Of all the faculties and senses that man is endowed with, moderation is one of the most essential virtues. Moderation concerns all people within society, and can become an unattainable virtue unless all members of society have gained a sufficient level of straightforwardness in their thoughts and actions. That straightness of conduct can only be sustained if a sufficient number of people in that society understand, desire and practice the virtue of moderation.

John B. Watson and his colleague conducted an experiment if an emotion could be generalized from one subject to another subject similar to the first. He targeted a baby, called Little Albert, who had no fear of small furry animals like white rats at that time. To carry out their hypothesis, Watson and colleague presented a white rat for Little Albert to play with. But after a while, the researchers made a very loud disturbing noise whenever Little Albert attempted at reaching for the white rat. After several times the researchers paired the loud noise with Little Albert’s attempts at reaching that white rat, a time came to the point where Little Albert was scared of the animal on its own—without the loud sound. From that on, Little Albert generalized his fear to anything furry, including non-white rabbits and dogs. (Watson & Rayner, 1920)

From early years of childhood, we have directly and indirectly learnt how an excess and shortage of anything could be undesirable. No matter who an individual is or where he or she comes from, that individual knows that eating too much can cause a bloated feeling, eating too less can harm health, talking too much could hurt others, and so does not talking at all. Moderation is such a universal virtue that every individual from every religion, ethnicity, and background knows that a life lived in moderation always reaps the most benefits.

Not just on trivial daily matters, moderation can address any issue that has significant relations to human life. Moderation is related to healthy lifestyles, satisfactory life outcomes, healthy relationships, and many more. But one aspect of humankind that is faced everyday—yet it seems to be ignored most of the time—is the mindset, way of thinking, or the cognition. We can have times when there is a “shortage” of the mindset, but more problematic is the instances when some individuals choose to adopt an extreme way of thinking.

Consider the case of Little Albert above, because of one tragedy Little Albert generalized his feelings and fear that anything furry was scary. Probably because that white furry rat seemed to produce such a loud scary noise, Little Albert thought, “so, anything furry MUST be scary too…” This is one example where way of thinking can be extreme. Moderation does not seek to moderate this extreme way of thinking, rather it seeks to moderate way of thinking generally so it is not as extreme.

How moderation is related to prejudice

As mentioned above, moderation can address many issues, and this includes prejudice. Prejudice is defined as the way we see others—the social orientation that is based on a membership of a particular group (Brown, 2010). To understand prejudice, one has to note that prejudice comes from a generalized attribution or characterization (or what is commonly known as a stereotype). Prejudice is the emotional aspect of stereotypical thinking. Like Little Albert, the infant generalized his prejudice to anything furry, and although Albert’s reaction to those furry objects was dramatic, our modern prejudicial reaction is usually more subtle and hidden.

In relation to the issue of prejudice, moderation is synonymized to being fair-minded—a way of thinking that employs the middle point between two extremes. Prejudice is, in its basic form, a way of thinking that is located in one extreme. The extremity comes from the aspect of generalization of prejudicial mindset in its beholder’s way of thinking. But where do these thoughts come from? People’s tendency to generalize their observation of a trait of a person to his or her group members always comes from the external sources.

One study supported the notion that people obtain prejudicial thinking from external sources (Aboud, 1976). The research method involved asking participants to seek information on three fictitious groups. Prior to seeking information, the participants were shown statistics of certain traits related to these groups. This was done to “set” the minds of the participants on the traits that were more likely to be shown by the members of these groups. Consequently, when seeking information on the groups after shown the statistics of the groups, the participants were more likely to “confirm” what they had been told from the statistics, allowing a generalization to occur in their mindset.

Availability heuristics and their role in prejudicial thinking

Why do humans generalize more than they should, or at all? Perhaps it is because of the information they can readily and superficially obtain from the target of their prejudicial thinking. Stereotypes are always something people can see directly, such as weight, skin color, and intelligence shown through behavior and many other characteristics. These sets of readily available information seem to be more important because there is one type of heuristics, availability heuristics that is present in the human mind to help them judge on frequency or probability (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973).

To understand heuristics, consider the two images below that we come across very often. How do you know which gender is which symbol? The existence of heuristics allows us to manage this world in a more simplified and helpful way. Society uses symbols that represent certain group of people to give certain information. No matter where we are, our brain is integrated with the understanding that “skirts” are something only women would wear—it is how, by using that heuristic, we know that the first symbol tells us that it is a women’s place, or belongs to women, or can only be used by women—depending on where we see the symbol.

Heuristics are tools to help people make a cognitive decision on something such as deciding who someone is, if he or she is a righteous person, or what leads to a particular event, or how a certain event happens. Availability heuristics is the tool used to make a judgment when it comes to the frequency of probability that something occurs to that particular target. For example, one may judge the traits of people in community A, after seeing the behavior of a few members of community A. Availability heuristics help people simplify judgment to the most simplified information they can get in mind, and that information can come from various sources, such as a personal experience like the one in the Little Albert case, and others like the statistics given in the study described above.

Availability heuristics can be useful in some situations, such as estimating voting behavior in an election period, or predicting divorce cases for a particular year, but sometimes it has a negative consequence. Prejudice partly comes from the use of availability heuristics and blind “compliance” to such judgment. In this case, availability heuristics are a form of excess of the use of limited information offered to the human mind prior to judgment because blind belief to such heuristics can lead them to generalize. This is an extreme way of thinking that would go against the very nature of moderation itself.

Labeling and availability heuristics

Availability heuristics can be so powerful that sometimes people do not even realize that it is affecting their way of thinking. This is due to the excess use of labeling to simplify and categorize objects. Labeling affects human judgment and interpretation toward something or someone (Jussim, Nelson, Manis, & Soffin, 1995). Labeling is one of the sources of availability heuristics because labeling comes from the traits of physical attributes that people see from the individuals that they label. For example, individuals are labeled as doctors after they are seen wearing a white coat with a stethoscope around their neck, or a man is labeled as dangerous when walking in the dark with a hooded jumper on. Once labeling happens, individuals who conform to the traits and physical attributes that resemble the labels are stereotyped and these stereotypes become the readily available information to serve as a tool to form availability heuristics.

Labeling is not all inaccurate, but the negative consequence of labeling happens because people are too focused on the external traits of a target of the label. People seem to readily judge that a person in a white coat is a doctor, or that a man who has a hood on while walking in the dark is dangerous. These are all the external qualities of the person in a white coat and the man with a hood that people focus on to make a judgment, and eventually they have prejudicial thinking against these targets.

When discussing the topic of faith, Benjamin Franklin said, “Faith is confirmed by the heart, confessed by the tongue, and acted upon by the body.” This definition of faith is in parallel with the definition given by various religions. It emphasizes the importance of both external (confessing and acting upon) and internal aspects (believing) of spirituality. One cannot have one aspect without the other. Moderation involves professing your faith internally, such as believing and keeping your motivation, and externally, such as taking care of your appearance in line with your faith, and being concerned about what you say and do. This means that you do not just focus on either one aspect alone, but prove your stand by maintaining your faith, internally and externally.

In relation to prejudice, labeling happens due to focusing more on the external aspects of traits, like the group members’ appearance, behavior, and even intelligence (as it can be seen from their way of thinking and speaking). But we often neglect to remember that there are interior aspects of those individuals—the aspects that are dismissed from the factors of being labeled. These interior aspects can be different across individuals, thus labels alone could not make an entirely accurate judgment on an individual.

Conceptual frameworks of the relationship between moderation and prejudice

As discussed, prejudice comes from many factors that are not in line with the concept of moderation and this can be prevented by allowing the right way of thinking to be our habit. Moderation is a middle pathway to prevent prejudice. One way to do so is by understanding that while the outside of a person can tell something about him or her, the inside parts can be important too. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework on how moderation can address prejudicial thinking.

Figure 1 shows a continuum of the way of thinking with moderation in the middle and “indifference” and “prejudicial thinking” on each extreme end. Prejudicial thinking, in one extreme, focuses only on the external aspects of a group of people, by which the aspects are used to make a judgment if the group is “good” or “bad.” These judgments are then used to make a generalization. On the other hand, indifference is shown when people have a neutral attitude; too much of it that they do not care about what is happening around them.

Moderation is located in the middle. It is neither prejudicial nor indifferent. People with a moderate way of thinking consider both the external and internal qualities of individuals to make a fair judgment. Each judgment is different across individuals because he or she knows that even if an individual belongs to a certain group, that individual does not have to be the same as the other members of that group. People with a moderate way of thinking know that tolerance needs to be exercised whenever needed, without any unfairness to any individuals who belong to a certain group of people.

Conclusion and a suggestion

When making a judgment or decision on a target’s attribution, it is important to examine the extent to which heuristics or the person’s dependence on readily available information—also known as availability heuristics—affects their judgment. Heuristics can be useful to help people organize, manage, and simplify their thoughts, but it should be supervised so that it is only used in moderate levels. Whenever one feels the need to make a quick judgment, he or she should break it by “educating” the self. Educating the self in its simplest form can be to ask, “What if I am judged that way? Would I like it?” By educating yourself, you make a psychological and mental reminder that to quickly judge means to unfairly treat that individual, which is something you would not want happen to you.

Another way to hinder the potential formation of prejudice is to empathize. By putting yourself in the target’s own shoes, you will be able to see how unfair stereotypes can be to a particular individual. Self-serving bias is a social cognitive error in which you are more likely to view positive events as a result of your own doing and negative events as the consequence of an external factor (Miller & Ross, 1975). This is viewed by psychologists as an error in thinking about other people, but interestingly, this can actually help in reducing prejudice. Prejudice can occur because you fail to attribute a person’s behavior or trait fairly, because he or she is simply another person you cannot relate to. Therefore, by empathizing with a person, you would more likely start to view that behavior through your own lens. By doing that, “self-serving bias” can begin and that is equipped with the ability to also consider your own internal attributes. Therefore, there will be a balance between focusing on internal aspects because it is you, and focusing on external aspects, because it is others.

Moderation is indeed a virtue that can help us develop and grow as a well-adjusting human being. By employing moderation in every aspect of our lives, we can see that moderation can address almost any issue, including prejudice. Moderation is the middle and the most proper pathway of thinking.

Taufik Mohammad, PhD, is a senior lecturer in Universiti Sains Malaysia.

References

• Aboud, F. E. 1976. The effect of stereotype generalization on information seeking. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science , 8, 178-188.
• Brown, R. 2010. Prejudice: Its social psychology. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
• Jussim, L., Nelson, T. E., Manis, M., & Soffin, S. 1995. Prejudice, stereotypes, and labeling effects: Sources of bias in person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 228-246.
• Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. 1975. Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82, 213-225.
• Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. 1973. Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 207-232.
• Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. 1920. Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal

This world is a unique place that exhibits the essence, meaning and material of the cosmos; a rich page that contains various examples of creatures and events; a pleasant habitat for human beings and Jinn (a species of invisible beings mentioned in the Qur’an with a free will like human beings), and also a rehearsal ground for the Hereafter. Both good and bad deeds grow in its bosom, and their fruits are sent to the Hereafter.

In this respect, this world is a dwelling and a factory, as well as being a market open to the Hereafter. Seeds are both grown and harvested here in this world; the necessary food for the long journey to the Hereafter is prepared here; the shining ornaments of Paradise and the goods that are to be exhibited at the markets of the Hereafter are manufactured here in this very world. They are to be displayed to all that is created and later to be offered to the believers in their eternal dwellings. This world is like a rainforest watered with the rains of Mercy and touched by the breezes of Compassion; it is a screen where the magnificence and the glory of the Hereafter are projected. We observe the light of the Hereafter that diffuses through this screen, in the winter-spring cycle we remember death. Every night as an individual, every winter as a group we die, and every morning and spring, we come alive. This cycle continues non-stop and reminds us of eternal life.

In this world sometimes evil resides next to beauty, bad deeds among good ones, and darkness behind light and so on. However, for those who always see the good and think of the good, the positive aspects are always stronger, longer lasting, more desirable, and more attractive. On the other hand, the unattractive aspects that displease us are beneficial in their results and other more subtle aspects. In fact these types of things and events are the sources of good deeds through inspiring our feelings in unusual ways, sharpening our intentions and ambitions, and promising surprises to our free will. This can be illustrated through the elements that are destructive or combustive by themselves, but which in different combinations are sources of life. Hence, through patience, submission and obedience negatives can be turned into positives.

Compared to the heavenly bodies and the universe, and for our limitless ambitions, the world that we live on is small; however, it is the heart of everything. It is just a dot compared to the universe but it is more valuable than the galaxies. It is like a droplet compared to everything that exists and drifts in ether, but such a droplet that it is more valuable than everything combined in this universe. The world is the unique host of the human being who has been created as a complete and transparent mirror of the Divine Names and Attributes, and in addition to being a host, it acts like a ramp that enables the human being leap toward the Hereafter.

Those believing souls who are capable of considering the location and the position of the world with its place and importance before God can acquire oceans as wide as the universe from this droplet; possess the stars and the sun through this miniature universe; transform the limited time spent on it into an eternal life time. All of these are possible, if all the abilities entrusted to or hidden in the essence of the human being are used rightly without being squandered.

This is a mortal world, a temporary resting place which the guests leave when their appointed times are come. Entering after those who leave are the newcomers. Like a hotel, it is in a constant cycle of departing and arriving guests. The newcomers come to this world as if joining the army to do obligatory service, and those departing return their homeland with a license for their eternal dwellings. Since the beginning of humanity both arrivals and departures have continued. Nobody can stop any of them. Thus, for those unfortunates who do not know the purpose of their arrival in this world, tragic moments follow the joyful seconds of laughter; for a glimpse of hope they are surrounded by despair.

On the other hand, there exists a totally different perspective for those who are believers. They know Who has sent them, and they try to stay close to Him, and since they know their destination they are constantly pursuing ways to make their destination pleasant. This comforting perspective of relating every event and everything to Him transforms everything that is contained in the universe, changing its shape, color and meaning; it becomes sweet, attractive, and bright; it becomes light and diffuses into the heart. From this point of view, the world is a ship, a plane whose destination is eternity and eternal happiness for its passengers; a rich library with millions and billions of books; an exhibition which thrills everybody who looks at it. It transforms into a clear language that calls to Him.

In reality, for those who can see with the light of faith, all these beauties folded into one another are only clear signs of His Divine Being, and the human being is an interpreter who can read and understand those signs. The matter shows the path to the secrets beyond the seen to those believers who can filter events through intellect, consciousness, and feelings within a balance. Through time divine secrets diffuse into their souls, and their hearts become observatories of the Divine Attributes. In this way, the torments originating from not knowing the Creator are torn away and they disappear; light covers all.

Whenever we look at existence from this global perspective, we start to feel that the secrets of the beyond fill our souls, and turn our attentions toward the Unseen. At this moment we transform into a dervish filled with awe and admiration; in such harmony with both the world and the Hereafter, matter and spirit, reality and dream that in all of these we hear the poetry of the adventures of nature and humanity. We hear them and fall into a state of wonder.

There is such harmony and order in everything that we cannot help but ask the question, “Is it possible for this order and harmony to be attributed to the spirit in all of these things, if there is such a spirit?” whenever we look at them with an observing eye. Whether everything has a spirit, or a guardian angel or not, we cannot deny their close relationships among themselves and to us, and we feel as if they are trying to say something to us. We start to listen to their silent songs, more eloquent than the most exquisite symphonies; we hold our breaths before their mute, deep conversations with their subtleties; we let our feelings and thoughts into this limitless field. Then everything becomes a messenger that reminds us of something, and it becomes our task to interpret and understand these messages and act accordingly.

Clearly, through the perspective of faith, the whole of creation and all events seem so familiar that we think of them as a friend, a comrade, and we look at them with compassion, and on their face we see that everybody is treated with compassion and we thank the Creator with all our hearts.

At first sight some things may seem rude, cruel, and hidden to us but when we fix our sight with faith, they immediately transform and soften, become gentle and clear and very close friends.

Some are always smiling, like people with pleasant faces and warm manners and they welcome everybody. It is enough just to look at them and they open their hearts to you instantly.

Like smiling children that play joyfully, some of them move with happiness, they spread happiness in their surroundings and they generate an atmosphere of fun around them.

Some, with all their extraordinary ornaments and decorations, make you live unforgettable moments and say to you: “Come again!” And some of them are so generous, beyond imagination, in the dishes they offer to you that they never want you to leave their tables.

Some may not always be warm and sweet. However, if they hurt your hand with a thorn, they never forget to offer a rose to compensate.

Indeed everything that we see and know stands before us with respect, as the angels did before Adam, peace be upon him, and indicate that they are at our disposal with all of their uses and purposes, and open up the secrets they bear. They are always in a state of showing, pointing out, and indicating Him, such that one feels as if one is in the corridors of Paradise. Whenever we observe them with some insight and knowledge, our feelings blend with nature, we see everything as if painted with the colors of His Beautiful Names and Attributes, we feel as if everything is turning into sweet poetry, and we fall into ecstasy.

In such admiration we feel the whole of existence with a loving heart, and we walk on this path of life toward a destination of eternal happiness and joy, one droplet of whose happiness is greater than all of the joys of this world combined, but not to a material or worldly destination. We feel those same feelings in our hearts that the saints have felt and as the people in Paradise will say, we also utter, “All thanks are to God Who removes all the grief and anxiety from us. Thanks to God Who has given us the best dwelling. For us there is no more grief and sorrow.”

Besides all of these beautiful, Paradise-like aspects of this world, there are sides that appeal to our carnal selves and are ugly and unpleasant. We have neither mentioned any of these aspects of the world, nor wished to, since we stated at the very beginning that this is from a believer’s point of view.

Editor’s note:The lead article in July-September 2004 issue “Jalaladdin al-Rumi” was originally written as the foreword for Fundamentals of Rumi’s Thought: A Mevlevi Sufi Perspective by Sefik Can, (published August 04). We are thankful to Sefik Can and Gulen for giving us permission to publish it in The Fountain.

Fethullah Gulen has spent much of his life as a religious teacher in Turkey. He is author of more than forty books, most of them best-sellers in Turkey, and his writing appears regularly in Turkish journals. This article was translated from Turkish by Elvan Ceylan.

Religion, particularly Islam, has become one of the most difficult subject areas to tackle in recent years. Contemporary culture, whether approached from the perspective of anthropology or theology, psychology or psychoanalysis, evaluates religion with empirical methods. On the one hand, religion is an inwardly experienced and felt phenomenon, one mostly related to life’s permanent aspects. On the other believers can see their religion as a philosophy, a set of rational principles, or mere mysticism. The difficulty increases in the case of Islam, for some Muslims and policy-makers consider and present it as a purely political, sociological, and economic ideology, rather than as a religion.

If we want to analyze religion, democracy, or any other system or philosophy accurately, we should focus on humanity and human life. From this perspective, religion in general and Islam in particular cannot be compared on the same basis with democracy or any other political, social, or economic system. Religion focuses primarily on the immutable aspects of life and existence, whereas political, social, and economic systems or ideologies concern only certain variable, social aspects of our worldly life.

The aspects of life with which religion is primarily concerned are as valid today as they were at the dawn of humanity and will continue to be so in the future. Worldly systems change according to circumstances and so can be evaluated only according to their times. Belief in God, the hereafter, the prophets, the holy books, angels, and divine destiny have nothing to do with changing times. Likewise, worship and morality’s universal and unchanging standards have little to do with time and worldly life.

Therefore, when comparing religion or Islam with democracy, we must remember that democracy is a system that is being continually developed and revised. It also varies according to the places and circumstances where it is practiced. On the other hand, religion has established immutable principles related to faith, worship and morality. Thus, only Islam’s worldly aspects should be compared with democracy.

The main aim of Islam and its unchangeable dimensions affect its rules governing the changeable aspects of our lives. Islam does not propose a certain unchangeable form of government or attempt to shape it. Instead, Islam establishes fundamental principles that orient a government’s general character, leaving it to the people to choose the type and form of government according to time and circumstances. If we approach the matter in this light and compare Islam with today’s modern liberal democracy, we will better understand the position of Islam and democracy with respect to each other.

Democratic ideas stem from ancient times. Modern liberal democracy was born in the American (1776) and French Revolutions (1789-99). In democratic societies, people govern themselves as opposed to being ruled by someone above. The individual has priority over the community in this type of political system, being free to determine how to live his or her own life. Individualism is not absolute, though. People achieve a better existence by living within a society and this requires that they adjust and limit their freedom according to the criteria of social life.

The Prophet says that all people are as equal as the teeth of a comb.(1) Islam does not discriminate based on race, color, age, nationality, or physical traits. The Prophet declared: ‘You are all from Adam, and Adam is from earth. O servants of God, be brothers [and sisters].'(2) Those who are born earlier, have more wealth and power than others, or belong to certain families or ethnic groups have no inherent right to rule others.

Islam also upholds the following fundamental principles:

1. Power lies in truth, a repudiation of the common idea that truth relies upon power.
2. Justice and the rule of law are essential.
3. Freedom of belief and rights to life, personal property, reproduction, and health (both mental and physical) cannot be violated.
4. The privacy and immunity of individual life must be maintained.
5. No one can be convicted of a crime without evidence, or accused and punished for someone else’s crime.
6. An advisory system of administration is essential.

All rights are equally important, and an individual’s right cannot be sacrificed for society’s sake. Islam considers a society to be composed of conscious individuals equipped with free will and having responsibility toward both themselves and others. Islam goes a step further by adding a cosmic dimension. It sees humanity as the “motor” of history, contrary to fatalistic approaches of some of the nineteenth century Western philosophies of history such as dialectical materialism and historicism.(3) Just as every individual’s will and behavior determine the outcome of his or her life in this world and in the hereafter, a society’s progress or decline is determined by the will, world-view, and lifestyle of its inhabitants. The Qur’an (13:11) says: “God will not change the state of a people unless they change themselves [with respect to their beliefs, world-view, and lifestyle].” In other words, each society holds the reins of its fate in its own hands. The prophetic tradition emphasizes this idea: “You will be ruled according to how you are.”(4) This is the basic character and spirit of democracy, which does not conflict with any Islamic principle.

As Islam holds individuals and societies responsible for their own fate, people must be responsible for governing themselves. The Qur’an addresses society with such phrases as: —O people!— and —O believers!— The duties entrusted to modern democratic systems are those that Islam refers to society and classifies, in order of importance, as —absolutely necessary, relatively necessary, and commendable to carry out.— The sacred text includes the following passages:

—Establish, all of you, peace— (2:208);

—spend in the way of God and to the needy of the pure and good of what you have earned and of what We bring forth for you from earth— (2:267);

—if some among your women are accused of indecency, you must have four witnesses [to prove it]— (4:15); —God commands you to give over the public trusts to the charge of those having the required qualities and to judge with justice when you judge between people— (4:58);

—observe justice as witnesses respectful for God even if it is against yourselves, your parents and relatives— (4:135);

—if they [your enemies] incline to peace [when you are at war], you also incline to it— (8:61);

—if a corrupt, sinful one brings you news [about others], investigate it so that you should not strike a people without knowing— (49:6);

—if two parties among the believers fight between themselves, reconcile them— (49:9).

To sum up, the Qur’an addresses the whole community and assigns it almost all the duties entrusted to modern democratic systems. People cooperate with one another by sharing these duties and establishing the essential foundations necessary to perform them. The government is composed of all of these foundations. Thus, Islam recommends a government based on a social contract. People elect the administrators and establish a council to debate common issues. Also, the society as a whole participates in auditing the administration. Especially during the rule of the first four caliphs (632-661), the fundamental principles of government mentioned above–including free election–were fully observed. The political system was transformed into a sultanate after the death of ‘Ali, the fourth caliph, due to internal conflicts and to the global conditions at that time. Unlike under the caliphate, power in the sultanate was passed on through the sultan’s family. However, even though free elections were no longer held, societies maintained other principles that are at the core of today’s liberal democracy. Islam is an inclusive religion. It is based on the belief in one God as the Creator, Lord, Sustainer, and Administrator of the universe. Islam is the religion of the whole universe. That is, the entire universe obeys the laws laid down by God, so everything in the universe is —Muslim— and obeys God by submitting to his laws. Even a person who refuses to believe in God or follows another religion has perforce to be a Muslim as far as his or her bodily existence is concerned. His or her entire life, from the embryonic stage to the body’s dissolution into dust after death, every tissue of his or her muscles, and every limb of his or her body follows the course prescribed for each by God’s law. Thus, in Islam, God, nature, and humanity are neither remote from each other nor are they alien to each other. It is God Who makes himself known to humanity through nature and humanity itself, and nature and humanity are two books (of creation) through each word of which God is known. This leads humankind to look upon everything as belonging to the same Lord, to whom it itself belongs, so that it regards nothing in the universe as alien. His sympathy, love, and service do not remain confined to the people of any particular race, color, or ethnicity.

The Prophet summed this up with the command, —O servants of God, be brothers [and sisters]!— A separate but equally important point is that Islam recognizes all religions previous to it. It accepts all the prophets and books sent to different peoples in different epochs of history. Not only does it accept them, but also regards belief in them as an essential principle of being Muslim. By doing so, it acknowledges the basic unity of all religions. A Muslim is at the same time a true follower of Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus, and of all other Hebrew prophets. This belief explains why both Christians and Jews enjoyed their religious rights under the rule of Islamic governments throughout history. The Islamic social system seeks to form a virtuous society and thereby gain God’s approval. It recognizes right, not force, as the foundation of social life. Hostility is unacceptable. Relationships must be based on belief, love, mutual respect, assistance, and understanding instead of conflict and realization of personal interest. Social education encourages people to pursue lofty ideals and to strive for perfection, not just to run after their own desires. Right calls for unity, virtues bring mutual support and solidarity, and belief secures brotherhood and sisterhood. Encouraging the soul to attain perfection brings happiness in both worlds.

Democracy has developed over time. Just as it has gone through many different stages in the past, it will continue to evolve and to improve in the future. Along the way, it will be shaped into a more humane and just system, one based on righteousness and reality. If human beings are considered as a whole, without disregarding the spiritual dimension of their existence and their spiritual needs, and without forgetting that human life is not limited to this mortal life and that all people have a great craving for eternity, democracy could reach its peak of perfection and bring even more happiness to humanity. Islamic principles of equality, tolerance, and justice can help it do just that.

Notes:

1. Abu Shuja’ Shirawayh ibn Shahrdar al-Daylami, Al-Firdaws bi-Ma’thur al-Khitab (The Heavenly Garden Made Up of the Selections From the Prophet’s Addresses) (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiya, 1986), 4:300.
2. For the second part of the hadith see the sections —Nikah— (Marriage Contract) in Abu ‘Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, ed., al-Jami’ al-Sahih (A Collection of the Prophet’s Authentic Traditions) (Istanbul: al-Maktabat al-Islamiya, n.d.), ch. 45; —Birr wa-Sila— (Goodness and Visiting the Relatives) in Imam Abu Husayn Muslim ibn Hajjaj, ed., al-Jami’ al-Sahih, op. cit., ch. 23; and for the first part see —Tafsir— (The Quranic Commentary) and —Manaqib— (The Virtues of the Prophet and His Com-panions) in Abu ‘Isa Muhammad ibn ‘Isa al-Tirmidhi, al-Jami’ al-Sahih (Beirut: Dar al-Ihya al-Turath al-‘Arabi, n.d.), chs. 49 and 74, respectively. The original text in Arabic does not include the word —sisters— in the command. However, the masculine form used refers to both men and women, as is the rule in many languages. An equivalent in English would be —mankind,— which refers to both men and women. By saying —O servants of God,— the Prophet also means women, because both men and women are equally servants of God.
3. See Karl R. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism, trans. Sabri Orman (Istanbul: Insan yayinlari, 1985).
4. ‘Ala al-Din ‘Ali al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Kanz al-‘Ummal fi Sunan al-Aqwal wa al-Af’al (A Treasure of the Laborers for the Sake of Prophet’s Sayings and Deeds) (Beirut: Muassasat al-Risala, 1985), 6:89.

“Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about it.” – Mark Twain

Time is illusive, for it is hard to define, capture, or imagine. Just like the weather, we talk about it but cannot comprehend it or affect its passage. We complain about how quickly time passes, how modern life puts us into a permanent state of urgency, and how we cannot find time for such (usually indefinitely) postponed activities as reading a particular book, spending quality time with our family members, building new social or business relationships, or starting an exercise program. Yet nobody seems to be able to stop or even slow down time. Will better self-management lead to better time-management? Is managing time even important? What exactly is time? The General Conference of Weights and Measures defines one second of time as the interval needed for 9,192,631,770 oscillations of the Cesium atom.¹ A minute is 60 times that, and an hour is 60 times the latter. Thus we know what time is … or do we? Such definitions give no insight into time’s true nature. And there are further, more complex questions: Why do we seem to be unable to go back in time? What does it mean for one event to happen after another event? What do present and future mean?

Time-Management Is Really Self-Management

Even though we do not have a precise definition for time, we still try to manage it. Bookstores and libraries are full of books on time-management, and time-management seminars enjoy wide popularity within the business community. After becoming familiar with the field, one fact stands out: The subject being discussed is actually self-management with respect to time. To be more precise, we can manage ourselves only with respect to what we are doing as the rest of the universe continues to move.²

A successful self-management regimen requires a series of practical techniques, principles, approaches, methods, steps, tools, and strategies arranged in a way designed to construct a realistic framework. Erecting such a structure allows us to understand exactly what our goals are, how they will be reached, and how to begin internalizing the entire system. To make this a long-term program, we need to bring this new outlook from our forebrains to our hindbrains, thereby transforming them from abstract concepts into actual reflexs and habits.

A holistic approach to self-management with respect to time can help us accomplish this goal, for it is built around each person’s self. Incorporating the self’s physical, psychological, and sociological aspects allows a complete and coherent framework to emerge. And, moreover, it reflects the integrity of our existence because it is based on all of the various aspects of our existence.

Holistic Time-Management

The holistic approach to self-management is distinguished by its emphasis on self-knowledge. After all, both logic and common sense dictate that only that which is understood can be managed and led. If a business manager knew nothing about human psychology, behavior, or sociology, would it be logical to assume that he or she could manage a department successfully? Of course not. Using the same analogy, how can a person manage and lead his or her self without understanding its underlying dynamics and structure?

Both Western and Eastern schools of thought have developed definitions for “I,” the term we commonly use to distinguish ourselves from all others. They have many points in common. 

For example, both state that each person has:

A physical aspect to his or her existence (the body), as well as features in common with animals and others that are unique to him or her.

Various non-physiological aspects, such as a soul, mind, consciousness, conscience, ego, willpower, sixth sense, and so on. These indicate the existence of a non-material existence tightly connected to our physical existence. Sufism teaches us about constituents of our spiritual existence: the carnal self, the ego, the soul, the heart, the divine receiver, the evil receiver, and the mind, among others.³

Other people in his or her life with whom he or she has some kind of relationship.

Holistic Self-Management

The holistic approach to self-management requires that we understand the physiological, psychological and spiritual, and sociological aspects of our existence.

The Physiology Front. The logical place to start is learning how our body functions. One important aspect of this is familiarizing ourselves with its many rhythms, which can last anywhere from an hour to several weeks, as well as its timed release of the hormones secreted in our bodies.⁴ A realistic scheduling of our daily activities depends upon knowing which periods are conducive to what activities. For instance, it makes sense to schedule mentally taxing and difficult problems during the early morning, as that is a period of active energy hormones and mental clarity. On the other hand, afternoons are ideal for socializing and building relationships and long-term memory.

We experience mental lows during the day. Usually, we attribute these to the food we have consumed, a lack of sufficient sleep, or other external factors. While such assumptions might be correct, there is a more fundamental cause: our body’s circadian rhythm. This biorhythm, lasting for approximately 90 minutes, is the body’s way of asking for a short break. The most common manifestations of this are yawning, daydreaming, or loosing concentration. Listening to and honoring these signals allows our body to re-energize and achieve a peak during the next hour. Eliminating these signals with caffeine or other stimulants may bring a temporary rise in mental alertness, but also makes it impossible for us to obtain a natural mental peak. This need for a break does not go away; it either returns more strongly in the next period or causes us to experience stress during the rest of the day.

The type and amount of food we consume also affects our self-management. Just consider how much time we spend preparing, consuming, and digesting food, not to mention the time we spend in the restroom and what we do after the meal is finished. Furthermore, certain foods may energize or slow down our mental functions,⁵ and can even affect our sleep patterns. Another important element of our physiological life is regular exercise, for this helps us maintain good health. Certain exercises help reduce stress and increase energy levels throughout the day.

Establishing a suitable program of self-management with respect to time requires that we understand our body and treat it accordingly.

The Psychological Front. A correct understanding of those metaphysical inner faculties that affect our behavior helps us control that behavior. The self consists of such inner faculties as the carnal self, the intellect, and the heart. Each of these have different roles and tendencies in affecting our behavior. For example, the carnal self has the vital role of preserving our physical existence. If it is not disciplined, it can lead us to gluttony and other harmful habits that ultimately destroy our self-control and self-esteem. The key to controlling it is to exercise our willpower when experiencing moments of weakness or temptation.

Turning desirable behaviors into habits also allows us to take advantage of the resulting benefits. For instance, if we make it a habit to wake up early and do lightweight exercises or meditate, we reap the benefits of early morning energy hormones. Even if we cannot achieve all of our targets for that day, at least we will have the satisfaction of accomplishing one of our daily goals: spending time on self-improvement and spiritual advancement.

Another essential human trait is our need for simplicity. The best way to achieve this is to use only one planner and concentrate on one task at a time, thereby eliminating lost notes, misplaced contact information, and missed meetings. Concentrating on one task at a time and minimizing interruptions allows the brain to use less time when beginning to concentrate on a difficult task (start-up time). An interruption of only a couple of minutes can have a negative impact upon this start-up time. Most experts agree that the best way to overcome this is to establish, and then inform your co-workers and friends of, a personal “interrupt-free period.” Other methods are changing your location, turning off your telephone and cell phone, and posting “do not disturb” signs.

Such time robbers as procrastination can be overcome by determining their root causes. For example, procrastination is often caused by a fear of failure. But this is a self-defeating behavior, for procrastination does not make the task go away; it only makes it harder to deal with and causes us to miss an opportunity. One easy way to beat it is to break the task into smaller segments and begin working on it segment by segment. Such an approach takes away our fear of failure, because we can see how success in one segment leads to success in the next. Other root causes of procrastination, such as a fear of success, negative associations, perfectionism, and disorganization, can be overcome in the same way.

As we are by nature visual beings, most of our mental capability is devoted to visual processing. About 80 percent of all input to our brains arrives through our eyes. Our visual memory is also far superior to our auditory and tactile memories. Thus, as time is invisible, we find it hard to imagine and fit it into our overall plan. One way to deal with this difficulty is to make time visible through a time map (also known as a time budget or a time policy). For example, using a calendar as our sole scheduling tool allows us to map every piece of time we have for the next several months. Writing down our activities, tasks, appointments, and other commitments makes time visible. Drawing borders, as well as putting signs, cushion periods, and other visible indicators, allows us to budget our time effectively. It becomes just like a blueprint to our house.

The Sociological Front. Finally, we have to acquire an understanding of how other people think and behave, how they respond to our actions, and why they need to communicate with us, for such things have to be factored into our time-management policy. Since our relationships with others can affect our emotional state, and hence our ability to manage ourselves with respect to time, we need to learn how others may help or hinder our efforts to reach our goals. We need to learn how to support our willpower by cooperating with others, to delegate effectively so that other people can help us achieve our goals as well as their own, to set up and run meetings, and to communicate effectively in order to minimize potential misunderstandings.

Some tools designed to help us manage our time are now on the market: MSProject, day planners, cell phones, and a whole host of computer-related gadgets and software packages. Choosing and then using them wisely and efficiently can make or break our time-management program.⁶

Conclusion

In summary, time-management is really self-management and deciding what to do and when to do it. Success requires self-discipline and self-management. Therefore time-management is actually self-management with respect to a schedule. Effective self-management is predicated upon a correct understanding of the self’s physiological, psychological and spiritual, and sociological aspects. The better we know ourselves, the easier it is to manage and control ourselves. The absence of such control invites failure.

The comprehensive approach envisaged by a holistic self-management program makes successful and effective self-management possible by showing us how to manage the different aspects of our existence effectively and efficiently

Footnotes 

1. “International System of Units (SI).” Online at: www3.sk.sympatico.ca/gregtami/si-base.html; also see www.bipm.fr/enus/2_Committees/cgpm.html.
2. Harold L. Taylor, Making Time Work for You (Ontario, Canada: Harold Taylor Time Consultants Inc., 1998).
3. M. Fethullah Gulen, General Concepts in the Practice of Sufism (Fairfax, VA: The Fountain, 1999).
4. Michael Smolensky and Lynne Lamberg, Body Clock Guide to Better Health (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2001).
5. Michael D. Chafetz, Smart for Life (New York: Penguin Books, 1992).
6. Jan Jasper, Take Back Your Time (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999).

The norms and assumptions that have characterised belief and action in Islam have their initial inspiration in two fundamental sources. One is scriptural, embodying the message revealed by God to the Prophet Muhammad (d.632), upon him be peace, and recorded in the Quran. The second is the exemplification of this message in the pattern or norm derived from the Prophet’s actions and precepts, collectively called the Sunna. Muslims regard the Qur’an as the ultimate closure in a series of revelations to humankind from God, and the Sunna as the historical projection of a divinely inspired and guided human life.

In one of the chapters of Qur’an, entitled al-Furqan (the Criterion: Chapter 25), revelation – addressed to all humankind — becomes the point of reference for distinguishing right from wrong:

Blessed be He Who sent down the criterion (of right and wrong, i.e. this Qur’an) to His servant (Muhammad) that he may be a warner to mankind. He to Whom belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and Who has begotten no son and for Whom there is no partner in the dominion. He has created everything, and has measured it exactly according to its due measurement (25.1-2).

The same chapter goes on to give examples of past Prophets and Messengers (many referred to in the Bible also) and their role as mediators of God’s word to their respective societies.

The Sunna is a necessary source of knowledge for Muslims as Muhammad is described in the Qur’an as ‘a fine example’ and one who possesses ‘high moral excellence’:

In the Messenger of God (Muhammad) you have a good example to follow for him who hopes for (the Meeting with) God and the Last Day and remembers God much. (al-Ahzab, 33.21)

… you (0 Muhammad) are on an exalted standard of character. (al-Qalain, 68.4)

As the secondary source of knowledge, the Hadith (sayings of Prophet Muhammad, the written record or text of the Sunna) are to be relied upon on the authority of God’s saying in the Quran:

By the star when it goes down. Your companion (Muhammad) is neither astray nor being misled. Nor does he speak from out of (his own) desire. It is no less than Inspiration sent down to him. (al-Najni, 53.1-4).

The necessary elements of the creed of Islam are defined in the Quran (al-Baqara, 2.177) as belief in God, the Angels, the Books (Scriptures), the Prophets, the Last Day, the qadar (destiny) or the faith that, good and bad, everything is originally from God-that is, God is the Creator of all men and their actions whether good or bad, and the genuine source of all good.

For the derivation of legal principles and rulings, Quran and Hadith are supported by ijma, the consensus of scholars on behalf of community, and by qiyas, reasoning by analogy, when no explicit and specific ruling can be found in the texts.

The human quality that encompasses the concept of ideal ethical value in the Qur’an is summed up in the term taqwa, which in its various forms occurs over two hundred times in the text. It represents, on the one hand, the moral grounding that underlies human action, while on the other, it signifies the ethical conscience which makes human beings aware of their responsibilities to God and society. Applied to the wider social context taqwa becomes the distinguishing mark of a truly moral community:

O humankind! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies, so that you may come to know each other-the noblest of you, in the sight of God, are the ones possessing taqwa. God is the All-Knowing, the All-Aware. (al-Hujurat, 49.13)

The Quran affirms the different dimensions of human individual and social life-the material as well as the spiritual-but these aspects are not seen in conflictual terms, nor is it assumed that spiritual goals should predominate in a way that devalues material aspects of life. The Qur’an, affirming the complementarity of the two, asserts that human conduct and aspirations have relevance as acts of faith within the wider human, social and cultural contexts. It is in this sense that the idea that Islam embodies a total way of life can best be understood.

In the Qur’an Jews and Christians are referred to as ‘People of the Book. While recognizing the particularity of the Muslim community and its preeminent status, the Qur’an encourages a wider respect for difference and otherness in human society, while favouring common moral goals over mutually divisive and antagonistic attitudes:

We sent Jesus, son of Mary confirming the Torah that had come before him, and We gave him the Gospel, in which was guidance and light and confirmation of the Torah that had come before it, a guidance and an admonition for the pious. Let the people of the Gospel judge by what God has revealed therein. And whosoever does not judge by what God has revealed (then) such (people) are the rebellious to God. And We sent down to you (0 Muhammad) the Book (this Quran) in truth, confirming the Scripture that came before it and muhayminan (trustworthy in excellence and in witness) over it (old Scriptures). So judge between them by what God has revealed, and follow not their vain desires, diverging away from the truth that has come to you, We have prescribed law and a clear way. If God willed, He would have made you one nation, but that (He) may test you; so strive as in a race in good deeds. The return of you (all) is to God; then He will inform you about that in which you used to differ. (al-Ma ‘ida, 5.46-8)

For Muslims, the message of the Qur’an and the example of the Prophet’s life remain inseparably related through all of history as paradigms for moral and ethical behaviour. They formed the basis for Muslim thinkers subsequently to develop legal tools for embodying moral imperatives. The elaboration of legal sciences led to a codification of norms and statutes that gave form to the concept of law in Islam, generally referred to as the Shari’a. Muslim conquest and expansion resulted in contact with cultures whose intellectual heritage was in time selectively appropriated by Muslims, then refined and further developed. The integration of the intellectual and philosophical legacies of ancient Greece, India and Persia among others, created conditions and a tradition of intellectual activity that would lead to the cosmopolitan and pluralist character of an emerging Islamic civilisation. Christian and Jewish scholars, who had already encountered the above legacies in varying degrees, played a crucial mediating role as ‘translators, particularly since they were also aware that the moral disposition of Muslims, like their own, was shaped by common monotheistic conceptions based on Divine command and revelation. The term adab has come to be used to denote the wide-ranging moral, ethical, intellectual and literary discourse that emerged.

The integration of the philosophical legacy of antiquity in the Islamic world was a major enabling factor in the use of philosophical tradition among Muslim intellectuals. It gave rise to figures such as al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), al-Ghazali and others, who became well-known to medieval Europe as philosophers, commentators and exponents of the classical tradition going back to Plato and Aristotle. The Muslim philosophical tradition of ethics is therefore doubly significant: for its value in continuing and enhancing classical Greek philosophy and for its commitment to synthesising Islam and philosophical thinking.

Al-Farabi (d. 950) argued for harmony between the ideals of religious virtue and the goals of a true polity The greater the wisdom and virtue of the rulers and the citizens, the greater the possibility of attaining the true goal of philosophy and religion-contentment in this and the next world.

Ibn Sina (d. 1037) developed the argument that the Prophet embodies the totality of virtuous action and thought, the best of which is reflected in the attainment of moral virtue. The establishment of justice, in Ibn Sina’s view, is the basis for all human good. The combination of philosophy arid religion enables harmonious living in both this world and in the hereafter.

Al-Ghazali (d. 1111) stressed the importance of conformity to the religious law, but even more the inner spiritual dimension. In his ‘The Incoherence of The Philosophers’, he tried to show that the philosophers were self contradictory and anti-scriptural, and that, in some cases, they ended up affirming heretical beliefs. He stressed the importance of sabr (perseverance in hardship, patient endurance and resignation to God’s decrees), tawakkul (absolute trust in God) and dhikr (constant remembrance of God).

The various Muslim philosophers in their extension and occasional revision of earlier classical notions linked ethics to theoretical knowledge, which was to be acquired by rational means. Since human beings were rational, the virtues and qualities that they embraced and practised were seen as furthering the ultimate goal of individuals and community. This goal was the attainment of happiness.

The practice and influence of the diverse ethical heritage in Islam has continued in varying degrees among Muslims in the contemporary world. There is growing self-consciousness about identification with that past heritage and a recognition of the need to adapt to changing circumstances and a globalization of human society. They must take into account the diversity and pluralism that has marked the Muslims of the past as well as the present.

As Nanji has pointed out, because the modern conception of religion familiar to people in the West assumes a formal separation between specifically religious and perceived secular activity, certain aspects of contemporary Muslim discourse, which does not accept such a separation, appear strange and often retrogressive. Nanji went on to argue that, in the pursuit of a vision that will guide Muslims in decisions and choices about present and future ethical matters, the most important challenge may be not simply to formulate a continuity and dialogue with their own past ethical underpinning but, like the Muslims of the past, to remain open to the possibilities and challenges of new ethical and moral discoveries.

References and Further Reading 

• Dar, BA. (1960) Qur’anic Ethics, Institute of IslamicCulture, Lahore.
• Johnstone, P. ‘Islamic Ethics’ in MacQuarry, J. & Childress, J. (eds) New Dictionary of Christian Ethics, Westminster Press, London. pp.314-6.
• Nanji, A. (1993) ‘Islamic Ethics’, in Singer, P. (ed.) A Companion to Ethics, Blackwell, Oxford, pp.106-20.