Hadiths are narrative accounts by Muhammad’s companions of situations involving God’s Messenger and rulings or statements that Muhammad made. Since Muhammad is considered by Muslims to be an excellent exemplar, hadiths have had a major impact on Islam’s worldview. There are six major collections of hadith. The most influential one is by al-Bukhari (who died about 240 years after Muhammad). Bukhari claims to have examined almost six hundred thousand hadith. He only accepted seventy-four hundred of them (1.2%) as being undeniably authentic. The other five collections also did not include the vast majority of hadiths they examined, but they do overlap considerably in the ones that they do consider authentic. I have selected five hadiths to gloss from my perspective as a Reform Rabbi. The first is from Sahih Muslim and the following four are from Bukhari.

Menstruation

Sahih Muslim: Thabit narrated it from Anas: Among the Jews, when a woman menstruated, they did not dine with her, nor did they live with them in their houses; so the Companions of the Apostle (may peace be upon him) asked the Apostle (may peace be upon him), and God, the Exalted revealed: “They also ask you about (the injunctions concerning) menstruation. Say: ‘It is a state of hurt (and ritual impurity), so keep away from them during menstruation’” to the end (Baqara 2:222). The Messenger of God (may peace be upon him) said: “Do everything except intercourse.” The Jews heard of that and said: “This man does not want to leave anything we do without opposing us in it.” (Book 003, Number 0592)

Gloss: Both Islam and Judaism have laws about ritual pollution deriving from a woman’s monthly period. Orthodox Judaism had greatly expanded the prohibitions against physical contact during a woman’s period. Muhammad opposes this expansion and limits the prohibition for Muslims. Reform Rabbis today are much closer to Islamic practice than they are to Orthodox Jewish practice.

Extremism

Bukhari; Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, “Religion is very easy and whoever overburdens himself in his religion will not be able to continue in that way. So you should not be extremists, but try to be near to perfection and receive the good tidings that you will be rewarded.” (Volume 1, Book 2, Number 38)

Gloss: Unlike Christianity, both Islam and Judaism teach the importance of sacred slaughter of meat, and the avoidance of certain animals for food. In Islam, the rules are simpler and fewer than in Orthodox Judaism. Reform Rabbis would regard the increasingly restrictive developments in the laws of kosher diet, especially for Passover, as a counterproductive, overburdening of the people. The expansion of restrictions on Shabbat activities is also seen by Reform Rabbis as a counterproductive, overburdening of the joy of Shabbat. Muhammad wisely differentiates between extremism and striving to be near perfect (no one is perfect) which involves a rejection of extremism. Just trying to do well will be rewarded. Religion should not be hard. Making religion easier does not mean making religion soft or impious. This is a very important hadith because all religions have believers that think more is better, and harder is still better.

Worshiping none other than God

Narrated ‘Aisha and Ibn’ Abbas: On his deathbed God’s Apostle put a sheet over his face and when he felt hot, he would remove it from his face. When in that state (of putting and removing the sheet) he said, “May God’s Curse be on the Jews and the Christians for they build places of worship at the graves of their prophets.” He intended to warn (the Muslim) from what they (i.e. Jews and Christians) had done. (Volume 4, Book 56, Number 660)

Gloss: God’s apostle strongly opposed any diversion of reverence or worship to anyone other than God. Christians, and even Jews, had started worshiping at the graves of holy men, saints and prophets. Although they claimed to be only worshiping God, their feeling that prayer was better or more effective at such sites was cursed by Muhammad. In later centuries, some Muslims also began worshiping at the tombs of holy men and building places of worship near their graves. For Islam, none other than God can be attributed with divinity. Therefore, seeking divine assistance from the graves is shirk, associating partners with God, which is the gravest sin in Islam. However, some ignorant Muslims may unintentionally hypothesize divine qualities for certain deceased people. Although such Muslims are not too many, and they do not really intend to worship them, this is one of the developments that the Wahhabi movement strongly opposes.¹

Reform Rabbis would agree that such activity at grave sites should be condemned and could be seen as a curse. God’s apostle must also have realized that even the Muslim community would produce people whose piety would lead to such errors. No religious community is exempt from people who use piety and belief improperly. This hadith teaches us all to be humble when we view other religions and other sects within our own religion. The next hadith teaches this even more explicitly.

Learning from failings

Narrated Abu Said: The Prophet said: “You will follow the wrong ways of your predecessors so completely and literally that if they should go into the hole of an animal, you too will go there.” We said, “O God’s Apostle! Do you mean the Jews and the Christians?” He replied, “Whom else?” (Volume 4, Book 56, Number 662)

Gloss: Muhammad criticized the failings of many in the Jewish and Christian communities (as did the prophets of Israel), but he realized that people are human, and most do not seem to learn from the failings of others. He hoped that Muslims would retain their original purity, but he foresaw that decay and falsification were inevitable. God’s apostle would certainly attack female genital mutilation in Africa today as sharply as he attacked female infanticide in Arabia in his day.² It is a shame that many Muslim leaders in Africa today do not condemn it. Reform Rabbis, who have now been part of a modern democratic society for several generations are openly critical of those Orthodox practices and ideas that we think betray the spirit of Judaism in today’s world.

Superiority

Abu Huraira related: Two men, a Muslim and a Jew, abused each other. The Muslim said, “By Him Who gave superiority to Muhammad over all the people.” At that, the Jew said, “By Him Who gave superiority to Moses over all the people.” The Muslim became furious at that and slapped the Jew in the face. The Jew went to God’s Apostle and informed him of what had happened between him and the Muslim. God’s Apostle said, “Don’t give me superiority over Moses, for people will fall unconscious on the Day of Resurrection and I will be the first to gain consciousness, and behold! Moses will be there holding the side of God’s Throne. I will not know whether Moses has been among those people who have become unconscious and then has regained consciousness before me, or has been among those exempted by God from falling unconscious.” (Volume 8, Book 76, #524)

Gloss: God’s Messenger is so well known for his sense of justice that a Jew can appeal to him even in a conflict with a Muslim who has attacked a Jew. It is only natural for Jews to think that Moses is the best, and for Muslims to think that Muhammad is the best. Muhammad rebukes the Muslim, telling him not to claim that Muhammad is superior to Moses because even on the day of Resurrection, Muhammad himself will not know their relative merit, for although Muhammad will be the first to be revived, Moses will already be there holding the side of God’s throne. Muhammad teaches us that comparisons of religious superiority are wrong, for no human in this world, and perhaps even in the world to come, will know who the best is, and such comparisons do not help anything but polarize people by inciting partisan fervor. All Reform Rabbis would applaud this teaching although we know that during the Middle Ages all three religions claimed superiority.

Most Americans would be amazed to hear such liberal and flexible statements coming from a religion that they think is rigid and fanatical. But the politicized Islam that has captured so much attention in the world today is the outgrowth of two recent factors. One is an anti-western reaction and scapegoating due to the great dislocations and upheavals occurring as a result of globalization in all modernizing societies in the twentieth century. The second factor is the result of several previous centuries of socio-economic decline that took place in the Middle East. Jews and Christians have already had reforming movements. Muslims have not. But the Prophet predicted that Muslims also would become more rigid and orthodox just as the Jews and Christians had. As we have seen Abu Sa’id al-Khudri reported God’s Messenger as saying: You will tread the same path as was trodden by those before you inch by inch and step by step, so much so that if they had entered into the hole of a lizard, you would follow them in this also. We said: Do you mean Jews and Christians? He said: Who else?”

Unlike Orthodox Rabbis, Reform Rabbis accept the doctrine of nullification, which teaches that one verse in scripture can nullify another, and that rulings can be changed due to changed circumstances. Muhammad provides an excellent example of this principle in the following account. The Prophet originally told women not to visit graveyards, but toward the end of his life, he said to them: “I had told you not to visit graves; now I am telling you to visit them.” The reason was that Arabian women used to wail at graves. The Prophet wanted this practice to be stopped. Therefore, he banned women from visiting graves to start with. After some time, when Muslim women were better aware of how Islam wants them to behave in different situations, he allowed them such visits. In fact, the Prophet encourages visiting graveyards because such a visit reminds the visitor of his or her own death and the fact that they would have to stand in front of God when their actions are reckoned to determine their reward or punishment. Scholars like Ibn Qudamah, of the Hanbali school of law, make it clear that since this is the purpose of visiting graveyards, both men and women need such visits.

Another important teaching of the Qur’an for people all over the world today is that God chose not to create human beings as one nation and bestowed upon them free will to believe or not to believe. As it is written in the Qur’an (Maedah 5:48) “For every one of you did We appoint a law and a way. If God had pleased He would have made you one people, but (He didn’t) that He might test you in what He gave you. Therefore compete with one another to hasten to virtuous deeds; for all return to God, so He will let you know (after Judgment Day) that in which you differed.” This is a wonderful further development of the teaching of the Biblical prophet Micah (4:5) that in the end of days-the Messianic Age-”All people will walk, each in the name of their own God, and we shall walk in the name of the Lord our God forever.”

A Muslim is one who submits to the will of God and believes that God has sent many different prophets to the many peoples of the world. As a Reform Rabbi I believe that Muhammad was the Prophet sent to the Arab people. I believe that the Qur’an is as true for Muslims as the Torah is true for Jews. Indeed, I love the hadith also narrated by Abu Huraira that says, “The people of the Book used to read the Torah in Hebrew and then explain it in Arabic to the Muslims. God’s Apostle said (to the Muslims). “Do not believe the people of the Book, nor disbelieve them, but say, ‘We believe in God, and whatever is revealed to us, and whatever was revealed to you.’”³ Following Muhammad’s teaching I too neither believe nor disbelieve in the Qur’an. I do respect the Qur’an very much as a kindred revelation to a kindred people in a kindred language.⁴ “We have not sent you but as an unequalled mercy for all the worlds” (Anbiya 21:107). The Prophet Muhammad’s mission, peace be upon him, is not restricted to Arabs only. Arabs today comprise not more than twenty percent of the entire Muslim population around the world. Belief in the Prophets and previous revelations are two of the six pillars of faith in Islam. Likewise, the Qur’an is the final revelation that was sent after the Torah, Psalms, and Gospels. Its message is universal and does not cover one specific nation only. (Ed.)In fact, the people, the language and the theology are closer to my own people, language and theology than that of any other on earth. Of course, more than eighty percent of Muslims in the world today are not of Arab decent. But Arabic is their sacred language and the tradition that Arabs and Jews are cousins is widely accepted. This makes the present conflict between the Palestinians and the Israelis especially tragic. It is very important to realize that the conflict is a political one and not a religious one. There can be no religious conflict between religions like Judaism and Islam because neither of them declares that their scriptures are the only ones from God. The strong support that the Qur’an gives to religious pluralism is a lesson that is sorely needed by the religious fundamentalists of all religions in the world today.

Notes

1. The tradition of building mosques next to graves, or the other way round is a common practice. However, Muslims do not have the intention of worshiping the deceased saints. Muslims worship and petition God, and God only. Besides, there are practical reasons, like performing funeral services more easily and praying for one’s deceased. (Ed.)
2. Female genital mutilation (or female circumcision) has nothing to do with any Islamic practice. It is a custom in some parts of Africa and the Middle East. In Islamic sources, there is no absolute prohibition, nor is there any kind of encouragement regarding this practice. This practice is also considered reprehensible since it carries a risk to the girl’s future ability to enjoy sexual relations with her husband. (Ed.)
3. This hadith refers to the fact that as a part of the Islamic creed, Muslims have to believe in all the Prophets and revelations sent to them. Muslims believe the previous scriptures have not remained in their original state. Since it is not certain how much these scriptures have been changed, the Prophet enjoins Muslims not to accept or deny completely the message of these scriptures. (Ed.)
4. “We have not sent you but as an unequalled mercy for all the worlds” (Anbiya 21:107). The Prophet Muhammad’s mission, peace be upon him, is not restricted to Arabs only. Arabs today comprise not more than twenty percent of the entire Muslim population around the world. Belief in the Prophets and previous revelations are two of the six pillars of faith in Islam. Likewise, the Qur’an is the final revelation that was sent after the Torah, Psalms, and Gospels. Its message is universal and does not cover one specific nation only. (Ed.)

How Muslims see Jesus

All Muslims are required to believe in God’s Prophets and Messengers. As we read in Qur’an 2:136: Say, O Muslims: We believe in God, and the revelation given to us, and to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes; that given to Moses and Jesus; and that given to (all) Prophets from their Lord. We make no difference between them, and we submit to God (in Islam). Qur’an 3:84 and 4:163 convey the same idea.

Muslims believe that 124,000 or 224,000 Prophets have been sent to humanity. The Qur’an mentions 28 of them by name. In this context, it sometimes points out those Prophets who possess a great importance for humanity. One of these is Jesus. His relationship with the Holy Spirit is mentioned specifically, as is what such others as Zechariah and John endured from their communities: We gave Moses the Book and followed him up with a succession of messengers. We gave Jesus son of Mary clear (signs) and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. Is it that whenever a Messenger comes to you with (a message) that you dislike, you become puffed up with pride? You call some imposters and kill others (2:87). This matter is also discussed in 2:253.

His birth, life, and death

Of the few differences between the core beliefs of Islam and Christianity, the nature of Jesus seems to be the most serious one. Below are several Qur’anic passages in full.

Mention Mary in the Book, when she drew aside from her family to an eastern place. She took a veil (to screen herself) from them. We sent Our spirit to her in the form of a well-formed man. She said: I seek refuge in the Beneficent God, if you guard (against evil). He said: I am only a messenger of your Lord. I give to you a pure son. She asked: How can I have a son, as no man has touched me and I have been chaste? He said: Even so. Your Lord says: It is easy for Me, and that We may make him a sign to humanity and a mercy from Us. It is a matter decreed.’ So she conceived him and withdrew to a remote place. The throes (of childbirth) compelled her to go to the trunk of a palm tree. She exclaimed: If only I had died before this and been forgotten! (The child) called out to her from beneath her: Do not grieve, for your Lord has caused a stream to flow beneath you. Shake the trunk of the palm tree, and it will drop fresh ripe dates on you. So eat and drink and refresh the eye. If you see anyone, say: I’ve vowed a fast to the Beneficent God and will speak to nobody today.’ She came to her people with him, carrying him. They said: O Mary, you have done something strange. O sister of Aaron, your father was not a bad man and your mother was not unchaste. But she pointed to him. They asked: How should we speak to a child in the cradle? He (Jesus) replied: I am a servant of God, Who has given me the Book and made me a Prophet. He has made me blessed wherever I may be, has enjoined on me prayer and poor-rate so long as I live, and to be dutiful toward my mother. He has not made me insolent, unblessed. Peace on me on the day I was born, on the day I die, and on the day I am raised to life. Such is Jesus, son of Mary. (This is) the saying of truth about which they dispute. (19:16-36).

And when the angels said: O Mary, God has chosen and purified you, and chosen you above all women. O Mary, obey your Lord, humble yourself, and bow down with those who bow. This news concerns matters of the Unseen that We reveal to you (O Muhammad). You were not with them when they cast pens (to decide) which one would be responsible for Mary, nor were you there when they argued among themselves. When the angels said: O Mary, God gives you good news with a Word from Him (of one) whose name is the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, worthy of regard in this world and the hereafter and of those made near (to God). He shall speak to the people while in the cradle and when of old age, and (shall be) one of the good ones. She exclaimed: My Lord! No man has touched me, so how will I give birth to a son? He said: Even so, God creates what He pleases. When He has decreed a matter, He only says to it, be’ and it is. He will teach him the Book, the wisdom, the Torah, and the Gospels. (He will make him) an apostle to the Children of Israel. (Jesus will tell them:) I have come to you with a sign from your Lord. Out of dust I make for you a figure in the form of a bird. I breathe into it and, by God’s Will it becomes a bird. I heal the blind and the leprous, and bring the dead to life with God Will. I inform you of what you should eat and what you should store in your houses. There is a sign in this for you, if you are believers. I verify that which is before me of the Torah and allow you part of that which has been forbidden to you. I have come to you with a sign from your Lord, so be careful of (your duty to) God and obey me. God is my Lord and your Lord, so serve Him. This is the right path. But when Jesus perceived their unbelief, he asked: Who will help me in God’s way? The disciples said: We are helpers (in the way) of God. We believe in God and bear witness that we submit. Our Lord, we believe in what You have revealed and follow the apostle, so write us among those who bear witness. They planned and God planned, and God is the best planner. When God said: O Jesus, I am going to terminate the period of your stay (on Earth), cause you to ascend to Me, purify you of those who disbelieve, and make those who follow you victorious over those who do not believe until the Day of Resurrection. You will return to Me, and I will decide between you concerning that in which you differed. As for the non-believers, I will chastise them severely in this world and the hereafter, and they shall have no helpers. As for those who believe and do good deeds, He will pay them fully their rewards. God does not love the unjust. We recite this to you (O Muhammad) of the communications and the wise reminder. The likeness of Jesus with God is as the likeness of Adam. He created him from dust and then said Be’ and he was. (This is) the truth from your Lord, so be not of the disputers. But whoever disputes with you in this matter after what has come to you of knowledge, say: Let’s call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, and our near people and your near people, and pray earnestly that God curse the liars. This is the true explanation, and there is no god but God. Most surely God is Mighty, Wise (3:42-62).

Because they broke their covenant, rejected God’s communications, wrongfully killed the Prophets, and said: Our hearts are covered, God set a seal upon them owing to their unbelief. Only a few will believe. And for their unbelief and slandering Mary. And their saying: We killed the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, the Apostle of God. But they neither killed or crucified him, but it appeared to them (that they had done so). Those who differ therein are only in a doubt about it. They have no knowledge about it but only follow a conjecture. They did not kill him, for God raised him to Himself. God is Mighty, Wise. (4:155-58)

Jesus’ true nature

The following verses show that the Bible and the Qur’an use similar terms when describing Jesus: son of Mary, the Messiah, an apostle of Allah (in which it differs from Christianity), His Word which He communicated to Mary, a spirit from Him, and a mercy from Him. For example: Mary the daughter of Imran, who guarded her chastity. We breathed into (her) of Our Spirit, and she testified to the truth of her Lord’s Words and His Revelations and was one of the devout (servants) (66:12). Here are God’s tidings to Mary about her son: Behold! The angels said: O Mary, God gives you glad tidings of a Word from Him. His name will be the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary (3:45).

In the following verses, God tells Jesus about himself and his mission: I [Jesus] have come to you [the Children of Israel] with a sign from your Lord. Out of dust I make for you a figure in the form of a bird. I breathe into it and, by God’s Will, it becomes a bird. I heal the blind and the leprous, and bring the dead to life with God Will. I inform you of what you should eat and what you should store in your houses. There is a sign in this for you, if you are believers (3:48-49). See also 5:110. Significantly, the miracles of his forming a bird-like figure from dust and its coming to life by God’s Will, as well as telling people what they have in their houses, are not mentioned in the Bible. In 61:6, we also read: And remember, Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Children of Israel, I am God’s Messenger (sent) to you, confirming the Torah (Law) (that came) before me. I give glad tidings of a Messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad. But when he came to them with clear signs, they said: This is clear sorcery!’ See also 5:46 and 43:63.

The following verse is also remarkable: The likeness of Jesus with God is as the likeness of Adam. He created him from dust and then said Be and he was (3:59). And lastly we have the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary is only an apostle of God and His Word that He communicated to Mary and a spirit from Him(4:171).

His resurrection

Muslims also are waiting for Jesus to return to the world. Many sayings of the Prophet indicate that Jesus must return as a king to this world before the Last Day can come. The following verse can be considered in this context: (Jesus) shall be a sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment). So have no doubt about the (Hour), but follow Me. This is a Straight Way (43:61). Another one, mentioned earlier, mentions his coming implicitly: You spoke to the people in childhood and in maturity (5:110). His speaking in both childhood and maturity is generally interpreted as in his first and second visit to this world. And lastly: Peace on me on the day I was born, on the day I die, and on the day I am raised to life (19:35). 

Conclusion

In the two parts of this article, I have presented Islam’s fundamental approach to Christianity. This should be considered the main approach, as all claims are stated parallel to Qur’anic verses. Based on my studies of comparative religion, I conclude that the Qur’an and the Bible have many parallel concepts.

How do we answer the following valid questions: What does the Qur’an offer? Can Islam and Christianity be combined to defeat unbelief and our current social problems? I do not mean that these two religions should be mixed, as has happened in the past, but that we should accept their common principles. In other words, we should use their combined power to oppose enmity, intolerance, and the lack of dialogue, love, and hope in our personal lives and society; the crushing of civilizations and the effects of materialism on our communities, religions, cultures, and young people; and the lack of faith, immorality, and other social problems.

The Qur’an suggests several things to Muslims and Christians. For example, it tells the Muslims: Do not dispute with the People of the Book except by what is best, except for those who act unjustly, and say: We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you, our God and your God is One, and we submit to Him (29:46); Those to whom We have given the Book rejoice in what has been revealed to you. Some confederates deny part of it. Say: I am only commanded to serve God and not associate anything with Him. I invite (you) to Him, and to Him is my return (13:36); and: If they dispute with you, say: I have submitted myself entirely to God and (so has) everyone who follows me. Ask those who have been given the Book and the unlearned people: Do you submit yourselves? If they submit, they are following the right way, If they turn back, you are responsible only for delivering the message. God sees the servants (3:20).

The Qur’an expects the Christians to accept Muhammad’s messengership and the Qur’an. This does not mean that they must convert to Islam, for all that is required is acceptance, just as Muslims accept Jesus and the Book given to him. For example: O People of the Book, do not exceed the limits in your religion or speak (lies) against God. Rather, (speak) the truth. The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, is only God’s apostle and His Word that He communicated to Mary and a Spirit from Him. So believe in God and His apostles. Do not say three, but desist, for that is better for you. God is only one God. Far be it from His Glory to have a son. Whatever is in the heavens and in Earth is His. God is sufficient for a Protector (4:171). See also 19:35-36.

The next verse talks to those who believe in the previous Books: O believers, be careful of (your duty to) God and believe in His Apostle. He will give you two portions of His mercy, make for you a light with which you will walk, and forgive you. God is Forgiving, Merciful (57:28). We can read two portions of His mercy as being a reward for both of the Prophets that they follow.

Other verses ask and require them to reconsider the signs in their Books: O People of the Book, why don’t you believe in the communications of God while you witness (them)? (3:70) and: Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own (scriptures), the Law (Torah) and the Gospels, for He commands them (to do) what is just and forbids them (to do) what is evil. He allows them to do what is good (and pure) and prohibits them from what is bad (and impure). He releases them from their heavy burdens and the yokes that are upon them. These are the people who believe in him, honor him, help him, and follow the Light sent down with him. They will prosper (7:157).

The Qur’an makes two more offers to the People of the Book. The following verse is probably the last offer, if the ones mentioned above were rejected: Say: O People of the Book, come to an equitable proposition between us and you that we will serve only God and will associate nothing with Him, and (that) some of us will not take others for lords besides God. If they turn back, say: Bear witness that we are Muslims’ (3:64). In this ultimate offer, no Prophets are mentioned. Since everything is secondary when compared to belief in God, the Qur’an shows its flexibility in all matters except serving only God, associating nothing or no one with him, and not setting up lords besides Him.

Another original offer is to establish dialogue by cooperating or gathering around Abraham’s religion: Who has a better religion than he who submits himself entirely to God? He is the doer of good (to others) and follows the faith of Abraham, the upright one, whom God took as a friend (4:125). 

Suggested Reading List

• Gulen, M. Fethullah. Prophet Muhammad: Aspects of his Life, The Fountain, 2000. Gulen’s Essentials of the Islamic Faith is also a good source of related information.
• Hasan, Ahmad (trans.). Sunan Abu Dawud, book 36 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).
• Khan, M. Muhsin (trans.). Sahih Bukhari, books 55 and 56 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).
• Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. Risale-i Nur Collection: The Letters. The Nineteenth Letter: Sixteenth Sign. Konak-Izmir, Turkey: Kaynak AS, 1998. (Online at www.nur.org or www.risale-inur.com). Related topics are discussed throughout the entire collection.
• Siddiqui, Abdul Hamid (trans.). Sahih Muslim, books 30, 31, and 41 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).

What does it mean for people?

Did all the prophets appear in the Arabian Peninsula?

Were there any people among whom a prophet was not raised?

If so, can those to whom prophets were not sent be held responsible for their beliefs and actions?

Prophethood is the highest rank, the highest honour, possible. It proves the superiority of a man’s inner being to that of others. A prophet is like a branch which arches out from the Divine to the human realm. He is the very heart and tongue of creation. He may not possess what in a worldly sense, we call a supreme intellect, nor a particular skill or talent such as some geniuses have shown. Rather, he is an ideal being, all of whose faculties are harmoniously excellent and active, and who strives and progresses steadily towards heaven; one who awaits Divine inspiration for the solutions to the problems he meets, and who is considered to be the connecting point between the things and beings here and the Beyond. His body is subject to and follows his heart, figuratively, the seat of spiritual intellect; his mind likewise is subject to and follows his heart. His perceptions and reflections are always directed to the Names and Attributes of Allah. He goes to what he perceives; he arrives at the destination he aims for.

A prophet’s perception, developed to the full surpasses that of ordinary people. Nor can his power of perception or understanding be expressed or explained in terms of different wavelengths of light or sound, or in some other such way. It is not within an ordinary man’s power and means to acquire a prophet’s knowledge, which goes beyond the limits of ordinary human nature. However intently deployed, our human powers of analysis and synthesis can never attain to a prophet’s knowledge.

Through the prophets, man has been able to gain an insight into creation, and thus to find out and to know the meaning of it. But for the prophets and their teachings, man would neither have seen nor understood the true nature and meaning of things and events, nor, therefore, could he have entered into and coped with what is in and around him.

In addition to conveying the Divine message and guidance, the prophets have also taught man something of Allah and His Names and Attributes. Their first mission was to teach the reality of this life, its true purpose and meaning. Since Allah is beyond man’s perception and comprehension, it fell to the prophets to be the most obedient, careful, conscious, self-disciplined of people whilst they were performing their tasks. If there had not been any clear utterances by the prophets about the Creator, the All-Mighty, the All- Knowing, who governs and sustains and cherishes the whole creation, from the smallest atom to the largest nebula, it would never have been possible for man to think or know or say anything right and proper about Allah.

Everything in the universe tries to, as it were, exhibit the Names and Attributes of the All-Mighty, All-Encompassing Creator. In the same way, the prophets have taken note of, affirmed and been faithful to, the subtle, mysterious relation between Allah and His Names and Attributes. Their first duty was to know and speak about Allah. Therefore, they entered into the true meaning of things and events, and conveyed it directly and sincerely to their fellow human beings.

Just as, even in the smallest exhibitions, public fairs and the like events, we benefit from a guide or usher, who directs our steps and prepares our attention, so also with the magnificent exhibition of this creation, we are in need of guides who draw attention to the reality of it, direct us towards its purpose and meaning, and show us our way in it.

Is it possible that the One Who ordered this creation, opened to us His works, for our wonder and awe, Who desires to make Himself known through His creation, Who chose distinguished servants to guide our attention-is it possible that He would not, through these distinguished servants, reveal His names and Attributes to those who long to know Him? If this were so, would it not make His creation a vain work? The Supreme Being Who made everything like a tongue and a letter and Who revealed His Wisdom and Blessings through such things is absolutely free from vanity and absurdity. Thus, it seems to us, most unlikely that any people in one or other part of the world has been deprived of Allah’s revelation through His prophets. The Qur’an, indeed, is explicit on this point:

For We assuredly send amongst every people an Apostle (with the command), ‘Serve Allah and eschew evil. ’(al-NahI, 16.36)

However, mankind forgot the teachings brought by those appointed servants and over time went astray, sometimes deifying the very men who preached against it, and sank into idolatry.

Throughout the earth there are examples of what man’s imagination has idolized-like the mountain of the gods in ancient Greece or, to this day, the River Ganges in India. Even accepting that there must be a tremendous difference between their first appearance and the actual position now, it is quite impossible to understand the conditions that raised Confucius in China and Brahman and Buddha in India. It is equally difficult to guess what they originally taught, or to know how far time and human degeneration have corrupted the first message.

If the Qur’an, which eradicates doubts, had not introduced Jesus Christ to us, it would not now be possible to have a true picture of his life and his teaching. For priests have confounded the truth about Jesus Christ with the philosophies and idolatries of the Ancient Greeks and Romans, attributing divinity to man, and anthropomorphizing God. The concept of the Trinity is certainly a priestly, human corruption-insulting as it is to common sense and reason and, still more shameful, impudent towards Allah.

Perhaps it was one of the conditions of the Roman Empire accepting Christianity as the official, state religion, that the festival, holy days, rites and rituals of the church are so obviously and shamelessly derived from, or imitate directly, the idolatrous practices of the ancient Romans and Greeks. For, without the enlightening revelation of the Qur’an, it is very difficult to tell the Jesus Christ worshipped in the Christian church from Adonis or Dionysus.

Considering that Christianity is relatively recent and considering what the Christians did to their prophet and to their Book, we may well wonder how many ‘Christs’ have been treated in the same way by their followers over time? From a reliable Islamic source, there is a hadith which says: ‘a prophet’s disciples will carry out his mission after his death but some of his followers will also upset everything he established’ (Muslim, Fada’il al-Sahaba, 210-12; lbn Hanbal Musnad, 417) This is a most important point. Many of the religions which we now consider false turned to falsehoods, superstitions and legends over time through the deliberate malice of their enemies-despite the fact that, originally, they may have come from the purest, Divine source.

To say that someone is a prophet when he is not is tantamount to kufr (unbelief), just as to refuse to believe in a true prophet is also kufr. On the other hand, if the case of these false religions is similar to that of Christianity, that is, if they were distorted by their followers over time, we should look at those religions with some caution and reserve judgement in some measure. We should consider what Buddhism may have been in its true original; similarly, Brahmanism; or the doctrines attributed to Confucius; or shamanism and other such: it may be that we may find in them some remnant of what they were in their origins.

What they were-whether true or false (we do not know)-is not what they are. Supposing the impossible that their founders returned and saw the religion they originally established, they would not now recognize them.

There have been many religions which have been distorted and altered in the world, and consequently it is essential to accept the purity of their original foundation. The Our’an says:

There never was a people without a Warner having lived among them. (al-Fatir, 35.24)

And We assuredly sent among every people an Apostle. (al-NahI, 16.36)

These revelations universally declare that Allah sent Messengers to every people throughout the world. The names of some of these are known to us through the Qur’an, but there is also a large number whose names have not been made known to us. The names we know are 28 out of 124,000 (or perhaps 224,000); even then we do not know exactly where and when many of them lived.

Essentially we are not bound to know all the past prophets. The Qur’an says:

We did in times past send Apostles before you; of them there are some whose stories We have related to you, and some whose story We have not related to you. (al-Ghafir, 40.78)

In this way, the Qur’an warns us not to deal with some of those whom it does not mention to us.

Recent studies in comparative religion, philosophy and anthropology, have shown how many communities, living at very great distances from each other, share certain concepts and practices. For example, turning from plural to a singular conception of God; in their supplications in times of exceptional stress seeking refuge only in the One Supreme Being and raising their hands and asking something from Him. There are very many such phenomena which indicate a singular source, a single teaching.

If primitive tribes cut off from civilization and the influence of the known prophets, have a sure understanding of the Oneness of Allah, though they may have little understanding of how to live according to that belief, it must be that, as the Qur’an tells us, every people and nation has had its own Message and Messenger:

To every people was sent an Apostle. When their Apostle comes (before them), the matter will be judged between them with justice, and they will not be wronged. (Yunus, 10.47)

No people and no land are excluded from that commandment.

This brings us to the question of whether those who claim they have not been sent a prophet will be held responsible for their beliefs and actions. As we have just explained, there is no reason to believe that any peoples in the world have been deprived altogether of the prophets’ light. There may have been periods in which darkness seemed to prevail. But such were temporary darknesses, after which the Grace and Blessing of Allah again enlightened the people through revelation to His chosen servants. Thus, whether it be less or more, every people, at some point in their history, saw or heard or experienced to the full, the mercy of revelation. Nevertheless, we must allow that, in some instances, the destruction of the beliefs which the prophets established was so absolute, and people introduced so many distortions into the religion and bizarre rites of worship, that the true teachings were generally, if not altogether, lost by the people. In such cases, a long interregnum of darkness may have replaced enlightenment. Though darkness is ever followed by an enlightenment, and an enlightenment by darkness, there may be some peoples who remained in darkness as it were unknowingly and against their own will. For such people there are glad tidings in the Qur’an. These are not punished or blamed for the wrong they may do, until and unless due warning has been conveyed to them: We would never visit our wrath on any community until We had sent an Apostle to give warning (al-Isra’, 17.15). That is, the warning precedes responsibility and then reward or punishment.

As for the details of this matter, the imams of the Islamic schools of thought think differently. For instance, Imam Maturidi and his school argue that no people can be excused given that there is plenty of evidence pointing to the One Creator which leads to belief in Him. By contrast, the Ashari school, referring to the Qur’anic verse quoted above, argue that warning and guidance must precede judgement and people can only be held responsible if they have been sent a prophet. There is a third body of scholars who have combined these two positions. They hold that those who have not been sent any prophet and thus have not wilfully strayed into unbelief or worshipped idols are ahl-i najat (the people who will be excused and so escape the punishment and who, as Allah wills, may be saved). For, in fact, some people cannot analyze the things and events around them, cannot penetrate to their meaning, nor deduce therefrom the right course of belief and action. Such people are first taught the right way, given explanations and directions on how to act and then, in line with their actions thereafter, are answerable and accordingly rewarded or punished. But as for those who wilfully take to unbelief or adopt a hostile, negative attitude to belief and religion, or knowingly defy Allah and His commandments, they will certainly be questioned and punished for their deviation and corruption, even though they live in the farthest, most desolate and deserted region of the world.

To summarize: no region or people has been altogether deprived of Divine enlightenment through Allah’s chosen servants, His prophets. Directly or indirectly, all people of all periods have, at some time in their history, known or been aware of a prophet and of his teaching. A period during which the names of the prophets have been forgotten and their teachings completely eroded, until another prophet is sent, is described as an interregnum. It is accepted that people who live in those periods would not be punished but rather excused, on the condition that they have not knowingly and wilfully deviated into polytheism or atheism.

And Allah, the All-Knowing and All-Encompassing, knows best.