Diabetes is one of the most serious public health risks today. The United Nations declared diabetes as a global threat in 2007 in order to highlight just how widespread and destructive diabetes had become.

Diabetes is one of the oldest known diseases, and was even mentioned in the ancient Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese texts. Ancient Egyptian texts defined diabetics as “… so thirsty that if they drank all the water of the Nile, their thirst would still not be quenched.” The ancient Indian and Chinese texts mention insects and flies swarming over the urine discharged by the diabetics.

Ancient scientists Al-Razi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) made important findings about diabetes. Al-Razi linked diabetes with obesity and nutrition habits. Ibn Sina specified that no tissues or organs could survive diabetes, which additionally caused sexual dysfunctions and gangrenes.

There are two main problems that emerge in relation to diabetes:

• Type 1: Lack of adequate secretion of the insulin hormones from the pancreas
• Type 2: Non-functional and insulin-resistant tissues, regardless of adequate insulin secretion

These two types do not coexist in one patient. The first occurs mostly among children or young people. The second occurs mostly among the elderly who largely contract diabetes due to obesity. Diabetes can be detected by a surge of sugar in the blood and urine. If blood sugar exceeds a certain limit then sugar will appear in urine.

Diabetes reveals itself by a surge of sugar in the blood and the urine. It not only impairs the sugar balance of the body, but also disrupts the fat and protein metabolism. Cells fail to absorb sugar, fats, and amino acids, which in turn increases sugar, fat, and amino acid levels in the bloodstream. It can plainly be said that diabetes complications originate from an increase in fat levels, not sugar levels, in the blood. Additionally, diabetic disorders in fat metabolism cause the lethal appearance of acid levels in the blood (acidosis) and vascular stiffness (arteriosclerosis). Decrease in protein-synthesis ability among patients with long-term diabetes leads to depletion of tissues and multiple cellular dysfunctions. Consequently, diabetes originating from insulin deficiency disrupts the fat and protein metabolism along with the sugar metabolism.

The pancreatic gland is where insulin is released in our body. The surgical removal of this gland in experimental animals showed that fat levels in their bloodstreams increased faster than sugar levels. In diabetics, fat around the abdomen and hips oozes into the bloodstream, thus leading to an increase in neutral fat (triglyceride) and cholesterol levels in the blood along with an accumulation of fat in the liver.

If fats remain in the bloodstream after nutrition, then they begin to adhere to vein walls which can cause clogging and stiffness in blood vessels. That is why it is crucial to transfer fat from the bloodstream to fat storage around the abdomen and hips by means of sugar and insulin. The storage fat is called neutral oil, or triglyceride. A triglyceride molecule contains three units of oil and one unit of sugar. Therefore, almost 25% of the fat storage is sugar. Without sugar supply from bloodstream, as in the case of diabetes, the cells which by default store fat are unable to do so. Diabetes, as a serious disorder, even reverses this mechanism: fats start moving from the storage to the bloodstream, not from the bloodstream to the storage. This causes the surge of all fats including the triglycerides, cholesterol and phospholipids, and this is when the body becomes even more prone to disease.

Obesity or excessively fat-based (steatopygic) diet is one of the main causes of diabetes. People are already overweight before the disorder strikes. However, if they do not receive treatment after contracting diabetes, the diabetics start losing weight quickly and more than they should. This happens because relatively harmless fats in storage start to dissolve into the bloodstream.

The entity called metabolic acidosis, which can cause coma and death in diabetics, actually originates from the surge of fat products in the blood and the liver, not from the surge in blood sugar. In diabetics, when the cells cannot use sugar, they resort to obtaining their energy from fats. Consequently, stored fats start to dissolve and ooze into the bloodstream. Fats traveling to the liver through the bloodstream turn into acidic substances called ketone bodies (acetoacetic acid, beta hydroxy butyric acid, and acetone). These acidic substances pass from the liver to the bloodstream and are received by the cells to meet their energy needs. However, in diabetics, cells cannot convert these acidic fat products i.e. ketone bodies, into energy. Oxaloacetic acid from sugars is required for the energy production cycle called the Krebs cycle. In short, humans need sugar to burn fat. This is why it is normal for some people to feel the need to eat something sweet after a fatty meal, because they need sugar to dissolve the fats in their bloodstreams. Since the cells cannot draw sugar from the blood, they suffer from the deficiency of oxaloacetic acid to convert fats into energy. Fats and ketone bodies teem in the bloodstream and, since ketone bodies are acidic, they can cause acidity levels to surge to extremely high levels in the bloodstream which can result in a coma or even sudden death. The lethal substances here are not sugars but ketone bodies, or fat products.

The most crucial abnormality caused by diabetes is vascular stiffness (arteriosclerosis), which originates not from excess sugar but excess fat in the bloodstream. In diabetics, triglyceride, cholesterol, and phospholipid levels increase in the bloodstream due to the reasons described earlier. Fats in the bloodstream do not circulate freely; they are carried in micro-droplets called lipoprotein. The liver loads the fats onto lipoprotein “trucks” and sets them into the bloodstream to be used by the cells. However, due to insulin deficiency in diabetics, lipoproteins cannot empty their shipments of fat into fat storages. The most dangerous lipoproteins for vascular stiffness are classified as LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and HDL (high-density lipoprotein) types. HDLs are like empty trucks specially produced by the liver, which dispatches them into the bloodstream. While circulating in the bloodstream, these “trucks” collect the fat and cholesterol stuck on the vein walls like magnets and, after cleaning the inner vein walls, they return as loaded trucks back to the liver. Using the HDL “trucks,” the liver removes fat from the bloodstream. Physicians gauge the LDL and HDL levels while checking their patients for the risk of vascular stiffness. An increase or decrease in LDL rate is not good for patients, whereas high HDL rate is a positive sign.

Other causes of vascular stiffness include lack of exercise, sedentary life and work habits, smoking, alcohol consumption, obesity, overconsuming foods rich in animal fat, and high blood pressure. Vascular stiffness is one of the leading causes of cardiac dilatation (enlarged heart), cardiac insufficiency (heart failure), and heart attack. In addition to these complications, vascular stiffness may also lead to high blood pressure, cerebral hemorrhage, paralysis, kidney failure, and vascular occlusion in the brain or other organs. If not treated, almost all of these disorders result in death.

Diabetics should follow an effective treatment regime to keep their blood sugar level under control. Fasting is known to be beneficial for controlling blood sugar. If blood sugar is normal, the fats in the bloodstream will move to the storage and not damage the blood vessels. Among the elderly and the obese diabetics, any damage originating from high blood sugar does not surface immediately, and this may mislead patients. It is extremely crucial to check blood sugar in order not to fall into this error. Treatment should never be neglected. If blood sugar can be effectively reduced, it is not right to give up sugar completely in the diet. As mentioned earlier, humans need sugar for storing fats or converting fats (or ketones) into energy in the Krebs cycle.

In short, high blood fat is a more serious cause of diabetes than high blood sugar.

Gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is among the most common chronic diseases in the Western world, affecting up to 30% of the general population in Europe and the US. It is a condition which develops when the acidic contents of the stomach flow backwards into the esophagus and cause what’s known as heartburn. While most patients respond well to the standard therapy of proton pump inhibitors which block acid-secreting cells in the stomach, we are still trying to understand the molecular reasons why 30-40% of reflux patients do not respond adequately to acid-suppressant therapy. Not only does GERD have a significant negative impact on health-related quality of life, but the over-subscription of ineffective drugs causes a significant economic burden on healthcare.

Heartburn is the most noticeable and troublesome symptom of GERD. From what we currently understand about the pathophysiology of the disease, we know that the reflux of acid evokes different types of pain, but the basic mechanisms and pathways by which this pain is generated is incompletely understood. The junction between the esophagus and stomach is structurally and functionally designed in a way to ensure that any acid secreted in the gastrointestinal tract flows towards the stomach, and not up onto the lining of the esophagus. This function is served by the muscle structure sitting at this junction, called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES), which ensures that the ingested food following a meal does not reflux. However, there are several factors which can make the LES’s job more difficult. One of the most obvious factors includes the excessive consumption of food, particularly during the later hours of the day. There is convincing evidence that 90% of reflux episodes occur post-prandially, due to minor elevations of intragastric pressure which causes the LES to relax and therefore allow the reflux of acid. In more advanced cases of reflux disease, acid pockets form at the gastroesophageal junction where unbuffered acid collects into a reservoir. When the LES fails in this setting, there is reflux of a higher volume of acid.

Focusing on the microscopic structure of the esophagus and stomach, we can see a minute yet essential difference between the linings of these two gastrointestinal organs. The esophagus has a stratified squamous epithelial lining, which acts as a tight protective barrier against food but is readily damaged when exposed to a chemical environment. On the other hand, the stomach is lined by tall columnar epithelium, which is designed to withstand very low pH and high levels of proteolytic activity. Our gastrointestinal tract (and the human body in its entirety) is perfectly designed to carry out the specific role of transporting food from the oral cavity from the esophagus to the stomach, where it is digested for our nourishment. It is oftentimes our greediness and overindulgence which disrupt the perfect order of our anatomy at a molecular level, resulting in the macroscopic changes we see at endoscopy and the symptomatic discomfort we feel from the painful circumstances of reflux. 

The stomach is our center of nourishment. Given that every food particle has the purpose of nourishing the cells of our body, why do we so commonly make the mistake of eating excessively, nocturnally, and quickly? Fatty foods influence the relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter, along with alcohol, coffee, and acidic drinks. Large meals and rapid food intake distend the stomach, increase intragastric pressure and facilitating the reflux of acid from the stomach. Given these, it is plain to see that, in most cases, simple lifestyle changes can prevent the development of such chronic and discomforting diseases. The following verse in the Holy Qur’an offers a short but very effective prescription: “Eat and drink, but do not be wasteful” (7:31).

The philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (Avicenna) summarized the science of medicine as follows: “Eat little when you eat, and after eating do not eat again for a certain period of time; health lies in digestion. There is nothing heavier for the body to tolerate than putting food after food in the stomach.” Frugality in eating is also echoed in the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, who famously said “There is no vessel which the son of Adam can fill more evil than his stomach, for it is sufficient for him to take a few mouthfuls in order to straighten his back; but if he must, then fill one-third with food, one-third with drink, and one-third with air” (Tirmidhi).

The lifestyle factors that are strongly associated with GERD are obesity and smoking. In the 30-40% of GERD patients who do not respond to acid-suppressant therapy, simple lifestyle changes such as cutting out acidic drinks and eating more slowly, and not after 7 pm have been effective alternative treatments. While our understanding of molecular pain mechanisms of the esophagus need further improvement, the simple act of making minor changes in our eating habits can ensure that the anatomy and function of our gastrointestinal tract remains optimal.

Despite that, there are more than 100 types of amino acids found in nature; only 20 of them are employed for protein synthesis. Among these 20 amino acids, excepting glycine, which does not display chirality, only the L-form of the 19 is used for protein synthesis. This is because ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs, do not feature the utilization of D-form amino acids. As nothing in the universe exists in vain but with multiple tasks, D-amino acids have a job in the maintenance of life after protein synthesis in very different fashions. The way D-amino acids are employed in the execution and control of physiological preferences amazes scientists.

Up until recent times, D-amino acids were believed to be synthesized mostly by bacteria and plants, unlike mammals, and were considered dysfunctional as they passed, via consumption of nutrients, from bacteria and plants. However when D-amino acids were noticed for having roles as important as L-amino acids during the 1990s, the field gained significance. It was demonstrated that D-amino acids were found widely in invertebrates, vertebrates, and humans as free forms or inside proteins, undertaking critical functions in the nervous and endocrine systems. The most interesting point is the conversion of amino acids from the L-form into the D-form after the protein synthesis occurs in the peptides that are present in the venomous secretions of various animals. This conversion leads to the alteration of the peptide identity and function. Racemase and isomerase (epimerase) enzymes are utilized as they are created for this task. Usually, one or two amino acids of the D-form peptides are in D-form.

When chemist Gunther Kreil of the Austrian Academy of Sciences learned about the use of South American poisonous tree frogs (Phyllomedusa sauvagei ) during Shamanic hunting ceremonies by local Peruvian tribe (Matses), he studied this poison in detail. Participants of the ceremony first caused a burn on their chest region, then applied the poison they obtained from the frog skin over it. Diarrhea and tachycardia started within a minute, followed by a brief faintness. Once they recovered after a few minutes, they were to find themselves in a much more vigorous and exhilarated state of mind. The poison they were applying to their chest contained the dermorphin peptide, which has psychoactive, hallucinogenic effects and a D-amino acid. This peptide is a pain killer 30-40 times more effective than morphine. Among the 7 amino acids found in this peptide (heptapeptide), all are in L-form, except for one. Only the alanine, as the second in the peptide sequence, is in D-form and is produced via the isomerase enzyme from the L-alanine after the protein synthesis. G. Kreil discovered this D-form synthesizing enzyme in 2005. When this peptide was synthesized artificially in the laboratory, it did not display any biological activity or hallucinogenic effect. After a careful investigation of the case, it was found that frog skin based peptide had a D-form alanine second in its sequence; however, the one produced in laboratory had an L-form alanine. It was the presence of only one D-amino acid that made the difference in discovering the identity and function to the natural peptide in the poison.

In recent years dermorphin has started to be used as an illegal performance enhancer during horse races because of its pain killer feature. Horses on dermorphin can run longer and faster since they cannot feel the pain related to foot fatigue.

P. Kuchel of Sydney University also showed a D-amino acid presence in the peptide structured of the poison in the Platypus, a semiaquatic egg-laying mammal. Males use this poison as a weapon to fend off competitors. In 2009, Matthew Waldor and his friends at Harvard University discovered that the sugar-protein mix (matrix) called peptidoglycan found in the composition of bacterial cell walls is structured in a way to contain primarily D-alanine, D-methionine, and D-leucine. More interestingly, D-amino acids of the peptidoglycan structure were able to play a stimulatory role in coordinating the activities of other bacteria in the colony. For example, they acted as light houses in the use of florescence and helped in the formation of thin layers (bio-films) on various surfaces in bacteria. Once we understand the way D-amino acids help in communication between bacteria, it will be possible to use them as a drug. It’s possible they can be used to disintegrate bacteria that forms on teeth, in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients, on clogs in fuel lines and water tanks, and in medical devices such as catheters.

D-amino acid containing peptides found in lobsters help maintain salinity levels and facilitate courtship in mating seasons. In recent years, D-amino acid containing antimicrobial peptides were discovered (bombinines) in the secretion glands of fire-bellied toad skins (Bombina sp). In this peptide, the second amino acid was in the D-form (D-allo-isoleucine). Two different peptides were found containing D-amino acids in the second position of the amino acid sequence of the poison secreted by Platypus males.

One of the reasons for D-amino acids to exist in animal poisons is that peptides containing D-Amino acids can not be easily degraded by the proteases (peptide bond breaking enzyme) of the host or opponents. Even though proteases can quickly and easily digest proteins composed of L-form amino acids, they struggle to do so with peptide bonds between D and L form amino acids. Pharmaceutical companies are trying to add D-amino acids to the peptide-structured drugs to prevent the quick degradation of peptides and proteins used for treatments when ingested. However, the addition of a D-form amino acid brings the high possibility of a situation that changes the function of a peptide or protein, or causes the loss of a protein. Nonetheless, specialists in this field point out that at least some amount of the D-amino acids that are produced by trillions of bacteria found on the skin, in the digestive track, and among other parts of the body can still be utilized for human health and convenience.

The D-serine of the mammalian nerve systems (glial cells and neurons), the D-aspartate of the neuro-endcorine, endocrine tissues, and testicles, and the D-alanine and D-aspartate amino acids of aquatic animals are abundant. D-Serine in the brain is synthesized by the conversion of L-serine into D-serine by the serine racemase enzyme. D-aspartate is in charge of hormone synthesis and secretion, and the regulation of spermatogenesis, and is produced by aspartate racemase and degraded by D-aspartate oxidase. It is also predicted to play role in the synthesis of hormones such as melatonin and testosterone.

As of now, four enzymes have been detected to be in charge of D-amino acid metabolism in mammals. How these are controlled is still unknown.

Publications pertaining to the association of epilepsy, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorders with enzymes in charge of D-amino acid synthesis and break down have increased in recent years. From this point of view, serine racemase and D-amino oxidase can be used to develop new potential drugs regarding the treatment of similar NMDA receptor associated diseases.

The first data demonstrating the use of D-amino acids in saliva in organs outside of the human brain was obtained by Y. Nagata and his team at the University of Nihon, Tokyo. A team led by Kenji Hamase of the Kyushu University discovered high levels of D-alanine storage in the beta cells of the rat pancreas. Kuchel, who discovered the enzymes converting the L-amino acids in to D forms in duck-billed Platypus poison, also found similar enzymes in the hearts of mice and humans. According to Kuchel, the physiological roles of those in humans remain to be unknown.

As a result, the common feature of toxins and antimicrobial peptides that are produced and secreted by animals is to contain D-amino acid. These peptides can be the source of a potential drug in the treatment of diseases such as cystic fibrosis, schizophrenia, and macular degeneration of the eye.

These prove that, especially in biology, exceptions are common; life is enriched via examples of extraordinary lives, processes, and mechanisms in unexpected places by unpredictable molecules or interesting reactions that can’t be predicted. Such discoveries help deepen our wonder at the intricacy and wisdom of creation.

Organic substances in the soil go through oxidative decomposition depending on factors such as temperature, air, humidity, and pH balance. This is a slow burning (oxidation) event of organic substances. However, oxidative decay is hindered if one of the aforementioned factors is lacking. Then, a slow decay of organic materials in soil called humification takes place.

Humification occurs in an open system in contact with air. For example, early chemical processes start with leaves changing color in autumn. The break down and partial ingestion of leaves by soil organisms follows. During this time, water soluble carbohydrates and proteins leave the leaf tissue. What remains behind are plant structures like cellulose and lignin, which are not broken down yet. Since leaf shapes are not completely deformed, species identification can still be possible at this stage. In the decay step, however, the cellulose and lignin are decomposed by various fungi species and converted to humus.

Humic substances and their properties

Humic substances are intermediate products that occur as the result of organic materials going through a series of chemical reactions. These intermediate products are humic acid, fulvic acid, and humate. Their molecular weights are around 1.000-10.000 gr/mol, 10.000-100.000 gr/mol, and 100.000-10.000.000 gr/mol, respectively. Humic acids contain weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids that are soluble in water when it has a base medium but insoluble under acidic conditions.

Fulvic acids with smaller size molecular structures can reach plant roots, branches, and leaves easily because they are soluble in water under all pH conditions (acidic, neutral, and basic). Thus, trace elements such as iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and boron can be easily transported to plant tissues via fulvic acid.

Humates, however, are insoluble in water. Only the portion of a humate called ulmic acid can dissolve in alcohol.

Major functions have been assigned to humic matter in the nutrient and carbon cycle, as they are inseparable members of the ecosystem. Plants capture significantly more nutrients from humic matter than from clay minerals. Even though they can be depleted from soil by certain agricultural practices in less than 50 years, they can still remain in natural soils, outside human activity, for hundreds or even thousands of years without being degraded. This very long presence in soil enables them to continue their functions longer. According to radiocarbon dating, humates can last approximately 1140 years; and humic acid and fulvic acid last for 1235 and 870 years, respectively, in natural soils.

Positively charged nutritious elements (cations) remain in the soil by binding to negatively charged (anions) in humic matter. Because this bond is weak, useful elements for the plant can easily be exchanged with another cation, becoming free and getting absorbed by the plant. On the other side, cations such as iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and calcium, which are hazardous to plants when taken excessively, are held in the soil, bound to humic matter and thus not causing toxicity.

Another significant feature of humic and fulvic acid is their ability to form water bridges. Water bridges facilitate the movement of nutrient ions towards roots via soil solutions.

Aside from agriculture, humic matter, with its aforementioned properties, serve humankind in the industrial, environmental, and biomedical fields.

Industrial and environmental applications

Humic matter is utilized in the staining of leather works, as wood lining paint (natural blue color), as well as water based stripping material for furniture stains. Humic matter is also used in the production of durable, resistant papers in the paper industry, to provide mechanical strength to processed ceramics, and as an additive. It is also applied as a coloring, hardening, and plasticizing agent in plastic fabrication.

Humic and fulvic acids gain significance regarding their ability to form water soluble substances with many metal compounds containing radioactive elements in their structure.

In environmental chemistry, the main role of the humic matter is to remove toxic substances, human sourced organic chemical matter, and other pollutants from water. Calcium humate, obtained from humic matter, can bind and remove nickel, iron, cadmium, and copper in addition to radioactive elements produced at nuclear power plants from water.

Humus based filters are designed to treat sewage water and mud waste. Oils, stains, poisonous phenolic substances, and pesticides are removed from sewage via these materials. In poultry, humic substances are employed to absorb and eliminate the odor of waste gases.

Biomedical applications

Drugs for the treatment of human and animal diseases are developed from humic matter. These can be used for the treatment of viral and bacterial illnesses, in the prevention of blood clots, to cure infections, and to remedy estrogen deficiencies. Clinical studies have shown that common viral diseases of children’s respiratory tracks can be treated with fulvic acid supplements. A lot of medical research has shown that humic matter, especially fulvic acids, have the ability to provide protection against cancer causing viruses. In a study, laboratory mice were given ethanol to trigger gastritis and it was determined that humic acids supplied to mice led to a significant reduction in the harm gastritis caused. The fact that humic acids can form compounds with heavy metals, such as cadmium, enables the excretion of heavy metals from organisms.

In our universe there is no place for waste. Once every particle completes its task, it is returned in a different fashion to be assigned another job. Humification is a good example to this reassignment as a complex recycling event in the soil. It is amazing to observe everything being generated from one thing and everything converted into one thing so easily and in such a crafty, balanced, and organized fashion. In fact, the power and wisdom behind the conversion of the remains of millions of different organisms into a few similar substances to be employed in different tasks are no less amazing.

Brown and red algae are salt water organisms. These plants grow on rocky shores or in oceans with a rocky bottom. In quiet areas free of excessive waves they can live for up to 15 years. These can be utilized for the special polysaccharides in their bodies. That’s why they are commercially significant. For example, alginic acid and alginates obtained from brown algae can be used in many fields, from the food industry to the medical field, from cosmetics to paper and textiles. An algae species (Macrocystis Pyrifera) that can be found both in North and South America, New Zealand, Australia, and off the African coast is the primary source for the world’s production of alginic acid and alginate. In 2009, 26500 tons of alginate was produced, primarily by the countries of Scotland, Norway, China, and the USA.

Alginic acid is a macro molecule synthesized from mannuronic and gluronic acid molecules. Because of its hydrophilic property, the Na and K salts of alginic acid are used in providing homogeneity to frozen food during defrosting, preventing food decay related to instant temperature spikes, increasing viscosity, preparing jelly like deserts, and stabilizing fruit juices and ice cream. For similar reasons, Alginates are utilized in paper quality enhancement, and the advanced application of ink in glues and in pressed textile products, where they improve the flow of dye. Alginates are also used in cosmetic products, in production of waterproof or fireproof textiles, and in some synthetic dyes because they improve viscosity..

One of the most important uses of alginates is in the medical field. Many people suffer from stomach burn and acid reflux disease. In these treating these symptoms, the percentage of a prescribed medicine containing alginic acid content is 100 %, because in the case of acid reflux, alginic acid contains a preventive property, and antacids. This antacid neutralizes stomach acid. Alginic acid, however, reacts with saliva and Na Bicarbonate ion to produce foam in the upper stomach. In the case of a reflux, this foam barrier prevents the escape of acidic stomach content into esophagus.

According to a study conducted in England in 2010 about obesity treatments, alginic acid added natural fiber and was found to reduce lipid intake 75% in the intestines.

The absorption and removal of drugs in the stomach and intestines plays an important role in ensuring drugs act as intended. For instance a blood clog in a pulmonary vein can be transported to the lungs and may have fatal consequences (a pulmonary emboli). In order to prevent that, low molecular weight, heparin containing, drugs are used. The polymeric alginate beads in these drugs have been found to improve drug efficiency up to 80-90 %. In this kind of controlled release of drugs and enzymes, the use of polymeric alginate additives provides high efficiency.

A new kind of antimicrobial textile that does not stick to wounds is made from the silver coated fibers of an Alginate-carboxymethyl cellulose mixture. This fabric not only provides protection against infections but also, with its non-stick property, prevents traumas; and its high hydrophillic feature allows open wounds to heal faster.

Everything in the universe is beautiful, either directly, by itself, or indirectly, by its consequences. Algae, which many of us dislike, is in fact a great work of art as it is a source of food, a decoration of the seas, and is used to cure various diseases.

Why is this surface area so large? What could the wisdom behind it be? Tiny endoplasmic canals play a role in inner cell transportation and distribution of matter. ER is the organized industry district in the cell. Most of the factories of molecules produced by chemical reactions are found here. ER is the production spot in the cells of proteins and hormones. Consequently, a broad surface area is very necessary and important.

Different degrees (pH) of acid are necessary for each reaction. However, because the acid necessary for one reaction can negatively affect the other reactions, thousands of opposite, intricate and different reactions take place. For this reason, membrane surface areas need to be wide. Sometimes hundreds of protein molecules are produced in just a second in a cell. The rapid and flawless lining up side-by-side of tens, hundreds or thousands of amino acids can only be achieved with a knowledge and power that surpasses these very small structures.

Wrapping the inside of the cell like a web and forming a buffer against mechanical effects, ER is responsible for establishing the flexibility and soundness of the cell. In muscle cells, ER takes the name Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR), which has a very important duty in the contraction of muscles. The size of the surface area of SR in the muscles of the structural frame is proportionate to the speed of muscle contraction. Consequently, there is more SR in muscle cells where there is rapid contraction. SR also serves as a calcium depot in muscle cells. Normally calcium is a deadly poison for the cell, and for this reason it is kept out of the cell. The concentration of calcium outside the cell is 10,000 times more than it is inside the cell. However, SR stores calcium in the cell in its own body. Thus, it both prevents the cell from being harmed and it provides the necessary calcium for contraction.

ER has the duty of eliminating the poison in the liver cells from the body by means of gall. For example, jaundice-causing bilirubin is a deadly poison for the brain especially in newborn babies. If jaundice is not treated, motor loss (paralysis) and intelligence loss can result from brain damage. Bilirubin and glucuronic acid combine by means of some enzymes on the surface of ER in the liver and are thrown into the gall bladder. In this way ER plays an important role in making foreign matter harmless and in reducing the side affects of medications to a minimum. Babies’ sensitivity to some medications during the first three months of life is due to ER’s not yet being developed enough to eliminate their harmful effects.

If it is taken into consideration that all of these mechanisms exist in human, animal and plant cells, it can be clearly seen that a broad and complex structure in such a small volume and its many functions can only have been placed there by the All-Powerful whose knowledge, wisdom, artistry, will and power permeate every moment and every spot.

Celaloglu is a freelance writer from Turkey with a degree in biology.

Imagine: I have just been cooked, and I am now waiting on a dish. Oh, what’s that? A metal thing with four prongs has just stuck itself into my chest, and it threw me into a shaking room with a gate moving up and down. There are, in this room, 32 flat and occluding rocks, some of which are sharp, while some are like millstones, all being lined up in a U-shape row. The frontal rocks have divided me into large pieces by squeezing and cutting. My pieces are pushed backwards by a soft shovel underneath. The rear rocks have made me almost like a paste, thoroughly mashing my pieces. Meanwhile, many taps on the right and left sides and in bottom of the room began flushing water upon me, and the carbohydrates within me have began dissolving by the pityalin enzyme (alpha amilaz) in this water. The flushing water contains substances such as lyzozym and antichore to eliminate any probable microbes within me.

I was fully softened and turned into something almost like gruel, when suddenly I was impelled by the actions of that soft shovel to an extremely tight tube inside of which movements continuously push me downward. A gate opened while I was being brought down and, as I was hoping to enter into a more spacious room and be saved from the compressive movements, I suddenly flopped into a well containing a light-colored liquid. I have come to know, while I was expecting to have some refreshment, that the liquid I flopped into was an acid capable of eroding marble (pH=0,8). I cried ‘Oh My God!’, but it was too late. This acid began to break my proteins down. The pepsinogen which was simultaneously being secreted by some cells over the walls of this large room and which were ineffective within an acid-free environment, became instantly activated by this acid and began to thoroughly break me up. Most of my proteins were broken. While I was wondering and asking ‘how come the liquid I flopped into is capable of eroding the marble but not capable of breaking up this well?’, I have come to notice that walls of the well were coated with a thin layer of mucous substance (membrane) which is unbreakable by acids.

I said ‘Oh My God! As long as you do not permit, these acids, which can erod marble, are not capable of damaging a soft tissue!’. Together with other foodstuff, I have been both blended and broken in this well-like room for about an hour. Later, the outer walls have again squeezed us, and we have been ejected yet again, this time into a new tube at an opposite direction to the one we were just pushed out of, by a sudden loosening and opening of a valve. This tube (called duodenum in Latin) has a length of about 15-18 cm and, appears as if lined up side by side. Here too, we felt wretched and were faced by a basic secretion (sodium bicarbonate) being ejaculated from a tap. This liquid was inactivating (neutralizing) the acids mixed with us, i.e., preventing them from damaging the unprotected walls of the tube which we were in.

Here again the amylaz, lipaz, trypsin, kymotrypsin and carbocsypolypeptidas attacked me, all of which break up, in a respective order, carbohydrates, fats and proteins of my ingredients, along with a lot many other enzymes, and they broke me up to my smallest constituents. Meanwhile, I started pondering the reasons why these enzymes, which are making mincemeat of me, are not damaging the tap (pancreas), which are composed of the same proteins, fats and carbohydrates that they come from. Then, I have come to realize that these enzymes could not become activated in pancreas tissue, since it does not have any activating factors, but they gained shredder features only after we arrived in the tube we are in, and only with the help of such factors which are being secreted from the intestinal walls.

After having been fully shredded within this narrow tube, a green liquid (bile), was poured on us as we were approaching its end. This detergent-like liquid was particularly responsible for shredding the fats in my ingredients. I understood, after all of this, that I was passing through a very excellent factory. As I and my fellow meatballs proceeded inside this narrow tube of approximately three meters long, no part of us remained un-shredded, except the cellulose fibers of plants such as parsley and onion which accompanied us. They continued their journey until arriving at a very thick and short tube. I have found out that their sap have been absorbed and their leftovers, after being amassed for some time, have been thrown into a cesspool called a toilet.

In the meantime, we have noticed that the walls of this tube are plicate and protuberant. These walls are apparently the places where our particles penetrate into another realm through two different ways. We understood that, via rather thin capillary channels situated inside these protuberances, we were being transferred into narrower tubes which contained two different (red and white) types of liquids (blood and lymph vessels). Now, there isn’t ‘me’ anymore, instead, there is only an ‘us’ which is composed of very smaller particles. While glucoses, the simplest forms of carbohydrates and aminoacids, the simplest forms of proteins are being transferred into the red liquid, our fat acid siblings are transferred into the white liquid of lymph vessels. Our glucose and aminoacid siblings have been carried by the red liquid to a factory called a liver. They are being returned to the red liquid after having passed through certain processes and being equipped with some useful characteristics here. But, the fats (lymphs) of the white liquid are, for some reason or another, being separately transferred into the red liquid, bypassing this factory. I learned the reason later: if the fat acids came to the liver together with glucoses and aminoacids, they would spoil this factory and kill its workers.

Finally, the red liquid carried us to tiny cell chambers numbering almost 100 trillion. Each of our tiny particles were sent to separate cells. Here, water, carbondioxide and energy were being produced by primarily coupling of our sibling glucose with oxygen. I learned that energy was needed for the functioning of these cells. Our fat siblings were also being utilized (consumed) for producing energy if glucoses were found insufficient for that purpose. Our amino acid siblings were being utilized (consumed) in the production of sound (strong) proteins and glucoses, and of energy in cases of the unavailability of fat sources for use in the cells’ structures. Excessive amounts of fat and glucose were being stored in these tiny cells. That is to say, I, who was a meatball at the beginning, was converted into water, carbondioxide and energy at the end of this painstaking journey. I was promoted (exalted) to the degree of humanness and rewarded a great deal of honor, as some parts of me became constituent of and some other parts of me assumed responsibility in vital cell functions of the human body.

After all these disintegrations and absorptions, some parts of us took their share in the structure of the body, while some others which were used in energy production including me were converted into a choky and dirty gaseous state called carbondioxide. We have been thrown back into the red liquid again since we would perhaps choke the cells we are within should our density increase very much. We have been brought to a marvellous and sponge-like factory named a lung, and composed of millions of vesicles, by being placed onto a molecule called hemoglobin, which is being pushed by a big pump. We have replaced the oxygen of the fresh air arriving to the lung vesicles. Now is the time for bidding farewell the human body. I thanked God, for I regained my freedom as a carbondioxide passing through and escaping from very dark and narrow places.

However, I was placed upon the leaf of a green plant after aimlessly roaming in the air for some time. After being filtered through the little windows (stoma) over the leaf, I was brought inside by the chlorophyll factory marvelously functioning inside these cells. Here, they forced me to unite with the water brought by tubules from the soil. Upon telling them that I cannot afford to do that, they instantly changed my true nature with solar rays and turned met into a chemical energy depot. I was no more a simple carbon atom; thus, I found a place for myself within an energy-emiting glucose molecule. I was in a position suitably convertible to starch, protein or fats in accordance with the true nature and genetic program of the plant I was within. Something incredible happened while I was swinging around on a green clover leaf. The leaf I was in has been eaten by a cow with real pleasure.

A new chapter has now opened inside the cow’s body. I was assigned with certain duties within the muscle proteins of my new host after having passed through a number of chemical processes. And I really enjoyed them. I was feeling myself more as an animal protein than a simple grass. By leaving the grass for a cow’s body, I was promoted (exalted) one more degree on the way to becoming manifestations of the divine attributes of God.

This blessed animal in whom I was assigned has been sacrificed during a Muslim feast of sacrifice, its meat ground into a meat grinder, and I have been served to you once again as a meatball.

Ali Uguz is a teacher of biology. He lives in Turkey.

The hectic life style that many of us lead today causes stress which is likely to result in diseases of the heart or nervous system. The fast food culture has become a part of our lives due to our busy work schedules; this sort of a diet obviously causes an excess intake of fat. Office hours spent sitting on a chair without effective physical activity result in the storage of unused energy in the body. Thus, cardiovascular diseases have become one of the most common life-threatening risks for people living in developed countries. In the last five decades, much research has been devoted to investigating and preventing the risk factors that lead to coronary artery diseases.

The mushroom is a food with a rich nutritious content. Some species are known for having characteristics that are helpful in regulating the immunity system, preventing tumor formation, and reducing blood pressure without producing any known side effects. 88–91% of the physical make-up of a mushroom is water, thus fresh mushrooms are rich in proteins which can be more easily digested than many other vegetables. In addition to such proteins that are necessary for general health, mushrooms consist of B-complex vitamins and mineral materials.

Some species of mushrooms act as sources of healing in many ways. Polysaccharide-protein complexes obtained from species like Pleurotus spp., Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi), Grifola frondosa (Maitake), Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) have been found to prevent the spread of tumor cells and AIDS. It has also been discovered after research that mushrooms have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects; they are useful in the treatment of illnesses like cold, stomach and head aches, and hepatitis B; they can help reduce fatigue and sleeping problems as well as blood cholesterol levels. Mushrooms can also have a positive effect in diseases like arteriosclerosis, kidney failure and high blood pressure, as well as helping in strengthening the immunity system, thus delaying unfavorable conditions of aging.

Research has shown that mushrooms, with their B-complex vitamins, have a positive influence on the nervous system. The mushroom offers a good alternative for anemia, a disease that arises from a deficiency in folic acid and it also helps to regulate the blood sugar level. Mushrooms are often recommended for patients with liver and kidney diseases, as well as being a good source of protein for patients suffering from gout, for it causes the formation of only a small amount of uric acid at the end of the digestion metabolism. Here we provide more specific information about certain species of mushrooms:

Shiitake (lentinula edodes)

This species is cultivated and sold in Japan and China, where it is known as “the elixir of life” or “the secret of long life.” It is traditionally used in wedding meals. This mushroom is effective primarily in the prevention of apoplexy and arteriosclerosis. It is also used in many cancer research programs, due to its antitumor activity. A polysaccharide known as lentinan that is found in this species can suppress sarcoma 180, a solid type tumor, a feature that adds to the value of this mushroom. Patients are advised to consume shiitake mushrooms during chemotherapy.

In Japan, around fifty different types of enzymes have been derived from the shiitake mushroom. These enzymes include pepsin and tripsin, which are used in the treatment of some gastric diseases, as well as asparaginase, which makes up a part of leukemia treatment for children. This species is rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals. The consumption of 100 grams of fresh mushroom generates only 28 calories, thus making it a good alternative as a food that has limited energy intake. Mushrooms have only a small amount of A and E vitamins, but a large quantity of ergosterol (provitamin D2); this can change to D2 vitamin under sunlight or artificial light. D2 vitamin can adjust the phosphor and calcium balance, thereby contributing to bone and muscle development and preventing rickets. It has been found that the eritadenine compound that is contained in this mushroom reduces blood cholesterol at a rate of 25–45%. This species is known to be useful for all the health problems listed above (regulating blood circulation, apoplexy, arteriosclerosis, kidney failure, and high blood pressure; destroying bacteria, virus, pathogenic fungi).

Pleurotus spp.

This species is rich in proteins, only being surpassed by legumes. Mineral salts, like calcium, phosphor, and iron are contained in this species, in amounts that are proportionally twice as much as those found in beef or fowl. Among mushrooms, pleurotus has the highest levels of B1 vitamin (tiamin) and B2 vitamin (riboflavin).

Hemagglutinin, a substance that causes the agglutination of red blood cells, is contained in pleurotus ostreatus and pleurotus spodoleucus species. Eight of the eighteen amino acids found in pleurotus ostreatus are essential for human life. Extracts obtained from pleurotus spores trigger the formation of interferon, which is the first defense mechanism against viral infections. These spores have been found to help prevent flu and paralyses in laboratory animals.

Some mushroom species have been shown to be effective in strengthening the immune system. Chemotherapy applications used primarily in cancer and some other diseases are known to have many side effects, some of which are severe and can lead to other diseases. The toxic effects of some medications might pave the way for other infections, damaging the kidneys and liver. It is thanks to God, the Healer, that the mushroom is one among millions of other sources of healing that can be found in nature, waiting for us to discover them.

Basic nutrients for Agaricus bisporus %

Fat 0.35

Protein 3.43

Carbohydrate 3.78

Ash 0.71

Humidity 91.73

Minerals (ppm)

Zinc 5.46

Copper 1.59

Potassium 2445.50

Iron 8.73

Calcium 39.60

Chromium Iz

Phosphorus 882.30

Vitamins dissolved in water (mg/100g)

B1 (Tiamin) 0.094

B2 (Riboflavin) 0.396

Folic acid 0.078

C (Ascorbic acid) 2.29

Niasin 5.35

At the beginning, I really did not pay much attention to him. He was very small, almost invisible and harmless-looking. However, he started to reproduce all of a sudden. Now, there were billions of his copies on one of my leaves. Everything was happening so quickly. They were taking me over. Something had to be done urgently.

As plants, we cope with such environmental stresses everyday. If the stress factors affecting us are living organisms, such as bacteria, harmful insects, and weeds, we call those as biotic stresses (1). On the other hand, if we are exposed to drought, salinity, heat, cold, and deficiency or excess of a chemical in soil, those are abiotic stresses for us. Both biotic and abiotic stresses impair our growth and even lead to our death sometimes. Therefore, stress response mechanisms are very important for us. Unfortunately in the United States alone, crop losses due to plant pathogens amount to billions of dollars (2). As we are the main food resource for the humans and assigned for so many other important functions on earth by God, our health and productivity is taken very seriously by scientists. So, it is of great interest to them to find out how our defense responses against microbes work. If scientists learn what is going on when a plant is infected by pathogens thoroughly, they can introduce better resistance mechanisms into economically important crop plants via genetic engineering.

Oh “NO,” I am stressed!

Unlike animals, we are firmly attached to the ground so we can not escape from stress factors. However, thanks to God, we have fascinating defense mechanisms against environmental challenges. First of all, I need to know who this infectious agent (pathogen) is so that I can trigger a stress response mechanism against it. The interactions between me and these microbes are controlled by my receptor proteins and Pathogen-associated molecular patterns, or PAMPs, delivered by the pathogen. PAMPs help pathogen growth by suppressing my defenses and manipulating my metabolism (3).When I recognize a PAMP by my receptors, I activate a set of defense mechanisms known as the hypersensitive response (HR) to arrest and terminate pathogen growth before it terminates me (4). Just before or in conjunction with HR, I increase synthesis of several families of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins in my infected part (5).

Do you want to know what I do after I identify a pathogen? I bet you do, so I am going to tell you about the other components of my signal transduction cascade that is activated upon brutal attack of microbes (Fig. 1). One of the early steps in this signaling cascade is the elevation of cellular calcium (Ca (2+)) levels mediated by my plasma membrane and channels such as cyclic nucleotide gated channels (CNGCs). After the initial Ca(2+) increase, I activate some of my calcium-binding proteins (calmodulin or CaM) and protein kinases, which modify other proteins by chemically adding phosphate groups to them, and ultimately I generate nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) (6). ROS function as signaling molecules that coordinate a wide range of diverse plant processes, such as growth, development, stress adaptation, and cell self-destruction (programmed cell death) (7). However, the real reason I produce ROS under attack is to use them as local toxins to form unfavorable conditions for pathogen growth and reproduction. NO plays a key role in our immunity in synergy with ROS regulating responses that include defense gene expression and programmed cell death (8). As a result, I utilize both ROS and NO to say “NO” to the pathogens. Other important signaling molecules I utilize are salicylic acid and jasmonic acid. These essential plant hormones are chemical messengers that enable me to respond to my environment. Salicylic acid, SA, which is chemically similar to but not identical to the active component of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), is involved in the defense against pathogens that feed and reproduce on live host cells and activates signaling processes providing systemic acquired resistance, protecting the plant from further infection after an initial pathogen attack (9) (Fig. 2). On the other hand, jasmonic acid (JA) induces defense against pathogens that kill host cells for nutrition and reproduction (10). Another hormone in the complex cross talk of signaling pathways regulating my defense responses to microbial attack is ethylene, ET (11).

Although, I have not even told you all the details, I bet you have started to think that all these signaling cascades, regulators, hormones, molecular patterns, and receptors are highly complicated. Do not worry; I am not planning to tell you all the molecular mechanism(s) and relevant pathways I execute during biotic stress responses. If I do, then what will the plant scientists who are interested in plant pathogen interactions do for the rest of their lives? Instead I am going to briefly describe to you what strategies I use to prevent the spread of infection that the small microbe started.

Initially, I build physical barriers around the infection by increasing my cuticle, a protective waxy covering, and cell wall thickness, and then I release antimicrobial compounds, such as phenolics and phytoalexins to the sites of invasion (11). However, this effort is usually not enough to stop the microbes. Therefore, most of the time, the cells in the local region surrounding the infection decide to commit suicide to limit the growth of the pathogen through programmed cell death, which is a highly coordinated and sophisticated phenomenon. This resembles to the firefighters’ strategy to put down a forest fire. Firefighters control flames by cutting down trees, clearing brush away from the existing edge of the fire. This way they can form borders to mitigate the forest fire.

While I am fighting the infection, I also try to confer a long-lasting protection against this pathogen. I send mobile signals like salicylic acid to activate defense responses in distal tissues in case a secondary pathogen attack might occur there (12). Salicylic acid also induces numerous genes that encode PR proteins with antimicrobial properties (13).

I have done all those things I have told you here and a lot more that are still undisclosed to humans in a really short time because it was a matter of “to be, or not to be.” After all that stress, I have won the battle against the microbe at least for now. I have gained a life experience and will defend myself better in the future. I am recovering, but unfortunately my leaf, where all that fighting happened, has a big lesion, an abnormal tissue, which was formed when my poor cells died during the attack (Figure3).

As you can tell from my story, plants get stressed out too. However, we are not stressed due to problems at home, school, or work or spending time stuck in traffic. We deal with salinity, heavy metals, temperature, drought, lack of nutrition, herbivores (insects, mammals, etc.), and pathogens. Thanks to God that He gave us astonishingly complicated response mechanisms to resist all sorts of stresses to some extent, especially biotic stress. Otherwise, we might have become extinct. Can you imagine a world without us? You would have no more oxygen in the air, no more food for animals and humans, no more papers or books, no more clothes, no more furniture, no more blooming beautiful gardens, no more roses for your loved ones, and no more trees, which hold the soil in place so that wind and rain don’t cause severe erosion and destruction of homes for so many species. In addition, there will be fewer resources for drugs and dyes. Oh my God, you are the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful. Thank you that You created us, shaped us and gave us smell, taste, color, and resistance to stresses.

Safiye Arslan is a research fellow in the area of biological chemistry and lives in Nevada.

References

1. Holopainen JK, Gershenzon J. 2010. “Multiple stress factors and the emission of plant VOCs.” Trends Plant Sci. 15,176–184.

2. http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/biotechnology/

3. Wulff BB, Chakrabarti A, Jones DA. 2009. “Recognitional specificity and evolution in the tomato-Cladosporium fulvum pathosystem.” Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 22, 1191–202.

4. Genger RK, Jurkowski GI, McDowell JM, Lu H, Jung HW, Greenberg JT, Bent AF. 2008. “Signaling pathways that regulate the enhanced disease resistance of Arabidopsis ‘defense, no death’ mutants.” Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 21, 1285–96.

5. Klessig DF, Durner J, Noad R, Navarre DA, Wendehenne D, Kumar D, Zhou JM, Shah J, Zhang S, Kachroo P, Trifa Y, Pontier D, Lam E, Silva H. 2000. “Nitric oxide and salicylic acid signaling in plant defense.” Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 97, 8849–8855.

6. Ma W, Berkowitz GA. 2007. “The grateful dead: calcium and cell death in plant innate immunity.” Cell Microbiol. 9, 2571–85.

7. Gechev TS, Van Breusegem F, Stone JM, Denev I, Laloi C. 2006. “Reactive oxygen species as signals that modulate plant stress responses and programmed cell death.” Bioessays. 28, 1091–101.

8. Asai S, Yoshioka H. 2009. “Nitric oxide as a partner of reactive oxygen species participates in disease resistance to nectrotophic pathogen Botryis cinerea in Nicotiana benthamiana.” Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 22, 619–29.

9. Beckers GJ, Spoel SH. 2006. “Fine-Tuning Plant Defence Signalling: Salicylate versus Jasmonate.” Plant Biol (Stuttg). 8, 1–10.

10. Spoel SH, Johnson JS, Dong X. 2007. “Regulation of tradeoffs between plant defenses against pathogens with different lifestyles.” Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104, 18842–7.

11. Bouchez O, Huard C, Lorrain S, Roby D, Balagué C. 2007. “Ethylene is one of the key elements for cell death and defense response control in the Arabidopsis lesion mimic mutant vad1.” Plant Physiol. 145, 465–77.

12. Ficke A, Gadoury DM, Seem RC, Godfrey D, Dry IB. 2004. “Host Barriers and Responses to Uncinula necator in Developing Grape Berries.” Phytopathology. 94, 438–45.

13. Liu PP, Bhattacharjee S, Klessig DF, Moffett P. 2010. “Systemic acquired resistance is induced by R gene-mediated responses independent of cell death.” Mol Plant Pathol. 11, 155–60.

14. Durrant WE, Dong X. 2004. “Systemic acquired resistance.” Annu Rev Phytopathol. 42, 185–209.

All parents do everything they can to keep their children healthy. The creation of a baby in a mother’s womb still remains a wonder not fully explained by scientists. Birth has been a mystery in the life of human beings since the beginning of history. Religious sources show the phases of a baby’s growth in the mother’s womb, the perfect design of the environment that supports the needy baby with everything it needs, and its birth, all as examples of God’s mercy and power. Although the whole process of pregnancy develops with almost no interference from outside, there are some precautions that parents can take to have a healthier baby.

How to start taking care of a baby even before pregnancy

Science makes it clear that we should not wait until we hold a baby in our arms before we start taking care of him or her. But how can we take care of a baby even before conception? Well, one of the answers is quite simple: by taking folic acid! If women have enough folic acid, vitamin B complex, in their bodies before pregnancy, this vitamin B complex can reduce the risk of neural birth defects by up to 70%. Neural tube defects (NTD) are a group of congenital birth defects that influence the central nervous system. The neural tube forms in the embryo between 4 to 6 weeks after conception and then closes. The neural tube eventually becomes the baby’s spinal cord, spine, brain, and skull. If the neural tube does not close properly, the baby may have neural birth defects, in which case the baby lacks either a developing brain, spinal cord or both. NTDs occur very early in pregnancy, even before most women know that they are pregnant. The most common neural birth defects are anencephaly and spina bifida. In anencephaly, the brain is either not fully developed or is completely absent, while in spina bifida part of the baby’s spinal cord remains outside the body.

Folate deficiency and folic acid

Folate, also called vitamin B9, is a water-soluble vitamin. It is essential to human life and is found naturally in some foods such as liver, citrus fruits and juices, whole grains, and dark green leafy vegetables. Folic acid is the synthetic form of folate. Folic acid can be obtained from supplements and fortified breads and cereals. Both folic acid and folate work for the same purpose, and in this article the terms are used interchangeably.

In folate deficiency, the body is unable to transport folic acid to the brain, resulting in mobility problems, blindness and seizures. Pregnant women in particular can be at great risk of giving birth to low-birthweight, premature babies who may have neural birth defects. In children, folate deficiency can slow general development. In adults, a type of anemia appears in long-term folate deficiency. There are also other signs of folate deficiency such as headaches, loss of appetite, sore tongue, diarrhea, forgetfulness and irritability.

Why folic acid is important

Folic acid plays a very important role in various body processes including cell maintenance and repair, formation of red blood cells (which provide oxygen to tissue), formation of white blood cells (which defend the body against infectious disease), synthesis of DNA (hereditary material) and amino acid metabolism. It also plays a crucial role in preventing human illness. Folic acid supplements cannot prevent stroke or heart disease, but studies have shown that it can reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke. Recent research shows that it supports the functioning of blood vessels, which improves the blood flow to the heart. In addition, folic acid helps to protect against the development of some forms of cancer, particularly colon, cervical, esophageal, breast, and stomach cancers.

A number of scientific experiments have shown that people who suffer from Alzheimer’s disease have low levels of folic acid in their blood. Thus, it is not surprising that folic acid is crucial for brain function and plays an important role in mental and emotional health.

If you are a married woman and have plans to have a child some day, you should definitely start to take folate because by the time you know you are pregnant, your baby’s brain and spine will already have been formed. This is why it is important for women to maintain sufficient levels of folic acid all through their child-bearing age even if they are not planning a pregnancy.

Should only women take folic acid?

No, not really. Every adult man and woman should consume it every day to reduce their risk of heart disease, colon cancer, and stroke.

If this is a vitamin that could change our life forever, how much should we consume and where can we get it from? You can get your folic acid naturally from foods such as liver, nuts, peanut butter, dried peas and beans, oranges, tomato and pineapple juice, avocados, cantaloupes, asparagus, and leafy green vegetables. Some breakfast cereals with 100% of the recommended daily allowance per serving are Crunchy Nuggets, Multi-Grain Cheerios Plus, Product 19, Whole-Grain Total, Total Corn- Flakes, Total Raisin Bran, and Special K. It can also be obtained from other, less processed grain products such as bread, pasta, and rice. Taking a multivitamin containing the recommended daily allowance of 400 micrograms is another option. The following table suggests a variety of dietary sources of folate.

Table 1: Selected Food Sources of Folate and Folic Acid

* Items marked with an asterisk (*) are fortified with folic acid as part of the Folate Fortification Program.

^ DV = Daily Value. DVs are reference numbers developed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to help consumers determine if a food contains a lot or a little of a specific nutrient.

Sehnaz Dogu Ekicikol obtained a master’s degree on Microbiology from Georgia State University.

References

• Zittoun J. Anemias due to disorder of folate, vitamin B12 and transcobalamin metabolism. Rev Prat 1993;43:1358–63.
• Herbert V. Folic Acid. In: Shils M, Olson J, Shike M, Ross AC, ed. Nutrition in Health and Disease. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1999.
• Kamen B. Folate and antifolate pharmacology. Semin Oncol 1997;24:S18-30-S18-39.
• Agriculture’s Nutrient Database Web site: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl.
• http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/folate.asp
• http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/folicacid/