2018 Dec 21;9(3):841. doi: 10.4081/jphia.2018.841. eCollection 2018 Dec 21.
6. Chumark P, Khunawat P, Sanvarinda Y, et al. The in vitro and ex vivo antioxidant properties, hypolipidaemic and antiatherosclerotic activities of water extract of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves. J Ethnopharmacol 2008;116:439-46.
7. Almatrafi MM, Vergara-Jimenez M, Murillo AG, et al. Moringa Leaves Prevent Hepatic Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Guinea Pigs by Reducing the Expression of Genes Involved in Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci 2017;18:E1330.
8. Kumari DJ. Hypoglycaemic effect of Moringa oleifera and Azadirachta indica in type 2 diabees mellitus. Bioscan 2010;5:211-4.
9. Giacoppo S, Rajan TS, De Nicola GR, et al. The Isothiocyanate Isolated from Moringa oleifera Shows Potent Anti- Inflammatory Activity in the Treatment of Murine Subacute Parkinson’s Disease. Rejuvenation Res 2017;20:50-63.
10. Choi EJ, Debnath T, Tang Y, et al. Topical application of Moringa oleifera leaf extract ameliorates experimentally induced atopic dermatitis by the regulation of Th1/Th2/Th17 balance. Biomed Pharmacother 2016;84:870- 7.
11. Kaur G1, Invally M1, Sanzagiri R1, Buttar HS2. Evaluation of the antidepressant activity of Moringa oleifera alone and in combination with fluoxetine. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2015 Oct-Dec;6(4):273-9. doi: 10.4103/0975-9476.172384.