Being human is being “of Adam.” In terms of the Universal Spirit (al-ruh al-kull), “being of Adam” is a kernel from the truth of the Praised One, Ahmad (meant to bear fruit as the perfected human). In terms of the realm of Divine Might and Majesty (al-alam al-jabarut), being of Adam is a blessed effulgent seed, germination, and bloom. In terms of the visible realm and corporeal existence, it refers to the father of humanity, to the distilled servant of God. On account of this blessed bond, people are alternatively referred to as “Children of Adam.”

The word “Adam” marks a beginning and origin for comprehensive truths; the essence of which we believe should be referred to Divine knowledge and wisdom, so we would rather go into the conditions of “being of Adam” in relation to the minimal capacity of human willpower and inclinations that exist as basic conditions. Having the inner human endowments and inclinations—that can be directed to good or evil—and being apt to fluctuate between the “highest of the high” and “lowest of the low,” and sometimes displaying behaviors admirable to angels and sometimes committing atrocities repulsive to devils, the human is a multi-dimensional being with a unique anatomy among beings of the earth and heavens. Human beings sometimes journey in the shade of the blessed light God created firstly—and in that of Adam, the distilled one regarded as a blessed seed of that great truth—and thus reveal a nobleness to be compared with angels. Sometimes they abandon themselves to conditions to be derided by devils with impulses of their nature which are prone to error and oblivion and which is a potential whirlpool of different negativities.

Sometimes they are admirable with a true attitude of Adam; and sometimes “being of Adam” solely remains in superficial form and they assume a completely different state. While they can be a companion to celestial beings in an atmosphere of consciousness of, and love for, God on the one hand, they might stagger to be dominated by fancies of their carnal soul and become no different than a devil on the other. Sometimes they reject worldliness and all it offers and make an envious leap to adopt the state of those in the loftiest circle, transcend themselves and reach the horizons of the pioneers and thus become one of the children of Adam closest to God, and there comes a time when they fall headlong into the trail of the lowest of the low…

The Prophets are also fruits of the “tree of Adam” with their innocence and being under absolute Divine protection against misguidance. Thanks to their endowments in alignment with their missions and being blessed with special graces, their sights and insights were always oriented to the Sun of suns with their shadows falling behind them. They walked to their eternal sanctuary without the slightest lapse. With reference to this quality of theirs they were mentioned as being truly Adamic and “of Prophet Adam”; they presented a fabulous “spiritual texture” with respect to their distinguished origin as blessed fruits of “the first Intellect” or the “first blessed light.”

Those distinguished and lofty personages who followed a dazzling course on the Prophetic path of Adam and who effected transcendental rhythms in hearts were firstly followed by their perfectly loyal companions, and then by heroes blessed with extra graces and attained closeness to God behind them. Afterwards, saintly servants followed them, who had oriented themselves to that illustrious circle. Only God knows their true number and nature, and what falls to us is to be reverent towards those known to us.

Thirsty for having insight into, and savoring everything with their actual nature, these paragons of Adamic humanity are always in pursuit of Divine breezes and are distinguished with letting hearts feel and love God. Their nights are permeated with yearning for, and dreams of, reunion with God. Every attitude and behavior of theirs is like a polished mirror that reflects the Divine. Their tongues are dominated by their hearts, and constantly keep spelling the Eternal Beloved. Their hearts shake like a leaf with a concern against leading those behind to deviation. They see the fact that they gain forgiveness to be closely related to being among their road companions. They see reaching beyond in the furthest sense as conditional to serving their adherents with utter self-effacement and humility. In response to waves of extra graces and inspirational blessings, they always keep serious with concerns of the deceptive lull before Divine retribution (istidraj). Their heads are held humbly down while waiting at God’s door, with a constant excitement in the most profound sense to make their hearts nearly stop, they keep entreating Him as, “O Lord, please do not expel me from Your door, although I am deserving of that.”

Despite being blessed with faith vast like mountains, good deeds, deep recognition of and love for God, as well as exclusive spiritual delights, they view these blessings with shudders of caution, for they fear that they may be alluring elements of a lull before Divine retribution. Together with not failing to praise God in response to the greatest attainments and Divine gifts they were honored with, they just dismiss those at a half-glance and never overestimate them. Although hundreds of hearts remember God and become ecstatic upon seeing them, these souls turn a blind eye to all of such interest on them and think about the so-called “errors” within the horizons of those closest to God and say,

If the All-Merciful One weighs my sins as they are,
the scales of the Judgment Day will break under them, I fear!

and they are troubled with this concern. When they receive appreciation from those around them, they dismiss it as the latter’s positive assumptions, and respond as,

May God not let you face disappointment because of me!
May He bless me with clinging to the Prophetic Tradition with both hands!

Thus, they dispelled the thought and always continued their lives as humbly bent before God.

As those on top always walked on Adam’s path of Prophethood, those behind ceaselessly followed them as doves of “annihilation in God” (fanafillah) and “permanence with God” (baqabillah). They walked on in complete humility towards their eternal sanctuary. They lowered their own voices before the pioneers; to those who gently walked from formality to spirituality in their footsteps and who displayed ability to walk, they sounded off the most moving melodies, whose lyrics belong to the pioneers; and they enchanted those who turned towards them. They saluted the sublimity of the destination with purity of heart, with an ambition and perseverance to breathe the same things with those over the top, they said in the highest pitch what needed to be said; by showing a performance to share the inspirations and graces granted to the pioneers with phrases of contemplation, deliberation, and reflection, they constantly walked towards being human in the Adamic sense. They walked on and while they outwardly appeared to be among us, they were in a constant endeavor to keep upon the path of those in the loftiest circle.

The examples and mission of the eminent Prophets were effulgent manifestations of the true likeness of Adam. This manifestation took the form of a brilliant moon in the Last Prophet, Muhammad (peace be upon him). As for his companions who excelled in loyalty, they would become the center of attention thanks to the quality and profundity of being in that lofty circle. Although there were occasional eclipses in those who came after them, there was no issue as a never-ending eclipse. And thanks to the ampleness of Divine Mercy, there will be no such thing until the end of the world. And then the gates of wisdom will be closed for good, whereas gates of Divine Power and providence will open wide. Those who lead their life in the course of Adamic humanity will be blessed with rewards incomparably greater than the transient things they had lost, so much so that they will never regret for this loss.

As for those solely Adamic in the animal sense or outward form, despite their being fruits of the same seed, they underwent a hard-to-repair deformation under dominance of the carnal soul. They appear to be human in terms of their physical anatomy and form, and they have a mechanism of conscience and systems of the heart, spirit, and sir (secret inner faculty), they opt for a lifestyle much below the course of “the best of stature” they are supposed to follow with an utter disregard for their spiritual anatomy. Since they experience concentric deformations within their spiritual worlds, they drift with currents of character corruption, darken their Adamic humanity, and fall below the course of true humanity and thus virtually turn into animals in a spiritual sense. They fail to realize the purpose of creation and the requirements of being blessed with the best pattern of creation, which is emphasized in the Divine decree, “I have not created human and jinn but to worship Me” (Dhariyat 51:56). Running after their fancies, they were caught in Satan’s hook; although they retained their outer human form, they ruined their spiritual anatomy, knowingly preferring the material world over the realms beyond. And in spite of so many favorable dynamics of success, they went through the disgrace of having successions of disappointment. Moreover, as most of them fell to the level of beings which spend their lives by eating, drinking, and ruminating, they rather presented a mood as described in the Divine verse, “They are like cattle, or even more astray (A’raf 7:179).

Ignorant ones with diplomas who failed to crown knowledge with good deeds, good deeds with recognition of God, that with love for God, and that with a yearning for reunion with God, rather drifted to the lowest of the low, with an attitude of sheer ignorance as expressed in, “like donkeys burdened with books” (Jumu’ah 62:5) while they were supposed to target the highest levels of perfection. As for others who suffered from a different deformation, who kiss others’ feet when they are weak and who become tyrants when they come to power and keep biting those they apprehend as opponents by considering that “might is right,” the immaculate statements of the Qur’an portray them as dogs panting with their tongues lolling out whether you chase it away or leave it (A’râf, 7/176). They are mentioned as some separate category of unfortunate ones who are not aware of the blessing of being a mirror to the Eternally-Besought-of-All.

Different examples by both Divine verses, and sayings of the noble Prophet, mention such deformed types, and it is possible to see so many such people everywhere today. Because when people deviate from the course of faith, belief, sincerity, perfect goodness, loyalty, uprightness, and become oblivious of recognition of God (marifa), love for God (muhabba), and intense yearning for reunion with Him (liqa’ullah), it becomes inevitable for their spiritual world to be contaminated, their heart to die, and the person’s coming under the dominance of the carnal soul and Satan.

The manifold ignorant ones of our era, who do not know the Divine, do not recognize the Prophets, who interpret religion as they fancy, who do not know what needs to be known as it requires, who do not even know their state of not knowing but consider themselves to be insightful and enlightened, harmed real religious thought even more than pharaohs did. And if they also drifted with masses devoid of consciousness under the guise of religious arguments, then such a destruction even goes beyond the destruction of Antichrist. It appears that such ones are not likely at all to cease their humanity in the animal sense and adopt humanity in the real sense, the saintly sense they are supposed to be.

O God guide us to the Straight Path, to the path of those whom You favored,
from the Prophets, truthful ones, martyrs, and the righteous.
And peace be upon the noble Prophet, his family, Companions, all of those pure ones.

The foot is a limb that is not given much importance when compared to other vital organs such as the brain or heart. However, the foot is a very complex mechanical structure that is made of 26 bones, 33 joints, and more than 100 muscles and ligaments. About a quarter of the bones in the human body and about a fifth of the joints are found in our two feet. That is why Leonardo da Vinci described the human foot as an engineering and artistic masterpiece.

A healthy person takes about 5,000 steps a day. Given a life of eighty years, a person takes about 150 million steps throughout their life. Assuming that each step is 75 cm, a person walks about 110,000 kilometers throughout his life. This corresponds to walking around the equator about 3 times. Apart from that, a typical person stands for around 2-4 hours a day. During all these activities, the human foot carries the entire body’s weight. In standing position, body weight is supported by two feet while activities such as walking and running are done by only one foot for a certain period of time. While standing, the feet carry 100% of their body weight, while walking, this rate rises up to 150%. While walking, the foot that needs to be lifted from the ground approaches the ground again with an acceleration in the same direction as gravity. Therefore, the impact force at the moment the foot touches the ground corresponds to 150% of a person’s body weight. In cases of severe effects such as running and jumping, this force easily increases up to 5 times the body weight and up to 10 times in some people. For a person weighing 70 kilograms, this force can be 105 kg (or about 1050 Newton) in walking, and easily 350 kg (or about 3500 Newton) in running or jumping. Assuming that a person walking for an hour takes 5,000 steps, the foot pulls a total of about 500 tons of load (5,000 steps x 105 kg). In running, this figure will increase approximately three times.

The foot has been created with a wonderful mechanical and construction design that is able to consistently sustain such high loads. The bones and muscles of the foot add two different belt designs to it. One of them, the structure called the longitudinal belt starts from the heel bone (calcaneus) and ends with its metatarsal bones (Figure 1). Some researchers claim that the long arch is divided into two parts as the inner (medial arch) and the outer arch (lateral arch). However, both structures resemble bridges built in arches. The second arch on the foot is called the transverse arch. This belt is perpendicular to the long belt from the right side of the foot to the left side and is shorter in length (Figure 2).

Therefore, the foot is a marvelous structure consisting of roughly two arches. This structure of the foot can be compared to arch bridges or a dam. The arch structure is known as the strongest structure against steep loads in construction areas due to the robustness of the designs against compression forces in cases of vertical loading. Therefore, hydroelectric dams are constructed in the form of arches or arcs in order to make the most resistant model against hydrostatic pressure.

The arch structure of the foot is very flexible and can also move up and down like a car suspension and acts as a shock absorption. If there was no such structure on the foot, the impact forces during walking and running activities would be higher and cause chronic foot pain. The flatfoot complication is a result of a damage in the arch structure in the foot which comes from birth or develops afterwards. Flatfoot patients are often unable to perform long-term activities and experience foot pain as well as complications in other organs of the body.

Our feet’s arch structure is not the only factor involved in shock absorption that is designed against mechanical forces. The layer of fat on the bottom of the foot also contributes to this process. In a healthy person, this fat layer, which has a height of 2.5 cm under the heel, drops to 5-7 mm in the front part of the foot. It also helps to distribute the vertical and horizontal forces caused by standing or walking evenly on the sole of the foot. At the same time, it serves as a source of heat insulation and helps protect our feet from hot or cold surfaces. In some diseases such as diabetes, in which this fat layer melts or decreases, wounds called foot ulcers can develop because the shock absorption and load distribution get damaged. Mechanical pressure is calculated by dividing the amount of mechanical force by the surface area on which it is applied, meaning that smaller surfaces areas are subjected to more pressure. This is why very tiny needles, despite weighing almost nothing, can pierce our skin and cause pain. Similarly, damage to the fat layer under the foot causes the forces applied under the foot to act on a limited surface area. For example, the reduction of fat in the area just below the heads of the metatarsal bones reduces the “cushioning” effect in this area and causes a pressure in high values. This extra pressure can cause tissue damage along with the aforementioned foot ulcers.

Such a situation that will cause pain in a normal person cannot be felt by many diabetics. If diabetes is not well controlled, neuropathy or a “lack of feeling” may occur as a complication. Dead nerve cells become unable to feel pain which can result in people not knowing about harm that is being done to their body. Diabetic patients who develop neuropathy would not feel fatty layer damage and accompanying high pressure values whereas a typical person normally would. Untreated foot ulcers can become infected and can turn into gangrene. Since the gangrenous foot has to be cut, diabetes unfortunately causes a large number of amputations. Such amputations are sadly quite frequent throughout the world due to diabetic neuropathy. Dr. Paul Brand, who studied diabetic foot ulcers, defined pain as a gift from God that no one wanted. Sometimes, what we do not like might be better for us (Qur’an 2:216); likewise, pain can cause a lot of trouble to people but it can also alert us of dangers and harm to our bodies.

Thus, foot care is very important in diabetics. The following three actions are recommended to patients; daily inspection of the foot; daily washing; and control of the inside of the shoes. The pest, pebble, or similar hard object in the shoe that can be very harmful for diabetics with loss of sensation would be removed this way. On the other hand, when such a hard object remains in the shoes, patients may step on them repeatedly without feeling it which will likely lead to an ulcer case.

With its pain that works like a health alarm, extraordinary mechanical loads it carries, heat insulation and shock absorbing features, the human foot is a wonder of art that calls for contemplation.

He was born in Cordova in 52OAH (1126) and named after his grandfather Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd, who died in the same year. His grandfather was the Chief Judge in Cordova and the foremost authority in Maliki jurisprudence. To distinguish him from his illustrious ancestor, Ibn Rushd was later known as Ibn Rushd al-Hafid (the grandson).

Cordova, where Ibn Rushd grew up, was a thriving centre of all the diverse arts of civilization and culture attracting many great scholars from around the then known world to its wonderful libraries. Ibn Rushd studied and memorized the Qur’an and the Muwatta of Imam Malik. He was an excellent student of jurisprudence and quickly qualified to give legal opinions and sit as judge.

Following his work in the sciences of law, language and Hadith, he went on to study mathematics, astronomy and astrology and then medicine. He was a friend to the most prominent thinkers and writers of his age: Ibn al-Tufayl (d. 1186/6), author of the famous allegory Hayy ibn Yaqzan (said to have influenced Robinson Crusoe ); the philosopher, Ibn Bajja (Avempace in the West, d. 1139); the great jurist and judge Abu Bakr ibn al ‘Arabi (d. l148); the famous physician Abu Marwan ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar in the West, d. 1161) and his son Abu Bakr (d. 1198).

Ibn Rushd served as a judge in Ishbiliya (Seville) in 1171 and then in Cordova two years later. His reputation for wide knowledge, correctness and fairness in giving verdicts, led to his appointment as Chief Judge. His book Bidayat al-mujtahid wa nihayat al-muqtasid (The reference for the searcher and the resort for the fair) remains an important reference for students of jurisprudence and is still taught in universities to this day. Although he was a Maliki he used the ideas of other schools of thought. Because he had so many activities and interests besides his public duties, Ibn Rushd had to organize his time very fully: he spent his days working as a judge, teaching, and in academic discussion with other scholars; he reserved his nights for reading and writing.

His friend Ibn al-Tufayl wrote to invite him to visit Marrakech, the capital of the Muwahhidun (Almohades) who had established a powerful and stable state in North Africa after they took over from the Murabitun (Almoravides), and were famous for their patronage of scientists, physicians, theologians and philosophers. Ibn Rushd’s intelligence, learning and ideas so impressed the ruler, Abu Yusuf ‘Abd al-Mu’min, that he was appointed to reform the educational system. This he did successfully before returning to Cordova.

When Abu Ya‘qub ibn ‘Abd al-Mu’min came to power, he appointed Ibn Rushd as his personal physician after Ibn Tufayl. Ibn Rushd held this post for a year (1183) when he was appointed as Chief judge. His success provoked court envy and he was falsely accused of heresy, in particular that he adhered too closely to the doctrines of Aristotle. He was indeed a supporter of Aristotle’s doctrines after these were properly reformed and adapted to Islam. Ibn Rushd fell out of favour at the court and was ill-treated. His books on philosophy were burnt, though his works on medicine and theology were not censored. When Abu Ya‘qub discovered he had been misinformed, he tried to invite Ibn Rushd back to apologise to him, but he was too late. Ibn Rushd died on 9th Safar 595AH (December 1198).

His writings

Ibn Rushd was broadly cultured indeed and wrote on many different subjects. Here we can mention only the most famous of his great works. In jurisprudence, as noted above, he wrote Bidayat al-mujtahid wa nihayat al-muqtasid (The reference for the searcher and the resort for the fair). In philosophy, he wrote Tahafut al-tahafut (refutation of the refutation), his response to Imam al-Ghazali’s famous Tahafut al-falsafa (refutation of philosophy). Ibn Rushd combined both philosophy and religion in mainly two books: Fasl al-maqal wa taqrib ma bayna l-shari‘a wa l-hikma min al-ittisal (an authoritative treatise on the convergence between the religious law and philosophy), and Kitab al-kashf ‘an manahij al-adilla fi ‘aqa’id al-milla wa ta‘rif ma waqa‘a fiha bi hasb al-ta‘wil min al-subah al-muzayyifa wa 1-bida‘ al-mudilla (an exposition of the methodology of demonstrating the creeds and description of the confusions and innovations in interpretation which confound truth and lead to error). In medicine, Ibn Rushd wrote the Kitab al-kulliyyat fi al-tibb (a general reference on medicine) which was translated into Latin and Hebrew and European vernaculars. It was a major reference in medicine though it never reached the standard of al-Qanun fi al-Tibb of Ibn Sina (Avicenna, d. 1037) which was used everywhere as simply T he Canon of Medicine.

Ibn Rushd had prepared this book especially for practising physicians and students of medicine. He apologised for the work’s brevity, a limitation he attributed to his preoccupation with commitments to judging, political affairs and philosophy. He advised those who sought greater detail to consult al-Taysir (The simplification) of Abu Marwan ‘Abd Al-Malik ibn Zuhr. Al-Kulliyyat is organized under seven broad headings or chapters:

1. Anatomy
2. The function of the organs
3. Diseases (pathology)
4. Syndromes: a brief clinical review
5. Health care, especially sports, massage and sleep
6. Medication and diet
7. Healing (particularly of different types of fevers).

The chapter on anatomy in al-Kulliyat

Ibn Rushd criticized the physicians and students of medicine of his time for neglecting anatomy. His own presentation of the subject is both concise and precise. He divides it into two major areas:

a. Anatomy of ‘simple’ organs such as bones, flesh, and veins.

b. Anatomy of ‘compound’ organs-for example, the arm which comprises bones, flesh, veins, tendons, nerves etc.

His description starts with the bones of the head and the teeth. 

Bones

There are six bones in the cranium and 14 in the upper jaw (the maxilla) and the ear, and two in the lower jaw (the mandible). All these bones are attached by seams except the two bones of the mandible that are articulately joined. This was later established as untrue-the mandible in fact has a single bone not two. The first to discover this was the physician and linguist ‘Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (Ibn al-Labbad). He examined 10,000 cadavers removed from the hills of al-Muqattam, east of Cairo, during the construction of a road. He realized this fact after observing thousands of examples. This was revealed in his wonderful book al-Ifada wa l-i’tibar fi l-umur al-mushahada wa l-ahwal al-mu‘ayana fi ardi Misr, (review and lessons from examinations and experiences in Egypt).

Ibn Rushd wrote of the teeth that there are 16 in each jaw-two central incisors, two lateral incisors and two canines, and five molars and premolars on both right and left sides. There are three or four roots in the maxilla but only two in the mandible, the remaining teeth have only one root.

He also described the large aperture in the back part of the skull, the foramen magnum, and its relation with the seven vertebra of the neck (cervical vertebrae), which have apertures on the sides. The vertebrae of the chest region are twelve; in the lumbar there are five, linked to the sacrum in which he counted three bones (in fact there are five) attached to the bone of the coccyx which is also composed of three attached vertebrae.

Ibn Rushd said that all vertebrae are articulate except the first two from the neck, because the first vertebra is attached to two appendices ramified from the skull.

He also said the bone of the sacrum is attached from the sides of the hips, in each of which is the acetabulum (socket) which contains the ‘head’ of the thigh bone (femur), often referred to as the ‘pomegranate’.

Ibn Rushd described in detail the bones of the front side starting from the clavicles up to the pubic bone, passing by the ribs and the bones of the shoulders. He also described the upper and lower limbs very precisely. What he wrote is not different from what we know today except that, for the bones of the arm, he uses ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ zanad (forearm) to mean the radius and the ulna. He indicated the bones of the leg, nowadays known as the fibula and tibia, in the same terms.

Veins and arteries

In the old days, the arteries were called the ‘beating veins’ (dhawarib ), and jugular veins were the ‘non-beating’ veins (ghayr al-dhawarib ). Ibn Rushd made a precise distinction between the two types of veins which remains accurate and valid. He wrote:‘Arteries come out of the heart whereas the jugular veins come back to it.’ He also described the difference precisely, the arteries are more solid and have two similar layers: the fibres of the inner layer are crosswise while the outer layer fibres are length-ways-even by modern standards a very professional anatomical description.

Two arteries of different size come out of the heart, the smaller one goes to the lungs and ramifies into them (pulmonary artery). The other (aorta) is larger, divided into many sections and ramifies into the whole body, one section going up to the head and upper limbs, another going alongside the vertebral column with branches leading to the chest and abdomen; it ends in the lower body and feeds the two lower limbs.

Ibn Rushd’s fascinating description is confirmed as correct and accurate. However, he failed to observe the circulation of the blood accurately. This was not properly described until nearly a hundred years later by Ibn al-Nafis (d. 1288) a Damascus-born physician who worked in hospitals in Cairo, and many centuries before William Harvey (1578-1657). 

The nervous system

The nervous system is the most complicated organ in the human body and its anatomy has only gradually become known over recent centuries. Nevertheless, Ibn Rushd was able to describe the brain, its membranes and the cranial nerves. He describes the smelling nerve perfectly, pointing out that it ends with a nipple like that of the breast. He does not consider this nerve as the primary one, giving that distinction to the optical nerve. The first pair of nerves issue from the brain and form the sclera inside the cranium, then come out to the eyes each from its side. This is a wonderfully precise description.

Ibn Rushd then describes the nerves that feed the muscles of the eye. According to modern anatomy, these nerves are the third, fourth and sixth, but Ibn Rushd considers them all as the second pair that ramifies in the muscles of the eyes. He considers the third pair as related to the next (the fourth), and these feed areas of the face, the ear, the palate and the nose-in fact, he was writing about the fifth and seventh pair of nerves according to modern anatomy. As for the fifth, Ibn Rushd says that a part of it leads to the ears and the muscles of the cheeks, whereas this is identified as part of the seventh pair.

Ibn Rushd writes that the sixth nerve feeds the pharynx and the tongue and part of it leads to the muscles near and around the shoulder and another part deviates to the neck and a branch of that goes to the larynx. This is actually the eleventh nerve (the accessory nerve) and there is some confusion in Ibn Rushd’s account with the description of the tenth nerve (vagus; the wandering or confused nerve). Although he attributes many characteristics of the vagus nerve to the accessory one, Ibn Rushd is very accurate in the description of the characteristics themselves. He observes that some of the branches of this nerve lead to the chest and feed the heart, lungs, and esophagus; that it runs through the diaphragm and makes the link with the cardiac and liver membranes, the spleen and the rest of the intestines/bowels.

Ibn Rushd describes the seventh nerve as starting from the back of the brain and ramified in the tongue: he is describing accurately the twelfth nerve (hypo-glossal).

He describes as accurately as modern anatomy does, the nerves that go along the vertebrae. He mentions the eight pairs of cervical nerves, sixteen pairs of dorsal nerves, and five pairs of lumbar nerves.

He misses the correct number of the sacral nerves, they seemed only three to him because they are very closely attached-in fact they are five. Three nerves come from the bone of the coccyx and a single nerve comes out on the sides from the middle. This is absolutely accurate.

Ibn Rushd wrote;

‘The brain has two nipple-shaped appendices that grow from its two advanced abdomens (olfactory bulb). They reach the bone that resembles the cribrium (cribriform plate), which is perforated with many holes [i.e. like a sieve], not smooth but rough with its position in the cranium, where it reaches the end of the nose.’

It would be very hard to improve on the concision or accuracy of this account even today.

About the membranes of the brain, he wrote, again with wonderful, inspiring accuracy:

The brain has two membranes, one is hard and thick (dura mater), and the other is thin (pia mater), they cover the brain very closely and in some locations are completely joined. The thick one is adherent to the cranium. This membrane has many perforations in two places, the first at the canal at the end of the nose (cribriform plate), and the second at the bone of the palate. Under the brain on the thick cover, there is the mysterious net composed of veins that go up to the head.’

The structure of eye

Ibn Rushd’s ability and competence as an anatomist is most clearly demonstrated in his description of the eye and its layers, which compares most favorably with what is known today except some minor differences in terminology. Ibn Rushd had even established the original development of the layers of the eye in the fetus, and discovered that they appear to imitate the layers of the brain and its membranes. Ibn Rushd combined accurate observation with brilliant exposition, sight with insight, presenting the structures of the eye as well as any twentieth-century expert could, and did so many centuries ahead of any physician in Europe.

He wrote:

The eye is composed of seven layers and three liquid areas. The first, from the side of the cranium, is a membranous layer that develops from the thick layer (sclera). The next layer from outside develops from the thinner membrane of the brain; it is called al-mashima (choroid). The next is a layer similar to the net (retina). It grows from the same nerve that comes out of the brain. In the middle of this layer, there is a soft and liquid area called al-rutuba al-zujajiyya (vitreous humour). Inside it, there is another spherical body but with some minor flatness. It is as clear as the ice and called al-rutuba al-jalidiyya , and we call it nowadays al- ‘adasa (lens).’

Ibn Rushd continues this wonderful description, by mentioning al-rutuba al-ma’iyya al-amamiyya (aqueous humour), he also called it al-rutuba al-baydhiyya because its liquid is similar to the soft liquid egg-white:

‘On the outside of this liquid appears a soft body whose inner texture is velvet-like, that follows the al-rutuba of baydhiyya (aqueous humour); smooth from the outside its colour is different from the body of the other, it can be very black or less dark or even blue.’ This is an extremely precise description of the iris (quzahiyyatu al-‘ayn) and the ciliary body (al-jism al-hudhabi).

He adds:

‘Inside the ciliary body, next to the lens, a hole that widens and narrows depending on the extent of darkness that it needs, the hole is called hadaqa (pupil) and the membrane itself is called the inabiyya (grape- like) layer.

‘Next to this layer, a cover that has a hard and clear white and thin plate which is called al-qarniyya (cornea). It takes the colour of the layer below it. On the top of this rises a white body called al-multahim (conjunctiva).’

Ibn Rushd also wrote about the physiology of sight:

‘The sight is not a thing that comes out of the eye as Galinius used to think. The eye receives the colours through the reflecting objects in which they are held, in the same way as a mirror does. Once the colours are reflected in the eye, the object is then conceived by the visioning power.

‘This could well be proved in natural science (physics). That is why any of those parts of the eye is able to reflect the colours because of its very glossy surface. So that body is the special tool to the lens and the advantage of the qarniyya (cornea) is . . . [that] it is made clear and thin so that it does not prevent the ice-like liquid (lens) from receiving the images.’

This is an accurate description of the eye and the physiology of sight that does not differ much from what we know today.

From this brief dip into a chapter of al-Kulliyyat fi al-Tibb , we realize the importance of the work of Ibn Rushd-jurist, philosopher, physician. He was an expert in each of these fields and the most distinguished scholar in Spain and North Africa. He neither experienced nor discovered any contradiction between his religion and his science; rather, his quest for knowledge and excellence, his wonderful curiosity, enlightened and improved his faith. His famous observation- who practises autopsy, his faith in God increases -should silence the false allegation that Muslims never practised anatomy and that they are against applied sciences. What has been written by so many Muslims in all fields of knowledge refutes this allegations. Medicine and the other applied sciences are a necessary and essential contribution to the well-being of humankind. Therefore, to work in them is fard kifaya , a collective obligation upon the community of Muslims as a whole, an obligation which some members of the community must undertake on behalf of the others who cannot.

Islam is the guide for those who seek true and sound knowledge in every subject. All sciences, so long as they are directed to God and not to merely worldly ends or personal glory, bring their students closer to God and make easier the way to approach and please Him: Those who fear God, amongst his servants, are those who have knowledge. And God is the Guide to the straight path.