“Free radicals” are a special type of atom that have been linked to many age-related diseases. They form as a result of a process called Oxidative Stress, which takes place when an oxygen molecule splits into single atoms with unpaired electrons. The nature of electrons is such that they like to be in pairs and as a result will “freely” and “radically” search throughout the body for another electron to pair with. They could almost be considered romantic if they were not so dangerous!

Their main danger comes from the damage that they cause to cells or cell membrane, proteins, and DNA. Cellular damage occurs when free radicals travel through cells and disrupt the structures of other molecules. The gradual accumulation of them, and the increased damage that builds as more and more of them collect, is what helps cause many of the aforementioned aging diseases. Our body is under constant assault from oxidative stress, and cells may function poorly or die if it occurs too frequently and without proper bodily maintenance.

Free radicals are a waste byproduct that form as a result of various chemical reactions that take place during our bodies’ normal metabolic processes. They are then “dumped,” and their eventual buildup will often harm our bodies much like how factory waste harms the environment However, they are not entirely useless; it is impossible for our bodies to turn air and food into chemical energy without a chain reaction of free radicals. Free radicals are also a critical part of the immune system, as they additionally move through our veins and can confront foreign invaders [1].

What are free radicals?

Understanding free radicals necessitates an elementary knowledge of chemistry.

Electrons orbit around atoms in levels called shells. Each shell is filled by a fixed number of electrons, and when the first shell is full then electrons will start to fill the next shell.

If there is an atom whose outer shell is not full then it may bond with another atom by using the electrons to fill its outer shell. These types of atoms are known as free radicals.

Atoms that have a full outer shell become stable, however free radicals are unstable. They are “desperate” to acquire the full number of electrons that are necessary to fill all of their shells and will therefore react quickly with other substances.

Take the example of oxygen molecules. If they split into single atoms that have unpaired electrons then they too will become unstable free radicals that seek other atoms or molecules to bond to. If this procedure continually occurs, then it will begin a process called oxidative stress.

Smoking, UV rays, air pollution, fast food, pesticides, ionizing radiation, drugs, and inflammation have all been linked to the formation of free radicals. We must be diligent when it comes to understanding how these influences can affect our bodily health, and then fight back with natural antioxidants.

Free radicals are heavily linked to aging

One of the effects of oxidative stress is that it can damage our body’s cells and thus promote many of the diseases and symptoms related to aging, such as wrinkles and gray hair. They will take electrons from other atoms in order to become more stable, a process that may cause diseases or signs of aging [2].              

In 1956, the “Free Radical Theory of Aging” was outlined as a way to understand how exactly our bodies age over time. Everybody ages, and as we age our body loses its ability to fight the effects of free radicals. Over time our bodies produce more free radicals and more oxidative stress, which increases the rate at which cells are damaged and thus can bring about degenerative processes.

Many age-related diseases such as muscular degeneration, certain cancers, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, emphysema, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, ulcers and all inflammatory diseases such as arthritis and lupus, and many others are linked to free radicals. Free radicals can be found in the food we eat such as fried foods, the medicines we take, the air we breathe, and the water we drink. Free radicals are also found in alcohol, tobacco smoke, pesticides, and air pollutants.

Several studies and theories have been linked to oxidative stress and the buildup of free radicals including: [3]

• Genetic degenerative diseases, such as Huntington’s disease or Parkinson’s
• Age-related changes in appearance, such as loss of skin elasticity, wrinkles, graying hair, hair loss, and changes in hair texture
• Cataracts and age-related vision decline
• Diabetes
• Cancer, which is associated with chromosomal effects and oncogene activation due to the reaction of free radicals [2]
• Central nervous system diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and various forms of dementia
• Cardiovascular diseases due to clogged arteries
• Autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and cancer

The free radical theory of aging is comparatively new; however, several studies boost its credibility. Researchers focused on cell’s mitochondria, the “powerhouse” that process nutrients to power the entire cell. Experiments on rats, for example, showed a noteworthy increase in free radicals as the rats aged. These alterations coincided with age-related declines in their health. These experiments also showed that free radicals produced in the mitochondria harm the substances that the cells need in order to work properly. This damage causes mutations that produce more free radicals, thus accelerating the process of damage to the cell. This helps explain aging since aging quickens over time. The gradual, but increasingly rapid buildup of free radicals, offers one explanation for why even healthy bodies age and depreciate over time [2].

Antioxidants can stave off free radicals

Antioxidants, molecules that prevent other molecules from oxidizing and thus undergoing oxidative stress, can help to avert the harmful effects of free radicals. They can also decrease or even nullify the effects of free radicals, as they can provide an electron to free radicals and thereby reduce their reactivity. The uniqueness of antioxidants is that they can donate an electron without becoming reactive free radicals themselves.

There is no single antioxidant that can combat the effects of every free radical. Free radicals have different effects in different areas of the body, and every antioxidant performs differently due to its chemical properties. Antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, glutathione, and plant estrogens called phytoestrogens all scavenge the body and help remove free radicals. Honey can also function similar to antioxidants by removing free radicals. Additionally, selenium, a trace metal that is required for proper function of one of the body’s antioxidant enzyme systems, is sometimes included in this category. The body cannot manufacture these micronutrients so they must be supplied in the diet.

Foods that are rich in antioxidants include citrus fruits such as oranges and limes, berries, and many other fruits that are rich in vitamin C. Carrots are known for their high beta-carotene content, while the soy in soybeans, and some meat substitutes, are high in phytoestrogens. Apricots, spinach, mangoes, pumpkins, broccoli, and eggplants are all also helpful, along with a plethora of other fruits and vegetables [4].

More research needed

A 2010 study on antioxidant supplementation for the prevention of prostate cancer found no benefits. Furthermore, a 2012 study found that antioxidants did not lower the risk of lung cancer. On the other hand, the study found that people who were already at a heightened risk of cancer, such as smokers, actually had a slightly elevated risk of cancer due to antioxidants.

Some investigators have found that supplementation with antioxidants is injurious when people take more than the recommended daily allowance (RDA). A recent analysis found that high doses of beta-carotene, or vitamin E, appreciably increased the risk of dying. One study found that long-term use of beta-carotene could reasonably reduce the risk of age-related mental problems [4]. But perhaps one of the most important discoveries is that antioxidants are unable to “cure” the effects of free radicals completely [5].  

Additionally, we do not yet fully understand why free radicals form in the first place. They may result as an early sign of cells fighting diseases, or that free radical formation is simply a natural expectation that comes with aging. It is not possible to understand them completely without more conclusive research, which should be encouraged considering the significant impacts that free radicals can have upon our bodies.

References

1. https://www.rice.edu/~jenky/sports/antiox.html
2. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318652#How-do-free-radicals-damage-the-body
3. http://www.mytruehealth.info/mytruehealth_antioxidants_freeradicals.html
4. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318652#Antioxidants-and-free-radicals
5. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318652#What-we-do-not-know

It was a long, cool February night here in the bustling streets of Manila.

Once again, I looked up at the star-filled sky above me. I noticed something that looked like a big spoon but was larger and more distinct in size and brightness despite the presence of thousands; no, millions of stars above me.

The Big Dipper stared at me like a big ladle, ready to take me along on a journey towards destinations unknown.

For reasons that I cannot comprehend up to this very day, I cannot help but smile at the beauty of the constellation at night.

Most probably, it is because I had beautiful memories in life under the light of these stars.

The year is 2006.

I was lanky and tall for my age.

In addition, I was extremely curious about the world around me.

It is the final year of primary schooling at a public elementary school in Zamboanga City, a lively commercial center with an estimated population of more than a million people, give or take, at the western tip of Southern Philippines.

At the time, I never knew what a telescope looked like or what astronomy was all about. After all, our economic status did not provide us the means to buy astronomical equipment or to even buy materials for a full-fledged experiment.

Luckily, my science teachers held a camp in September of that year and they brought their precious telescopes with them.

Under a clear, picturesque sky and with a smooth, light breeze coming in from the sea, we peered upon the telescopes and identified different constellations as our teachers relayed their positions to us.

It was a wonderful experience. I learned a lot about astronomy within that night alone, probably more than what I would have learned inside the classroom or by reading these constellations in books.

However, as with many things in this ephemeral world, life has its own way of stomping through the past and erasing it into oblivion.

As such, I forgot all of them as the years passed by, except for one.

It was the Big Dipper.

Looking at the Big Dipper gives me hope that I could chase my dreams and reach them no matter the odds that I face currently.

Yes, I do face many challenges of varying complexity and novelty, stretching my faculties to its full extent.

Sometimes, the going gets tough.

There are indeed times when I thought of lifting the white towel in order to just get away from all of it.

But as with many of the best things in life, hope is the torch that keeps me moving forward.

As far as this age is concerned, we are living in a state of a partial darkness where wars, dictatorships, deaths, and calamities have become commonplace to the point that they are turned from newsworthy phenomena into an integral part of life.

They have seeped into people’s psyches to the point that hopelessness about the prospect of having a constructive, productive, and inclusive future has become the norm instead of it being the exception.

In this age, hope is a highly-esteemed currency that is held preciously by people who know the value of it.

After all, wasn’t Hope the last thing to stay inside Pandora’s box after sickness, death, turmoil, famine and all the other evil qualities went out of it?

This shows that as long as hope is alive inside a person’s heart, the keys towards a brighter future are always open for exploration and completion.

As I look back towards the ground, I realize something.

At the end of the day, the Big Dipper reminds me about a truth regarding life.

No matter how harsh and cold the night may seem to be, sunlight always follows in its path, rising to the top and eradicating the darkness and fear that is present inside our hearts, minds, and lives.

Most importantly, even though the evenings may be dark, the stars are always there, piercing the veil of darkness and serving as a beacon of hope.

A hope which states that the best things in life always come in the best way possible, regardless of how bad it was in the past.

After having that long gaze, I continue my way home with a smile.

Because I know once again that the night is always the beginning to a brighter morning and that the stars are there to remind me of that fact.

With newly found strength, I trace my steps back home and get ready to face another day in the roads of this journey that is called “life.”

She stood at the edge of the abyss, the blinding darkness engulfing her, enticing her. It would be easy to let go, to wither away and join him. Her arms felt numb, and her powerful legs were weak. Violent tremors traveled up and down her body. A small compelling hand, wet with tears, tugged on her arm. “What will we do now?” a quavering voice whispered. She opened her eyes. The sky was a cerulean blue, and the blazing sun was beating on her torn straw hat, casting a slender shadow on the spring green rice fields. Her rapid heart was calmed by a wind that caressed her cheek. To her dead husband, to her children, to Vietnam, she dropped the condolence letter, and with her feet firmly planted on the ground, said, “We will live.”

To say it was easy is an understatement. Raising five kids as a single mother, in a country where women are expected to be docile, seemed infeasible. “I was taught at a young age that men were the head of the household, they were the heroes of the family,” Diep Ngo, aged 80, recalls sadly, her eyes distant. “I felt helpless. My brothers were charting new paths, while I was still, unable to move.” With a suppressed sob, Ngo recounts that at the twilight hour, she would drown with dark thoughts, but every morning when the sun rose, they would be vanquished. The roosters were the reveille that awakened her slumber, her empty stomach was the battle cry, and the last words of hope from her departed beloved, the mantra that carried her on. 

The war took its toll on the civilians of Vietnam; it was a disease that plagued families with deaths and injuries. Young girls were jailbirds, kept busy looking after their younger siblings, torn rags their striped attire and restrictions the bars of their prison. Dreams were locked away, replaced by the basic needs crucial to survival. Even so, when asked if she would take part in the war that claimed her husband, Ngo, her mouth in a straight line and her eyes ablaze, adamantly nodded. Raising both arms until her fists were level with her head, she mustered a grimace. Her nose crinkled and teeth bared, but her eyes sparkled with humor. “Do you think anyone would’ve thought twice about taking me on?”

Scraping bits and pieces of broken memories from her childhood, Ngo recalls that the only freedom she truly had was that from the pressures of education. “I never did well in school. Women were not expected to accomplish anything, so it was highly unusual for a women to achieve higher education.” Now, it seems clear that this supposed freedom transformed itself into another burden upon her shoulders, for she had to take on menial tasks when drafted into the position of “man.” For the first time in her life, she left the cage built by the patriarchal society and refused wealthy suitors. “They were bloated with pride… I would never submit to any man like that.” Ngo was ridiculed by her neighbors as a result, but she felt a strange sensation, absent from her life ever since the fateful, disappointed sigh that accompanied the doctor declaring her gender 80 years ago: the jewel of independence.

“As their father was gone, I had to step into the role of the provider. Oh, what a burden it was, but the power and purpose it gave me fueled the sleepless nights.”

Before the age of 30, her long, black hair turned a platinum gray, and impending wrinkles scarred her face as the war robbed her of youth. A moment to weep or reconcile with memories of loved ones was lost in the present.

“Losing my husband was truly hard, but myself, and other women of Vietnam, had to choke back grief and look to the future,” she remarked. Leaving the house militarily before the sun rose and coming back well after the crescent moon silently loomed in the sky, the only thing Ngo regrets is not spending as much time with her children. But, what she had to do was necessary, as every day was a battle. Even so, how could she explain to them the rough calluses on her hands, which toiled tirelessly, tending the infested wounds left after the hungry bullets pierced the heart of Vietnam? How could she explain yet another outline of a large palm on her red cheek, this time from an angry customer, unsatisfied by the knee-length trousers she had spent all night mending?

Through it all, she remained an eternal warrior, whose struggles rivaled those of men fighting raging wars. Diep Ngo battled gender inequality and injustice, all while leading her family through desperate times. An old poem by Xuân Diệu filled her thoughts as America, the land of rebirth and opportunities, slowly emerged on the horizon: “Your feet have hardly tread round this way… Open your arms to clasp the spring, then from your hand let there be light” (translated by Thomas D. Le). And for the first time since her husband’s death, she welcomed the moist tears, for the valiant soldier’s burden had been lifted. Her dauntless mission was complete. 

I’m forever grateful for her valiant decision to bypass social stereotypes and become a sort-of soldier, leading her family to survival, to new opportunities, to an education, to happiness, to America. It’s a natural, humane feeling that is respectful of the wisdom, the strength, and the sacrifices of the old. Every evening, after the tiring cycle of school, I retreat back into my place of comfort: my grandmother’s arms, and for the past 17 years, her past life was but a false, beautiful painting, rid of pain and hardships and suffering. That one night, under a blanket of softly twinkling stars, I retraced her hands, touching them, caressing them, tracing her old, calloused, scarred fingers and her bulging veins, to finally realize the truth: that there was so much I didn’t know about my hero.

Far scarier than evil men … is the idea that, wonderful as my life has been, there might have been more, or less, or different.
Rachel Heffington
(From Rachel to herself: a letter to be read in seventy-seven years)

March, 2015
Isle of Wight, Virginia

Dear (Seasoned, Revered, Etc.) Rachel,

You sit on the pinnacle of a very long life. Happiest of Happy Birthdays to you (us?)! You’re now a centurion. Is that what they call people who have reached one-hundred? It’s not? Pity. It was a good thought, seeing as you’re nearly Roman-ancient now.

I wonder what your life has been. Let’s hear how you found your true love; did you love him first, or did he dog your footsteps and spill coffee on you till you recognized his merits? Or maybe you never found him. Maybe you grew old and beloved by a slew of nieces and nephews instead. Taking things into account as they stand now, that’s highly probable. Standards are wonderful for scaring off men.

But you’ve turned one-hundred, and this is about you, not me. Except, I guess it is.

History always fascinated you. What have you seen? I only know—not quite, almost—a quarter of everything that’s happened, and it’s enough to make me glad this life is only the title-page of the best of Stories. It can be a little frightful, if I’m perfectly honest. Sin doesn’t get nicer with age, opportunity, and technological advancement.

Twenty-five percent of your life is where I stand, if you’re really one hundred, and it isn’t a clever hoax. It’s a nice place, a little winded, and you’ve done it three times! What larks. I don’t want to tire you (is your spirit old, or do you still like letters?), but I have things I want to know: did you keep your hiccupping laugh? Where did your lines fall? I hope you got crow’s feet instead of potato-furrows between your eyebrows, because you always had a fear of looking disagreeable. Do you still wear bright red lipstick? How did it feel to smash that change jar and go to London with Katie? When did you give up high-heels, or do you still wear them? And last of all, because it rather terrifies me: are you losing your mind to the childishness of dementia, or did you get the palsied end of old age? I think sickness would be easier to bear. I would hate to lose my wits and be thought ridiculous and smiled on patronizingly. I hope you still have the sense of humor—it was a good one.

As you can see, I am plenty curious despite being only a quarter of the person you are. If you haven’t outgrown it, you’ll be a piece of work by now. You always enjoyed people like that. Some people suffer from a deplorable lack of curiosity and become boring. Boring’s worse than ridiculous. Do you still think so?

Right now, I’m pretty nearly perfectly happy. As happy as I can be with plagues sweeping one third of the world and militants blowing up another third, and the rest of us trying to live reasonably well in the cramped leftovers. Did that ever let-up, or is that only the wishful thinking of a girl who is only two decades old?

But even if it doesn’t let up—history isn’t too encouraging on this point— I’m only a quarter of the way through my life; I can’t believe I’ll not die from a surfeit of joy-stabs, for even in the awfulness, they do come. There are so many beautiful things I’ve already seen. I know Heaven will be better—and on that note, are you looking forward to it?—but it’s pretty lovely here sometimes, when the sun settles on its belly over the cotton fields and laughs like raspberry lemonade. I hope you’ve not outgrown your love of noticing things. You used to talk about days when the veil between Heaven and Earth had worn thin, and those were your favorite moments. They still are, I’d guess. It’s addicting. I hope it’s the only thing I’m ever addicted to. That’s the plan, anyway, and no sense in changing it.

Small things could always make you toss back your head, crinkle your moon-eyes, and laugh. You found everything wonderful and wrote it all down in your books. I wonder if you ever became famous for your words. I doubt it—it doesn’t seem likely when you only ever wrote to amuse and please yourself and others like you (and were shaky on plot, besides), but one hundred years leaves a lot of room for surprises.

Most of all, I wonder if you like the Rachel you’ve become. If you’re proud of the way you spent your century. If there are moments that give you a pain in your gut because you know you missed it—whatever it was. How many are they, those memories? I hope, for your sake, they are few.

I don’t even know if you’ll be able to read this. Maybe you got banged in the head by someone in a wretched nursing home and woke up unable to speak anything but French, a language you never learned (or did you?). At any rate, if that is the case, please find a translator. Preferably you’ll still be comfortably settled in that lovely country house with the bosomy windows that are always open—the one you wondered if you’d ever get. If you can still hold a pen and still string words like a ticker-tape (I’m obviously in fine fettle regarding this), then please write back.

It’ll probably be the first decent thing the mailman has brought in weeks.

Always Yours (Obviously),

Rachel Heffington

P.S. Please say you never took to ignoring the Oxford Comma.

(From Rachel to herself: a reply to the former, about which she’d forgotten.)

March, 2092

Cockermouth, UK

Dear (Young, Semi-Charming, Etc.) Rachel,

It is your birthday too! What a coincidence. I am still, per the obvious, alive and able to speak English as well as ever. Grammar will slip sometimes, but one grows to care less. I still revere the Oxford comma. I might be alone in this, but here we are.

You ought to know me well enough to know that I never learned a second language thoroughly—bits of languages, yes. I could say The Lord’s Prayer in Latin, recite numbers one through ten in a half dozen languages in a manner quite charming, and always managed to forget which Hawaiian word meant “hello” and which meant “goodbye,” but I was never fluent. Too many English words boxing my ears.

Your letter made me laugh till I got a side-stitch. I had forgotten how poorly you fit into the era in which you were born, and I’d forgotten how absurd (and fond of it) you were. Thank you for the reminder, darling.

You want to know about the love of my life. I feel hesitant to inform you on this point, as it feels rather like cheating. I didn’t know at your age … so you can’t. But I will tell you this: I have never lacked for love. Take that as you will. I’ll say nothing further. And remember, silly duckling, that love comes in so many forms.

“How did it feel to smash that change jar and go to London with Katie?

I actually have learned things in my century, and one is this: delayed gratification lends value to things. I played Mary Poppins for two little girls. Every week I went to the bank and deposited my check and took out a crisp twenty dollar bill. I rescued pennies from the gutter and quarters from the laundry and threw them in. I waited and dreamed and worked. And one day I traded the jar for an airline ticket and good British pounds and joined my best friend for the girlhood dream … and it was just as plummy, rainy, and tea-scented as I’d dared to hope. Besides elation, I felt terror when I bought that ticket and realized I’d given birth to a dream and had to take care of it now that it was outside imagination’s womb. The sort of terror you feel when one’s hair looks perfect and then a guest of wind turned the umbrella inside-out and you know the game’s up.

It was the same with my writing career (which, incidentally, made me famous in its own way. You’ll have to wait to find out how.)

Lots of things in life are this way. The delay, the pause, the long breath-holding till an ache begins under one’s breastbone and the lungs of hope nearly burst. And then it comes, and it comes with a color like September aspens and you realize half the glory is straight relief that the promise wasn’t a sham.

There is hope beyond this world.

There is a Story and an Author at work and if one can just hold on, things happen.

Now, I’m a century old and I still haven’t decided whether all the things that do happen are worth half the trouble they cost, but at least I can promise you that life doesn’t stagnate for the person who curries adventure.

I still wear red lipstick—found how to apply it so it won’t kiss off. My secret.

The high-heels remained till I turned seventy-five and sprained my ankle. I compromised and went in for brighter lipstick and shockingly colorful flats. One must make concessions somewhere, much as you hate to admit it.

The lines fell for me in pleasant places. Potato furrows are awful. I used prayer and coconut oil to ward them off.

I still laugh. Did it hiccup?

You called them moon-eyes. I’d call them sparkles awash in fitful gray-green. He loved them. Whom? I won’t tell. You’ll see.

From my address, you’ll realize I made it to my precious Lake District—which, by the by, you neglected to mention in your letter. I am shocked. It was your fondest, quietest dream. The story is a long and ornate one which I won’t tell now, but you’ll enjoy it.

I am tolerably well in body, my humor is intact, and if I forget certain things certain days, who cares? A century gives one perspective, duck. Dementia is the smallest thing one worries about at my age. I think if we didn’t forget now and then, our brains might implode with the sheer weight of a hundred years’ worth of remembrances. What a mess. My nurse, Erica Clark, would complain. She complained about getting me real paper. “Why won’t you use technology? We’ve come such a long way since email, and now you want paper? You’re retroactive, Miss Rachel.”

I’ll tell you why: postmen might bring boring things, but no mail at all is an atrocity.

And now I will become serious, for contrary to popular belief, I am not all whimsy and wit. Let’s see if I can manage before tea-time:

You asked if my moments of having “missed it” were many. I gather you speak of regrets. Everyone has regrets. I know of several you have at your age, and as you so succinctly stated it, you are only a quarter of the person I am. Perhaps you didn’t realize it was a regret at the time. Again, age gives one perspective on these things.

In hinting that I might be regretless, your hopes fail. Missing even one thing is a weighty sorrow. I’ve missed … well I’ve missed four times what you’ve missed. Ew. I try not to let myself be crippled by the idea, but I am still scared to wonder what might have been. Far scarier than evil men and terrifying plagues and incomprehensible technology that eradicates any notion of privacy, is the idea that, wonderful as my life has been, there might have been more, or less, or different.

I don’t think God means for us to panic over it, but there it is. The veil has yet to grow so thin it disappears and this world is not quite wonderfully safe. It lets you worry.

When I can’t remember, I can’t worry.

That’s what I mean by saying loss of memory is not so terrible. I’ve heard it called a mercy.

You are so young. Don’t waste time fretting over what you’ll be at one hundred. You’ll be me, and I’ve lived with myself for quite some time. I’m not the worst person to have been. I have you to thank for that, because what you said about addictions? You honored to it. Not to quibble, but you forgot to add cheesecake, sourdough toast, and a few random television programs to the list.

You lived what they called “clean.”

You made a thousand mistakes.

You found adventure in the commonplace.

You laughed in the exact wrong moments.

You noticed the raspberry-lemonade sunsets.

You trod on some toes.

You loved almost too freely and you gave yourself out as if there was no end.

But more than this, you pledged your life to the Author of the Story. I’m so glad you did. Shakespeare spoke of his being a charmed life. I wonder if he’d met you, if he’d have turned in his claims and surrendered the title.

Darling, you are only a quarter-me, like a quarter-moon. But the things you fought for have worn well. The colors are bright as ever. I’m still wearing them. Virtues you refused to surrender, convictions you would not deny, honesty you would not withhold…these things have enabled me to sit at the back-end of a century and enjoy the view.

Thank you, and never, ever, ever give up.

You owe it to me.

Always Yours (Obviously),

Rachel

P.S. If you promise to smile at every stranger, I’ll tell you the secret to red lipstick.

P.P.S. It has to do with… I won’t say just yet. First, you have to promise.

Meinecke et al. Turbulent amplification of magnetic fields in laboratory laser-produced shock waves, June 2014, Nature Physics.

A supernova is the explosion of a massive star which releases a burst of radiation that can be as bright as 10 billion suns. Such a massive amount of radiation can shine throughout the entire universe for several light-years. Supernovas are triggered either when the fuel within a star ignites or when a star’s core collapses under extreme gravitational forces. Supernovas have already taught us very important lessons about the history of the universe. For example, these explosions have provided solid evidence that the universe is expanding. Supernovas can also tell us a lot about how old stars die and how new stars are born. When a star goes through a supernova explosion, it leaves behind a skeleton made of expanding dust and gas that scientists call a remnant. These star-remnants spread around space. They might end up on earth or other planets, or they could form the energy source of a new star. Since the best way to understand supernovas is to actually explode a star, researchers recently developed a technique to simulate small-scale supernovas in a lab environment. To do this, scientists used lasers that are 60,000 billion times more powerful than a laser pointer. They focused the laser beams on a thin carbon rod inside a gas-filled chamber. The lasers heated the chamber to over 1 million degrees Celsius, which caused the carbon rod to explode and expand out through the low density gas – just like how exploding stars speed through space. The experiment revealed that as the blast passes through the grid, it becomes irregular and turbulent. They also noticed that the magnetic field was dramatically higher within the grid than without, suggesting that the magnetic field was amplified by the generated turbulence. The supernova system developed in this study holds the possibility of helping us better understand how the universe was formed and evolved, and could provide some insight into how magnetic fields were first created.

Young blood: The fountain of youth?

Villeda SA et al. Young blood reverses age-related impairments in cognitive function and synaptic plasticity in mice. June 2014, Nature Medicine.
Sinha M. et al. Restoring systemic GDF11 levels reverses age-related dysfunction in mouse skeletal muscle. June 2014, Science.

Two recent studies of lab mice showed that transfusions of blood from younger individuals reverse the effects of aging in their elders. One research group showed that neural damage of mice with age-related cognitive impairments could be reversed by such transfusions. Alternatively, injecting the younger plasma into the brain was also very effective at repairing neural damage. Another research group showed that blood from younger mice repaired age-related heart defects in older mice. Researchers further discovered that high levels of the protein GDF11, present in the blood of younger mice, were the key for rejuvenation. Researchers proposed that blood from younger mice contains molecules with anti-aging properties that awaken the stem cells of the brain and heart muscles and thus initiate the rejuvenation. These studies are incredibly encouraging for combating Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, and many other age-related diseases; however, a comprehensive set of clinical tests needs to be conducted before testing the effects in humans.

“Chameleon” plant discovered

Gianoli E. and Carrasco-Urra F. Leaf mimicry in a climbing plant Protects against herbivory. May 2014, Current Biology.

Scientists thought for many years that camouflage and mimicry were only observed in the animal kingdom. A newly discovered wood vine in Chile, Boquila trifoliolata, has been found to transform its leaves to mimic a variety of host trees. B. trifoliolata is the first plant ever shown to imitate multiple hosts. This is a rare trait called “mimetic polymorphism” and it was only previously observed in butterflies. As B. trifoliolata climbs onto a tree’s branches, it changes the color, size, shape, orientation, and even the vein patterns of its leaves to match the surrounding flora. When the same vine crosses over to a second tree, the size of its leaves can even increase 10 times  to match the second host plant. According to scientists, mimicry may protect the vine from plant-eating herbivores such as weevils and leaf beetles. It is perplexing how a plant can distinguish between individual trees and keep changing its physical characteristics. Odors, chemicals, or microbes that are released form host plants are potential candidate mechanisms for this intriguing plant behavior.

Elephants can determine ethnicity, gender, and age from acoustic cues in human voices. McComb et al. February 2014, PNAS.

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are the largest land animals on Earth and they have been facing the danger of extinction due to habitat loss and illegal hunting for their ivory tusks. Elephants are also known to be very intelligent creatures and a recent study showed that they can even differentiate between human languages. Researchers at Amboseli National Park in Kenya played two different recordings of human voices for elephants. One group of voices belonged to local Maasai men, who happen to have violent encounters with elephants from time to time while herding their cattle. Other voices belonged to Kamba men, who are farmers or employees of the national park, and usually pose no threat to the elephants. In both cases, researchers played the same phrase, “Look, look over there, a group of elephants is coming,” in two different languages. When elephants heard Maasi voices, they demonstrated defensive behaviors, such as gathering together, investigative smelling through their trunks, and moving cautiously away from the stimuli. Interestingly, elephants showed a greater reaction to the voices of Maasi men than Maasi women or boys, suggesting that they can even differentiate the gender and age of humans. In contrast, when they heard Kamba voices, of any gender or age, they did not show any concern. Ability to recognize predators is a crucial skill for many animals, and elephants seem to be capable of pinpointing the ethnicity, gender, and age of a potential predator, perhaps through recognizing acoustic cues in human voices. This ability serves as an early warning system for elephants and it could become very useful, especially when the predator is out of sight.

Set your alarm early to control weight

Timing and intensity of light correlate with body weight in adults. Reid JK et al. February 2014, PLOS ONE

Early sunlight exposure in the morning has been found to lower a person’s body mass index (BMI). A recent study showed that 20-30 minutes of morning light controls approximately 20% of the variation in a person’s BMI. This effect was independent of physical activity, caloric intake, sleep timing, age, or season. Our bodies have an internal body clock called the “circadian clock.” It roughly controls 24-hour cycles of physical, mental, and behavioral activities. Light is the most potent regulator of our circadian clock. It sends strong signals to our brain and body, which in turn regulate our energy balance and metabolism. Previous studies showed that animals with an altered circadian clock gain weight even though they don’t eat more. Similarly, new research with study subjects showed that missing out on the early rays of sun shifts our circadian clock and alters our appetite, satiety, and even the way that our body processes food, which ultimately leads to weight gain. In modern times, we live and work indoors, thus are often not able to get enough light in the morning. While the daylight is the best source, experts think that standing by the windows or even using a strong desk lamp would be sufficient to properly synchronize our circadian clock in the morning.

Mystery of zebra stripes solved

The function of zebra stripes. Caro T. et al. March 2014, Nature Communications

The black and white stripes of zebras have intrigued people for centuries. Scientists have speculated many hypotheses for the purpose of these stripes, such as camouflage, heat management, social implications, etc. A new systematic study analyzed 7 different equid species with stripes on their bodies and mapped their geographic locations. Then, researchers generated a statistical model by comparing the stripe patterns of these animals and their environmental conditions. Strikingly, they discovered a clear overlap between the range of striped animals and where biting flies, like horseflies or tsetse flies, are highly populated. Scientists noticed greater striping among animals in regions where there were more flies. These results suggest that having stripes may protect zebras from biting flies. Zebras, unlike other African hooved mammals living in the same area, are particularly susceptible to biting, as their hair is shorter than the pinchers of the biting flies. A separate work has shown that some flies tend to avoid black-and-white striped surfaces, supporting the hypothesis that biting flies may avoid the striped surfaces of zebras. As much as these results are encouraging, no one actually observed zebras in the wild to see if biting flies avoid landing on them, in part because it’s almost impossible to stay that close to zebras. The next challenge for the researchers is to observe this phenomena live in the wild.

Termites are 1-2 cm in size, but they live in mud towers that can grow to five meters tall. The scale, between termite and tower, is comparable to that between a human and a skyscraper. When their life style, which seems chaotic from the outside, is investigated, one finds that termites maintain social lives within perfect urban communities. These wondrous mini cities feature air conditioning and ventilation systems, in addition to a queen chamber, and rooms for incubation and juveniles.

An instinctual sense of solidarity that has been ingrained among living organisms also plays an important role among termites. They display an amazing form of cooperation in matters like foraging and defense. As termites live in colonies, they follow a particular arrangement of duties. The queen is in charge of new generations; workers meet the nest’s needs, and soldiers are responsible for its defense. When necessary, workers also participate in defensive tasks. One of the termite’s defense mechanisms, which amazed scientists, was recently discovered in June 2012.

Jan Sobotnik, with the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, and Thomas Bourguignon, of Université Libre de Bruxelles at French Guiana, discovered an unseen feature of the termite species Neocapritermes taracua. The workers of this species are, in a sense, enlisted to military duty when they “retire” due to old age and an inability to forage due to weakened mouths. They serve the defense of the nest as something of a chemical weapon specialist. When the colony is under attack, these veterans blow up a droplet-size balloon filled with a type of chemical generated in between segments of their neck and dorsal region.

When worker termites get older, blue crystal chambers, which resemble backpacks, grow on their two shoulder blades on their back. These crystals are a kind of protein called hemocyanin that contains copper, and they join together with saliva when under threat. This fusion causes a chemical reaction. The end product is a sticky liquid, like a gel, that is compressed to expand and then burst. This can fatally injure a predator. The poisonous substance that is dispersed causes rotting upon contact. The chemical formula of this blue crystal substance, along with its reactions, are still unknown.

Researchers from Oregon University (USA) reported that the mouth of an ant is worn down by age. When this occurs, these senior individuals, which used to cut leaves, now take on different jobs, like carrying the leaves. Leaf cutter ants, which are also known as the ranchers of the animal kingdom for their ability to cultivate fungi in their nests, can cut and carry leaves whose weight can be up to 50 times their body weight.

The leaves that are transported to the nest comprise the main ingredient required for the growth of fungi in a suitable environment regulated for the right temperature and humidity. This fungi is ultimately used to feed the colony. This is a fine example of senior members of a community staying active in a new role. And this is not just unique to termites: research shows that members of animal societies adapt to changes in their lives, and continue serving their colonies even if they lose some dexterity.

Our universe seems to be set up this way. As mentioned in the above examples, there is a change of occupation instead of just retirement. Just as there is no termite that stops working, there is no bird that says “I do not want to fly anymore because I am old,” or no tree that says, “I will retire and stop giving fruit because of my old age.” Organisms adapt to new conditions and find new ways to provide for our planet.

Our aging planet will continue rotating and the sun will keep smiling on us with its heat and light until the end of such organism’s lifetimes.

When it comes to humans, continuing with occupation and business as much as they can should be the desired effort. Especially for charity work, no one should mention retirement or leave of a duty, and receding to one’s quarters. Let us renew our intentions now, and review our senior living plans.

There are so many blessings in life, granted to us free of charge, which we take for granted. Eyesight, being able to see near and far distances, most certainly tops the list. But we do not have to be deprived of our sight in order to understand its wisdom and functioning, and to contemplate upon its true value and worth.

Years of research and hard work were dedicated to develop cameras and multi-featured objective lenses. Initially, one to three lens objective cameras were used for simple shots, whereas today, objectives with seven to ten lenses are being used to take better photographs from a snow drop falling onto a flower to a buzzing bee resting on a flower. I wonder to what extent human beings are aware of the pair of eyes that has been bestowed upon them by God, and its ability to see different colors and shapes both near and far. Unfortunately, as people who often understand the true value of things once they are lost, we understand the blessing of being able to see near after the age of forty when we cannot read the newspaper without glasses and when we cannot put a thread through a needle.

So why is it that we can still see far after the age of forty but fail to see near? In order to understand this we need to examine the structure of the eye and its functions.

The structure of the eye and the ability to see

The exterior part of the eye is made up of a translucent layer (cornea) at the front and a white protective layer (sclera) behind it. The vascular layer of the eye (uvea) is located in the middle of the sclera. The most inner part of the eye is made up of the retina, the light-sensitive layer of tissue responsible for converting light rays into electrical signals. The hole located in the center of the iris, the colored part of the eye, is called the pupil. Behind the pupil is the crystalline lens. For a clear vision, lights reflected from objects need to be focused on the central part of the retina (fovea). While cameras have lens systems to focus the image on the film, it is the cornea and crystalline lens that are responsible for the same function in the eye.

Refraction power of cornea is constant and around 43 diopters. The refraction power of the eye lens when resting is around 20 diopters. Light rays coming from outside refracts at a set ratio and manages to focus on the retina. The light rays coming at the retina are then coded into electrical signals. Afterwards these signals are routed towards related regions of the brain via optic nerves. Most of the stimuli relayed by the optical nerve arrive at the visual center of the brain (occipital cortex). These coded electrical signals then become vision when they reach the optical lobe of the brain.

The function of the lens and accommodation

The refraction power of both the cornea and the lens (43+20+63 diopters) is sufficient to focus an image on the retina when looking at objects farther than 6 meters. Extra refraction power is needed for closer distances in order to focus images on the retina. Mobile lens systems enable this job to take place in camera objectives. Since refraction power of the cornea in human eye does not change, this additional task of refraction is set to be provided by the ocular lens. It is built as a flexible structure without any blood vessels. Aqueous humor (lens fluid) which is secreted by the ciliary body is responsible for lens nourishment, removal of waste products and toning of the eye since the lens does not contain any blood vessels. This internal fluid has low oxygen concentration therefore the lens is made to derive its energy supply mostly from anaerobic metabolism.

The iris is positioned in a suitable place where it can change the shape of the internal lens behind the pupil. The lens in this special place is suspended into position via zonule of zinn ligaments attached to the eye as a ciliary body. The ciliary body contains ciliary muscles where zinn ligaments are attached. Only 0.5 mm of space exists between the lens and the ciliary body. Zinn ligaments are tight when ciliary muscles are resting and this enables a flatter configuration of the lens. Upon contraction of ciliary muscles, zinn ligaments become relaxed and the diameter of the lens decreases along with an increase in its thickness. Thicker lens becomes more globular and this increases its refractive power, thus enabling vision of the closer distances. This increase in refractive power of the lens in order to see closer objects is called “accommodation.” If the stimuli of the ciliary muscles expire, ciliary muscles then relax making zinn ligaments tighter, reducing thickness of the lens, making it flatter and therefore less refractive. This reshapes it to focus on distant objects for a clearer vision.

Accommodation mechanisms and loss of accommodation during aging

The vision blurs temporarily when one takes an immediate shift from staring at an object in the distance to another object nearby. As soon as this blurry image reaches the occipital cortex, stimuli generated here arrives first at the Edinger-Westphal nucleus via special nerve tracks and then to the ciliary muscles of the eye. In a very short time, this blurry vision is corrected and becomes clearer without us even noticing with optimal increase of refraction in the internal lens. In a time as short as 0.35 seconds, for thousands of times in a day, this mechanism is set to function in such a perfect manner to spur those thoughtful minds into reflection and wonder.

Accommodation ability is at its highest point in children and this feature of the eye decreases with age. Refractive power of the lens can increase up to 34 diopters with a 14 diopters accommodation power along with 20 diopters of resting refraction during childhood. This way, children can clearly see objects as close as 7 centimeters. Accommodation power decreases with age. It reduces to 4-8 diopters after the age of 40 and 2-3 diopters around the age of 50. It is widely accepted that refractive power disappears entirely after the age of 60.

In the advanced stages of aging, the eye lens loses its transparency, becomes cloudy as it develops cataract. Eye lens in this poor transparent stage is removed via cataract surgery, to be replaced with an artificial lens to carry out the refracting task. Unfortunately today, technology is still unable to produce an artificial lens that is capable of all the tasks that a human eye can perform. Artificial internal eye lenses that are used in surgeries today cannot carry out accommodation functions. Majority of these lenses can only focus on one point at a near or far distance. Newly developed multifocal lenses can utilize various mechanisms to see both near and far distances yet they are not in any position to replace the human lens completely.

Ocular motions when looking near and far

Thanks to ocular movements, we do not have to move our head constantly while looking around. The eye movement involving both eyes in which each eye moves in the same direction is referred to as version type movements. Another movement type is called vergence, and this is when both eyes move in opposite directions. Vergence type movements are a type of ocular motility coded in a special center part of the brain. It is called convergence because the eyes get closer to each other when looking at closer distances, and called divergence when both eyes focus on the same spot by directing away from each other. If eyes only moved in the same direction without this convergence mechanism, both eyes would not be able to focus on closer points and would not be able to develop three dimensional visions (depth perception).

In addition to accommodation and convergence, when we look closer, our pupils get smaller (Miosis). Light rays coming from outside objects get improved focus on the retina via this constriction of the pupils. This way, a clearer image is provided.

When we look closer, accommodation, convergence and miosis all happen at the same time in a synchronized manner to provide a clear vision. The details of these complicated chains of events have yet to be understood.

Conclusion

The fineness of refractive power of the eye with a single lens, accommodation ability and sensitive balances of ocular motility is only a few of the blessings of the eye granted to humankind. The ability to see near being at its peak during young ages when learning is most active is another dimension to this miracle. These wisdom-filled capacities given to the eye makes one ponder upon the importance of the eye for survival, in addition to being a reminder to those with an open mind and heart to gaze upon the natural world and contemplate upon the Almighty.

In the seventeenth century, nearly seven centuries after Ibn Sina, the Dutch scientist Anton van Leeuwenhoek (also referred to as the “Father of Microbiology”) observed microorganisms under a microscope (van Leeuwenhoek 1980). With his fundamental discovery, he showed that there were living organisms that were not visible to the naked eye. What van Leeuwenhoek did not realize was that these microorganisms (e.g. pathogen: a disease causing microbe) could actually be the cause of infections. This is contrary to the discoveries made by Ibn Sina seven centuries earlier that microorganisms could be the cause of infections despite the extremely limited evidence for the existence of microorganisms at the time. Nearly two centuries after Leeuwenhoek’s first observation of microorganisms, in 1876, Robert Koch, a German physician, postulated that microorganisms could actually be the cause of infection and therefore disease by his fundamental observation that the blood of an infected animal that contained pathogenic bacteria that, when transferred to a healthy animal caused the recipient animal to become sick (Koch 1999).

Let’s take a moment to reflect on Ibn Sina’s life story to encourage readers to learn more about him (McGinnis 2010) and his contributions to modern medicine and science.

Ibn Sina was born in 980 in in the village of Afshana near Bukhara, Uzbekistan (previously known as Khorasan) to a local governor named Abdullah, from Balkh, and his wife Setareh, a local from Afshana. Thanks to his father’s position as a governor as well as his background as a scholar, Ibn Sina had access to an excellent education in Bukhara, which at the time was the capital and intellectual center of the Samanids. Ibn Sina was taught by some of the most famous scholars of the time in the sciences and in Islamic theology. By the age of 18, Ibn Sina had already mastered the sciences of his day and had become a practicing physician. In addition to his expertise in medicine, for which he became world-renown, he was also a well-known philosopher, astrophysicist, mathematician, and theologian. He spent his life educating people, treating patients and writing books that not only enlightened the people of his age but later generations throughout the world as well.

Although Ibn Sina was considered one of the greatest Muslim philosophers of the medieval age he was a widely respected and well-known physician and was known as the “Prince of Physicians” in the West, and al-Sheikh al-Rais (Leader of the Scholars) among his students and colleagues (McGinnis 2010, 227). His gigantic medical encyclopedia al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine), comprising of upwards of a million words, has been used as the standard medical textbook up until the seventeenth century and is still widely considered a valuable resource for the study of medicine. It was printed thirty-six times in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries alone (Ullman 1978) and is regarded as one of the most influential books in Europe during the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Siraisi 2001).

The Canon of Medicine consists of five books with each book subdivided into various subjects, subsidiary subjects, summaries, and sections. The first book, also called al-Kulliyyat (The Collection), discusses the scientific background of medicine and anatomy such as physiology, symptomatology, and the principles of therapy. The second book has an account of the therapeutic properties of substances used in medicine. The third book is devoted to pathology and specific or localized ailments. Diseases that affect the whole body, such as fever, are discussed in the fourth book. Ibn Sina explained the mixing of drugs in the final volume, which is a book on pharmacology. Ibn Sina, in his Canon, derives his system of medicine from the Greco-Roman physician Galen (Galen of Pergamon, modern day Bergama, Izmir, Turkey, 129-200 CE) who himself based his approach on Hippocrates (460-370 BCE). Ibn Sina also benefited from ar-Razi (Rhazes in Latin, 865-925 CE) and al-Majusi (Haly Abbas in Latin, died circa 990) to present a systematized and comprehensive view of the medical sciences of the time (Prioreschi 2003).

Ibn Sina is only one of many great minds of the Muslim World during the medieval era. There were other great minds such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes in Latin), Ali Kuscu, al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Omar Khayyam and many more whose multifaceted studies encompassed diverse scholarly fields such as exegesis, law, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The great Mesopotamia and Andalusia Civilizations – civilizations that were built by these brilliant scientists and philosophers – established the foundations of the science, art and philosophy of our age. The knowledge developed by the Muslim scholars was later transmitted to Europeans and enabled Europe to emerge from the Dark Ages and into the Renaissance.

A Renaissance is also needed for the Muslim world today. This can only be possible when they can raise a new generation of scholars like Ibn Sina who can lead the society with their groundbreaking findings and illuminating interpretations.

References

• Colgan, Richard. 2009. Advice to the Young Physician. Springer, New York.
• Koch, Robert. 1999. A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
• Life and work of Anton van Leeuwenhoek of Delft in Holland; 1632-1723. Municipal Archives, Delft, 1980.
• McGinnis, Jon. 2010. Avicenna. Oxford University Press, New York.
• Prioreschi, Plinio. 2003. Medieval Medicine vol. 5: Medieval Medicine, Horatius Press, Omaha, Nebraska.
• Siraisi, Nancy. 2001. Medicine and the Italian Universities 1250-1600. Leiden, The Netherlands.
• Ullman, Manfred. 1978. Islamic Medicine. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
• United States National Library of Medicine, MS A 53
• http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/science/index.html

Original article: Olzsak T. et al, Science (2012, epub ahead of print)

It has been known by epidemiologists that people who grew up in farms are less likely to acquire immune diseases such as asthma, allergies, inflammatory bowel disease and multiple sclerosis when compared to people living in cities. Such observations have been the roots of “hygiene hypothesis,” which essentially points out the beneficial effects of being exposed to infectious agents. Supporting this theory, a recent study at Harvard Medical School showed that exposure to symbiotic bacteria has a long lasting beneficial effect on the immune system development. “We as a species are not exposed to the same germs that we were exposed to in the past,” said the co-author Dennis Kasper, a microbiologist at Harvard Medical School in Boston. In this study, published in Science, the researchers compared germ-free mice to mice with normal bacterial flora. Germ-free mice showed significantly higher levels of invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells in their colons and lungs. “We made the serendipitous observation that these cells were dramatically enriched in the lung and colon in mice that lacked any microbes,” said the co-author Richard Blumberg, the chief of gastroenterology at Brigham and Woman’s Hospital in Boston. Body’s own production of elevated iNKT cells correlated with higher susceptibility to inflammatory bowel disease and allergic asthma in germ-free mice. Most strikingly, the study showed that exposure to these bacteria in late age did not lower the susceptibility to these immune diseases, indicating that the bacterial exposure needs to be early in life to boost the immune system. After all, broad-spectrum antibiotics for babies may not be such a good idea.

2- Giant chickens of Jurassic Park

Original article: Xu X. et al, Nature 484, 92 (2012)

Many of us undoubtedly learned a lot about dinosaurs from the famous Sci-fi movie Jurassic Park, but who would have imagined that some gigantic feathered dinosaurs would be running along with our favorite monster T-Rex? Paleontologists have recently made an incredible discovery in Liaoning Province of China. They found a set of perfectly preserved fossils that belong to a previously unknown species of dinosaurs. These 125-million-year-old feathered giant dinosaurs represent the largest feathered animal species ever lived on earth. The adult one is predicted to be at least 9 meters (30 feet) long with a weight of 1400 kg (~3000 pounds), which is approximately 40 times bigger than the Beipiaosaurus, largest known feathered dinosaur. New gigantic feathered dinosaurs are given a Chinese-Latin name Yutyrannus huali meaning a “beautiful feathered tyrant.” Simple filament like structures as well as the relatively small sizes of feathers seem more similar to feathers from a baby chick than the plumes of an adult bird, suggesting that Yutyrannus used feathers not for flying but for body temperature insulation, perhaps under the harsh climate conditions of that age. Paleontologists are really excited to see that how much more we have learned about dinosaurs over last 15 years and they predict that many different feathered meat-eating dinosaurs lived before and they are still yet to be discovered.

3- Stardust mystery revealed

Original article: Norris B.R.M. et al, Nature 484, 220 (2012)

Heavy elements are formed in the cores of stars and are crucial in formation of celestial structures like our earth. When an intermediate-mass star dies, it triggers a cosmic sandstorm that lasts thousands of years ejecting more than half of its mass into space. Our Sun is expected to go into a similar phase in around 5 billion years. Scientists observed these sandstorms for years but it was a mystery how these particles found could leave the vicinity of the stars and find their way into interstellar space. Computer simulations hinted that these sand-like particles could not be that small, otherwise they would be evaporated by the immense heat of the dying star. Scientists using the Very Large Telescope in Chile had a chance to explore these stars in a greater detail and discovered that the size of these particles is around a micrometer. This size might seem very small to us but for these particles, it is large enough to behave like mirrors for the light rays coming out of the star instead of absorbing them. Since light also behaves like a particle, the momentum transferred by this reflection helps particles to accelerate to the speeds like 10km/second. As the lead author of the study, Barnaby Norris from University of Sydney says: “The dust grains are like lots of little sails catching the wind, or in this case, starlight.” The material that comes out of the stars is recycled during the formation of new stellar objects like our old planet.

4- Babies understand more than we think

Original article: Bergelsona, E. & Swingley, D., P.N.A.S. 109, 3252 (2012)

Most babies do not say a meaningful word until they are a year old. It was not clear whether they knew the meaning of the words prior to the speaking age. It is easy to ask the question on whether the babies understand words but it is hard to scientifically measure it. The researchers from the University of Pennsylvania devised an ingenious experiment to test the hypothesis whether the 6-9 months babies understood the common words. During the experiment babies sat on their parents’ lap in front of a computer while some images of body parts or foods were shown on the screen. The parents were given instructions through headphones about what to say to the baby about the image on the screen. Babies were monitored by an eye-tracking device to measure their attention being directed to screen. The researchers designed a control environment by pairing a body part and a food item. For instance, if a banana and some hair were shown on the screen, the researchers measured the time that the baby fixated on the banana when the parent instructed the child to look at the banana versus when the parent instructed the baby to look at the hair. 33 infants of ages 6 to 9 months and 50 toddlers of ages 10 to 20 months were recruited for this study. The study convincingly showed that the babies fixated longer on an object when they were instructed to do so. Moreover, as the age of the babies increased the period of fixation stayed pretty much constant until 14 months, but jumped dramatically afterwards. The reason behind the jump in 14 months begs further research. Now, the researchers want also to test the vocabulary of the babies and whether the babies also understand the abstract concepts.