Fethullah Gülen’s Hizmet movement emphasized education as a core service, establishing thousands of schools globally over the past half-century. Turkish teachers embarked on a journey of hijrah (migration), leaving their comforts behind, mirroring a self-imposed exile. This voluntary migration allowed them to spread knowledge; but the 2016 Turkish coup d’état dramatically altered their circumstances. Many Hizmet-affiliated individuals were forced into exile, fleeing persecution. This involuntary hijrah transformed their experience, making them strangers (ghuraba’) in this world.

The concept of ghurbah (exile/estrangement) signifies physical and spiritual separation from one’s homeland, family and God. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said, “Be in this world as though you are a stranger (gharīb).” This spiritual estrangement reminds us of our temporary presence in this world; our feeling of alienation, and longingness to return to God.

The Qur’an reminds believers: “And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and lives and fruits, but give good tidings to the patient” (Qur’an 2:155). Hizmet members exemplified this patience amidst separation from their family and homeland; forced into a state of ghurbah. Despite physical separation, Hizmet members find solace in their faith in Divine Destiny, enduring alienation with patience. Ghurbah becomes spiritually transformative, embracing ethical, psychological and spiritual dimensions. Ethically, they cultivate resilience, moral courage and compassion; psychologically, they cope with isolation, nostalgia and disconnection; and spiritually, they long for reunion with God, echoing Rumi’s reed metaphor.

In the context of hijrah, Turkish teachers experience ghurbah as a deep sense of estrangement, adapting to foreign cultures, languages, and environments. But now that they are forced into exile, their sense of isolation and alienation have intensified, making their continued service a remarkable display of commitment and perseverance. 

Ghurbah is connected with hijrah (migration). Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) journey from Mecca to Medina inspires Turkish teachers to undertake migrations. Exile intensifies their feelings of isolation, yet they continue serving, demonstrating commitment and perseverance in the footsteps of their Hocaefendi. Through this lens, the movement’s concept of ghurbah, originally denoted the selfless sacrifices of teachers leaving their homeland to educate others globally, but since their forced displacement, ghurbah has taken on a deeper psycho-spiritual significance. In turbulent times, ghurbah emerges as a pillar of ethical strength, guiding individuals toward spiritual growth. Through Hizmet’s lens, we witness the transformative power of embracing estrangement, cultivating inner strength and upholding compassion, justice and wisdom.

As the sun rose over Agra, casting an orange hue on the horizon, I approached the Taj Mahal, one of the world’s most breathtaking examples of Islamic art and architecture. Standing before the massive structure, I was awed by its intricate details and the spiritual aura it radiated.

The Taj Mahal, built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, is a testament to the exquisite beauty and grandeur of Islamic art. From the moment I set foot on its grounds, the complex patterns and designs covering every surface captivated me.

Entering the main gate, I was greeted by a reflecting pool mirroring the towering white marble structure. The Taj Mahal’s symmetrical layout, with its four minarets and central dome, exemplifies the Islamic concept of balance and harmony.

Approaching the entrance to the tomb, I admired the delicate carvings and ornate calligraphy on the walls and ceilings. Every motif held deep spiritual significance.

It was clear that the builders of the Taj Mahal aimed to bridge the material and spiritual realms through art and architecture. The building’s beauty reflects the nobility of the material world, while its designs and symbolism remind us of the deeper spiritual realities beyond. As I stood before the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, I felt a profound sense of peace and tranquility wash over me. The spiritual energy of the Taj Mahal seemed to permeate every inch of the building, filling me with a sense of awe and wonder.

The Taj Mahal showcases the artistic excellence and architectural brilliance of its era. Its breathtaking designs are a tribute to the artisans’ skills, while its grand proportions reflect the enduring power of the material world. However, the Taj Mahal’s significance extends beyond its physical beauty; it symbolizes the eternal truths that lie beyond the material world and serves as a reminder of the spiritual realm at the heart of existence.

The historical perspective on the Taj Mahal’s significance has recently transformed from a mere symbol of love to a representation of Paradise, intricately linked to the notion of the Last Judgment. This transformative view stems from the research of Wayne Edison Begley, who published Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb (1989). Begley proposed that the Taj might symbolize the heavenly Throne of God, which tradition situates above Paradise, where God will sit in judgment on the Day of Resurrection. Top of Form

Viewed as a cohesive unit, encompassing its walls, south buildings, gardens, and terrace, the Taj Mahal conveys a unique and complex symbolic message. The monument’s meaning is so intertwined with its architectural components that any omission or alteration would compromise its symbolic intent. Even minor changes, such as altering materials or reconfiguring gardens, would impact the symbol it represents. Contemporary texts on the Taj Mahal’s creation, particularly those by Begley, highlight its association with the “Plain of Assembly,” the eschatological place of the Last Judgment. The layout of the Taj complex and its apocalyptic imagery suggest it was conceived as an allegory of the Day of Resurrection. This interpretation finds a parallel in Ibn al-Arabi’s diagram of the “Plain of Assembly” from Futuhat al-Makkiyya. The rectangular area of the Taj Mahal is surrounded by rows of angels, resembling the boundaries of its gardens. The Throne of God, borne by eight angels, is symbolized as an eight-pointed star near the mausoleum’s octagonal shape. This throne is flanked by the four righteous—the mosque and the guest pavilion—and the Angel Gabriel below. The central basin aligns with the Prophet’s location, where souls are weighed. The Taj Mahal’s gardens symbolize Paradise, while the eschatological manuscript shows Paradise on the right and Hell on the left, with a bridge for the righteous to cross. Though not a perfect representation, the Taj Mahal’s design aligns with Islamic depictions of the afterlife.

Islamic art and architecture transcend beyond the realm of mere physical aesthetics, and rather serve as profound expressions of philosophical and spiritual profundity. They are emblematic of Islamic beliefs, values and culture, and convey the essence of Islamic theology through their designs, geometric patterns, and calligraphic displays. These fine points and artistic manifestations of Islam are reflective of the Islamic worldview, which places the idea of the sole creatorship of the universe to God and considers everything within it as a reflection of His magnificence. Through Islamic art and architecture, the quest to capture the beauty and perfection of God’s creation is accomplished. The exquisitely detailed patterns and designs serve as a tangible representation of the essence of Islamic beliefs, values and culture. Furthermore, the ornate subtleties of Islamic art and architecture are intended to inspire a sense of wonder and amazement at the splendor of God’s creation.

Islamic art and architecture, steeped in the quintessence of Islamic philosophy, is a manifestation of the sublime appreciation of the divine that imbues the universe. The rich spirituality and profound philosophical depth that enshrouds Islamic art and architecture bear witness to the highest form of creativity, inspired by the magnificence of God’s creation. Its foundation is rooted in the Islamic interpretation that prohibits the representation of living beings, paving the way for a distinctive art style that cherishes non-representational forms like geometric shapes, calligraphy, and arabesque patterns. Islamic art, therefore, is not merely an aesthetic expression but also an embodiment of symbolic expression that conveys an underlying message of deep reverence for the divine.

The strict prohibition on the representation of living beings in Islamic art has been instrumental in shaping the unique style that it embodies. The focus on non-representational forms such as geometric shapes, calligraphy, and arabesque patterns is a remarkable deviation from the conventional art styles. However, this distinctive style serves a purpose that goes beyond aesthetics. It symbolizes the recognition of the divine, the power that is greater than the material world, and a celebration of the non-material essence of the universe. Thus, the art of Islam is a precise and symbolic representation of the highest form of spirituality.

The artistic and architectural heritage of the Islamic world is grounded in the theological principles of Islam, which emphasize the significance of unity, balance, and harmony. The paramount goal of Islamic art and architecture is to communicate the fundamental interconnectedness of all creation, the harmony between the individual and the universe, and the equilibrium between the material and spiritual realms. Additionally, Islamic art and architecture seek to embody the spiritual and intellectual ideals of Islam.

Tawhid

The genesis of Islamic art and architecture can be traced to pre-Islamic Arabian art and the styles of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires. During the seventh century and beyond, with the rise of the Islamic caliphate, art and architecture evolved significantly. Islamic artists and architects drew inspiration from diverse cultures, including Persian, Egyptian, Syrian, and Iraqi traditions, skillfully blending these influences into a unique Islamic style. This fusion of artistic traditions contributed to a rich and complex Islamic art and architecture that became a hallmark of Islamic civilization for centuries. At the very heart of Islamic art and architecture lies the principle of tawhid, an embodiment of the belief in the singular and indivisible nature of the divine. It is this principle that finds expression in the meticulous geometric patterns that abound in Islamic art, which, by their very design, reflect the unity and infinitude of God. These patterns, constructed from a complex web of interlocking squares and circles, represent an eternal, unbroken chain of unity that echoes the timeless nature of divinity.

Moreover, Islamic art and architecture is characterized by a striking symmetry and balance that serves to mirror the natural harmony of the universe, seen by adherents as a divine reflection of God’s will. This principle is imbued in the very fabric of Islamic art, from the carefully carved designs of the ubiquitous tiles adorning mosques and palaces, to the stunning calligraphy that adorns countless Islamic manuscripts. Through such exquisite attention to detail, the unity of God is celebrated and immortalized in the very foundations of Islamic art and architecture, a testimony to the lasting impact of this profound spiritual tradition. In The Topkapi Scroll: Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture, Gulru Necipoglu maintains:

“… geometric patterns as eternal archetypes that could lead the contemplative mind from outer appearances to the esoteric inner realities of Sufism through spiritual hermeneutics.”

Ihsan

At the essence, the concept of ihsan is a profound and multifaceted notion that encapsulates the pursuit of excellence, beauty, and righteousness. It is an ethical and spiritual ideal that informs every aspect of Islamic culture, including the arts and architecture. In the context of Islamic art and architecture, ihsan is manifested in the meticulous attention to detail, exquisite craftsmanship, and superior quality of materials employed in the creation of objects and structures. These elements serve as tangible expressions of the artist’s and architect’s devotion to God, and their commitment to upholding the highest standards of artistic and ethical excellence. Whether in the intricate geometric patterns adorning a mosque’s mihrab, the ornate calligraphy adorning a Qur’an, or the exquisite tilework gracing a palace’s façade, the Islamic artist and architect strive to embody the ideals of ihsan in their work.

As such, ihsan plays a crucial role in shaping the aesthetic and spiritual landscape of Islamic culture. It is an invitation to approach artistic creation not merely as a means of self-expression or aesthetic pleasure, but as a profound act of worship and devotion. By infusing their work with ihsan, Islamic artists and architects transform the ordinary into the extraordinary, elevating the material to the spiritual and transcending the boundaries of time and space.

Barakah

Islamic art and architecture manifest the concept of barakah, embodying the belief in God’s blessings and abundance. These art forms inspire serenity and awe, reflecting the beauty of God’s creation. They bear witness to Islamic values, revering the natural world as a divine expression and a source of inspiration. Islamic art and architecture often feature gardens, fountains, and natural elements that convey peaceful harmony, encouraging reflection on God’s eternal beauty. With intricate patterns, vibrant colors, and precise details, these masterpieces elevate the human spirit, reflecting the enduring blessings of God.

Islamic architecture is a resplendent display of the artistic excellence and cultural values that have thrived in the Islamic world over the centuries. As an intrinsic extension of Islamic art, this architectural style showcases a striking blend of fine designs, ornate patterns, and symbolic motifs that have been imbued with profound religious significance. “Islamic art is at last revealed to be what it really is, namely the earthly crystallization of the spirit of the Islamic revelation as well as a reflection of the heavenly realities on earth, a reflection with the help of which the Muslim makes his journey through the terrestrial environment and beyond to the Divine Presence Itself, to the Reality which is the Origin and End of this art” (Necipoglu 1995, p. 96).

One cannot help but marvel at the striking characteristics of Islamic art and architecture, notably its masterful use of calligraphy. This art form is held in high esteem and is considered the quintessential expression of Islamic art. Islamic calligraphy is the embodiment of the beauty and grandeur of the Qur’an, the holy scripture of Islam, and serves as a testament to the religion’s rich cultural heritage. Its complex and deliberate strokes serve to evoke a sense of spiritual and intellectual resonance that is emblematic of the Islamic faith.

Domes

Another remarkable feature of Islamic architecture is the integration of domes and arches, as these architectural elements symbolize the unity of the cosmos and the indivisible connection between humanity and the universe. In his “Islamic Art and Spirituality” Seyyed Hossein Nasr rightly adds:

“The more one penetrates into the significance of Islamic art the more one becomes aware of the most profound relationship between this art and Islamic spirituality … traditional Islamic art was created by an inspiration which issued ultimately from the Muhammadan “barakah” and with the aid of a “hikmah” which resides in the inner dimensions of the Noble Quran. To grasp fully the significance of Islamic art is to become aware that it is an aspect of the Islamic revelation, a casting of the Divine Realities (haqa’iq) upon the plane of material manifestation in order to carry man upon the wings of its liberating beauty to his original abode of Divine Proximity” (Nasr 1987).

Islamic art and architecture are rich in symbols that resonate with Islamic culture, with every detail imbued with profound meanings integral to the faith. The crescent moon, star, and five-pointed star are prominent symbols. The crescent moon and star, linked to the lunar-based Islamic calendar, signify new beginnings and divine guidance. The five-pointed star, representing the five pillars of Islam—Shahada, Salat, Zakat, Sawm, and Hajj—serves as a framework for Muslim life.

These symbols in Islamic art and architecture convey the spiritual and intellectual values of Islam, reminding us of its enduring legacy. They are inseparable from Islamic culture, reflecting unity, balance, and harmony, and are a testament to the faith’s rich heritage. Islamic art and architecture are characterized by geometric and floral patterns, calligraphy, plays of light and shadow, and architectural elements like domes and arches. They epitomize the magnificence and spiritual tenets of Islam, serving as an integral part of Islamic culture.

References

• Bloom, J. M. (2017). The Art of Islam: Language and Meaning. Yale University Press.
• Denny, W. B. (2010). Islamic Art and Architecture. Thames & Hudson.
• Golombek, L., & Wilber, D. (1988). The Timurid Architecture of Iran and Turan. Princeton University Press.
• Grabar, Oleg. (1987). The Formation of Islamic Art. New Haven: Yale University Press.
• Ibn Arabi, M. (1996). Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyah (The Meccan Revelations) (A. A. S. Al-Mansoub, Ed.) (4th ed., Vols. 1-14). Dar Sadir.
• Khoury, N. (1983). Islamic Architecture: A Critical Introduction. G. Braziller.
• Nasr, S. H. (1987). Islamic art and spirituality. Traditional Hikma. Retrieved from https://fountainmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nasr-Seyyed-Hossein-Islamic-Art-and-Spirituality-1987-html-copy-f5f.pdf
• Necipoğlu, G. (1995). The Topkapi Scroll: Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture. Getty Publications. Retrieved from https://fountainmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/9780892363353-f53.pdf (p. 92).
• Rabbat, N. (2006). Islamic architecture: past, present, future. The Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
• Suleiman, Y. (2005). The Concept of Tawhid in Islamic Art. Journal of Islamic Studies, 16(1), 27-49.
• Wayne Begley, “The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of its Symbolic Meaning,” Art Bulletin, vol 61, no 1, March 1979, pp. 7-37.

In every culture, at every stage of history from the beginning of time, individuals have been faced with the questions: Who am I? Why am I here? How can I make a contribution to society?

These were the questions that engaged my mind as a young man over forty years ago while sitting in a dentist’s waiting room, my attention riveted by a magazine article on the subject of Anomie [1], a sociological concept developed and elaborated by Emile Durkheim.

Durkheim described this condition as a breakdown in the normal framework of our lives; the overturning of rules and expectations, and a loss of the sense of one’s place in society and status vis-a-vis other people. The condition was observed by Durkheim as occurring mainly in cities within industrial society during times of rapid social change, both upward and downward. It appeared to give rise to grave psychological and sociological problems in those subjected to its demoralizing effects.

Reading this absorbing article jolted me into re-evaluating the course my life was currently taking. I was determined to discover more about these pressing problems facing contemporary industrial society and place myself in a position where I could better understand them and perhaps contribute to combating their disruptive social consequences.

After this revelation, I was unable to settle back into what I now saw as my humdrum administrative role. Within a few months, I left my job and enrolled as a mature student in a university degree course studying social science with an emphasis on sociology. What was even stranger was that I – a “canny” Presbyterian – had been lured off the “straight and narrow” by a bunch of philosophers, sociologists and psychologists and was now questioning the essential nature of man, his place in society and my role in contributing to an understanding of that society’s evolution.

However, I subsequently felt justified in my decision to switch my life course upon discovering that the illustrious origins of this timeless, universal search for self-knowledge was evidenced in the admonition, “Know thyself,” found inscribed on the pronaos of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi according to the Greek writer Pausanias. The phrase was later expounded upon by Socrates the philosopher who taught that the unexamined life was not worth living.

It was shortly after commencing my course that I discovered another social theory which initially seemed diametrically opposed yet, on closer study, exhibited many similarities to that of Emile Durkheim. This was Karl Marx’s concept of “Alienation.” In it he attempted to describe the repression and lack of self-worth experienced by individuals subjected to the forces, demands and exploitation exerted by industrial society. Marx believed that this alienation was manifested in several ways. Individuals were:

• Alienated from the products of their labor
• Alienated from their own particular activity within the labor process
• Alienated from their “Species Being” [2]
• Alienated from other people

The central hub of his concept was that individuals subjected to one or more of these several forms of alienation could only fulfill themselves completely through the development of their Species Being. Attaining that Species Being was therefore essential to their wellbeing and fulfillment.

Marx believed that nothing was inherently implanted in human nature. While our natural biological constitution produces appetites, needs, and propensities, these are shaped by the historical factors encountered daily. People can transcend their situation through action and social interaction, transforming their nature into that of fulfilled species beings. The major hindrances to achieving this were created by points one and two above – alienation from the products of their labor and alienation from their own specific activity within the labor process.

Marx believed that the unfulfilled species being could only be achieved by the removal of the repressive factors within the existing capitalist structure. The enormous wealth being created through the division of labor was not being equitably distributed due to the alienated labor situation. A fully developed species being would counteract this imbalance, allowing for the expression of aesthetic experiences, community activities, and intellectual creativity.

Herbert Marcus, a member of the school of Critical Theory, disagreed with Marx. He saw society as irrational, believing that its productive capacity was hindered, not facilitated, by the emancipation of human needs. He suggested that individuals identified so closely with their material possessions that they transformed the objective world into an extension of their own being. Thus, the existence imposed on them by technical rationality is an even more progressive stage of alienation. Their true consciousness becomes merged with and engulfed by a one-dimensional false consciousness which pervades all spheres of their social life: “The alienated subject is swallowed up by their alienated existence.” We create our images, which then become our desires. These desires motivate and eventually even obsess us.

I obtained my Bachelor of Science with Honors degree in Sociology, completing my thesis in my chosen area of study: “A Comparative Developmental Study of the Theories of Anomie and Alienation.” This was a quite different direction than most of my colleagues. However, despite numerous attempts to obtain a post where I could use my recently obtained, specialized knowledge to contribute to the solution of the related problems, I was unable to do so and was eventually forced to revert to an area where I had relevant experience. My career ended up in the field of aircraft engineering, specifically in developing/writing manufacturing procedures relating to aircraft and missile design and production for several large corporations as a Senior Business Procedures Analyst. This was a long way from my chosen vocation which was the area which had held the greatest attraction for me. Consequently, I was unable to contribute to attempts towards enlightenment or effect any degree of social improvements.

This is the first time in the forty-three years since then that I have “put pen to paper” setting forth some thoughts on the original development of the concepts of these sociologists and to apply their concepts to an analysis and understanding of whether and how Anomie and Alienation still exert their influence in today’s changing contemporary social conditions.

Alienation has become almost a casual everyday phrase now, losing much of the initial precision attributed to it through Marx’s definition and development. While there is no diminution in the problems raised by these two concepts within today’s “new technological society,” they are still as rampant as ever, merely altering their mode and direction of attack into a modern, technological milieu. Although Anomie was never as well-known as alienation and is even less so now, it is the one which arguably seems to have inserted itself into today’s acquisitive society most effectively. Durkheim’s “Malady of Infinite Aspiration” and the problem of “Egoism” or social isolation are more evident now than at any time in the past. It seems to me that the social factors which have re-ignited anomie are likely to continue to progress technically and continue to prove problematic in the future. Sociologists and philosophers obviously still grapple with these questions as our world evolves even more rapidly in this post-metaphysical social age. Our responses must necessarily continue to adapt to the historical and technological conditions confronting us, both individually and collectively. The evidence suggest that we are not doing a very good job of what is undoubtedly a mammoth task.                                   

This might seem paradoxical since today’s society is more affluent than at any period in world history. However, it would be a mistake to equate economic affluence with peace or even social contentment; nor does it necessarily provide a sense of belonging within traditional family structures. That nuclear family has been eroded, replaced by single and one-parent families. Nowadays offspring are spread worldwide further weakening family ties as society’s pace of development continues unabated. Meanwhile, sex and gender issues add to the complex new decisions individuals must make in everyday family life.

A large, mostly younger social group now retreats into mobile “cocoons” or internet cells, shutting out the rest of society. So called “Social Media” is anything but social, often judging individuals by its own superficial cult-driven stereotypes, verbally attacking those deemed to have fallen short of its distorted standards. It is insular, divisive, anti-social, adding nothing to our endeavors to realize humanity’s true social potential – to become socialized beings with a sense of belonging to a caring and thoughtful society.

The poet John Donne’s quote, “No man is an island,” admittedly a tad sexist in modern terminology, is totally at odds with reality in contemporary society. Millions of individuals sit “worshipping” small flickering screens, oblivious to time; entombed, isolated beings, marooned within fictional worlds. They are most certainly “islanders” and unlikely to revert to their previous lifestyles.

In medieval society people saw themselves as part of nature. They were bonded by the feudal system and the church. Most of the country’s production was agrarian-based and there was little sense of ambition for progress among the rural population. Adequate food production ensured the well-being, or at least the survival, of all the workers involved on the land.

That, however, was not to last.

The power of the guilds and the role of trade, ballooning as the growing impetus of the industrial revolution led to the emergence of capitalism, weakening church influence.

This was immediately followed by growing instability following dissolution of the feudal system. Two new factors – Mass Markets and Competition – limitless and threatening, gave rise to increased levels of freedom for all and independence for the ambitious. Many large landowners became caught up in technological developments; cotton, coal, canals and railways, to the detriment of agriculture. For the bulk of the less capable laborers, this represented a sense of uncertainty, threats, and often destitution.

Returning to Emile Durkheim’s theory of Anomie – his belief was that a person’s individual nature was a reflection of the social structure of the society in which they lived with all its stresses. He emphasized the need for social and moral regulation to protect people from the destructive effects of rapid economic, sociological and structural changes. He continued to propose the necessity of belonging to social groups to prevent the effects of “Egoism” (social isolation or detachment) leading to despair and alienation, even suicide.

It became apparent that even beneficiaries of this growth environment were also afflicted by what Durkheim called “The Malady of Infinite Aspiration” – continual striving for success with no ceiling on expectations and no sense of fulfillment following successful achievement.

Eric Fromm, another sociologist analyzing the same problem, based his critique of industrial society on the technique of “Humanistic Psychoanalysis” identifying two types of individual need:

• Firstly, physiological needs (such as hunger).
• Second, human yearnings rooted in the peculiar nature of existence.

He saw these basic needs as critical for people to retain a healthy mental state, experiencing nature and society in a fully human way, similar to Marx’s “species being.”

Like Durkheim, he believes that modern society no longer provides individuals with the means to engage in former “clan” or religious worship functions, thus creating a sense of anxiety and isolation that was not present in the past. Freedom FROM has not been replaced with freedom TO in achieving a positive, fulfilling lifestyle.

Conclusion

What then might be the solution as far as these sociologists are concerned to help today’s individual cope with this disastrous loss of identity, allied to the “morphing” of anomie and alienation by newly created factors within the modern technological world?

If the present trend continues, Fromm envisaged several possible alternatives, none of which sound particularly attractive:

• Nuclear War – civilization’s destruction and subsequent return to a primitive agrarian lifestyle for the survivors.
• Robotism resulting from the increasing continued automation and associated alienation and anomie.
• His last alternative, and only positive, solution is that we take responsibility for the life of ALL people.

First, abolish the constant threat of war through international cooperation, redistribution of total world wealth with resources placed under the administration of a world government. Work would need to be implemented on a co-management basis and returned to human proportions. These initiatives would require total consensus and concurrent implementation in the spheres of economics, politics, law, and culture.

This is Eric Fromm’s conclusion in his book The Sane Society.

I look back to that dentist’s waiting room of forty years ago in amazement and disappointment. Amazement at the speed at which technology has developed and expanded. Computerization, world travel, the internet, and mobile phones have combined to shrink the world to the size of your fist, “replacing” God as our object of devotion. The world of manual work is gradually disappearing. Now a push-button world of automation or robotics churns out products faster than the eye can see with no relationship between the worker and his product – as Marx foresaw.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is on the march!

Despite our additional wealth, over half the world is starving while food production is curtailed to inflate profit margins. The subsequent rising inflation renders increasing incomes of little benefit throughout the industrial world.

Although we have increased our leisure time and relative affluence, we do not experience the sense of fulfillment we had when our time was restricted and leisure was a premium. The social ills of Anomie and Alienation are still chronic as “The Malady of Infinite Aspiration” identified by Durkheim runs rampant through society. Almost every young person wants to be famous (without any effort of course). Fifteen minutes of fame is no longer sufficient.

Much has changed – yet so little has improved in real societal terms. Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Eric Fromm’s analysis confirm my own view. Any real sense of “belonging” in this society seems a distant possibility unless Fromm’s final option is introduced – and soon!

Notes

• Anomie signifies a breakdown of the normative frameworks of our lives, the upsetting of rules, expectations, a sense of one’s place in society, one’s status vis-a-vis others. A social condition with grave psychological effects experienced during times of rapid social change, upwards as well as downwards.
• “Species Being” follows the initiation of a process of “Coming-to-be” in which nature transcends itself and becomes man through interaction with his industrial context. This must occur in a dynamic and transformational fashion thus consummating his species being and is dependent on removal of the existing alienating labor conditions.

Bibliography

• Durkheim, E. The Division of Labour in Society. Free Press. 1933.
• Fromm, E. The Sane Society. Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1963.
• Marcuse, H. One Dimensional Man. Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1964.
• Mezros, I. Marx’s Theory of Alienation. Merlin Press. 1970.