When I was twelve, I spent a summer in a small town where my family owned a grape farm. The vineyard stretched across rolling hills, its vines heavy with deep purple grapes—a place of beauty, but also of hard work. That summer, I learned a lesson about teamwork that has stayed with me ever since.

One morning, my father announced it was time to harvest. He gathered the family—parents, siblings, cousins—and assigned us roles. The older cousins cut grape clusters, while the younger ones, including me, collected them in baskets. My parents and aunts carried the baskets to storage, where my grandfather inspected the grapes for quality.

At first, I thought my job was easy: just pick up grapes and fill the basket. But as the sun rose, the heat became unbearable, and the baskets grew heavier. I lagged behind, and the pile waiting to be collected grew. Seeing my struggle, my older cousin offered to switch roles. I hesitated—I’d never used pruning shears—but with his encouragement, I tried. To my surprise, I enjoyed the precision of cutting, and my cousin’s quick hands made collecting easier. By day’s end, we had finished the harvest. I realized teamwork wasn’t just about doing my part, but about adapting, supporting one another, and working together.

That summer taught me that teamwork isn’t just about dividing up tasks—it’s about understanding each other’s strengths, stepping in when someone needs help, and sharing in the achievement together. The experience of working alongside my family in the vineyard planted a seed of understanding that continued to grow over the years. Later, when I read Jon Gordon’s The Power of a Positive Team, his message that “no one creates success alone” immediately brought me back to those hot summer days in my hometown. Gordon’s insights, along with the timeless prophetic teachings, all point to the same truth: when we work together with a shared purpose—whether in families, workplaces, or communities—not only do we achieve more, but we help lift one another up along the way.

The foundation: no one succeeds alone

Gordon’s foundational premise is simple yet profound: “No one creates success alone. We all need a team to be successful.” He illustrates this with examples ranging from Super Bowl-winning teams to groups launching rockets into outer space or performing open-heart surgeries. My vineyard memory echoes this: without my cousin’s willingness to switch roles, the harvest might have faltered.

This principle finds a powerful parallel in the life of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), particularly in the construction of the Prophet’s Mosque (Masjid an-Nabawi) in Medina. After the challenging migration from Mecca, the Prophet faced the monumental task of uniting a fractured community. He didn’t assign the work to just a few skilled laborers; instead, he mobilized the Muhajirun (emigrants) and Ansar (helpers) into a cohesive team. Historical accounts, such as those from Ibn Hisham, describe him carrying bricks alongside his Companions, his hands dusty with the same labor (Ibn Hisham, 1955). This act wasn’t just practical—it was symbolic, forging bonds of trust and solidarity. The mosque became more than a place of worship; it was a hub of education, governance, and charity, a testament to what a united team can achieve.

The Qur’an reinforces this in chapter as-Saff (61:4) by illustrating the image of a team standing shoulder-to-shoulder, each member integral to the whole, like “a well-compacted building” (Unal, 2006). This wasn’t abstract theology for the Prophet; it was a lived reality. When a Companion suggested using a palm trunk as a pillar, the Prophet listened, adapting the plan collaboratively. This spirit of collective input mirrors my cousin’s suggestion to switch roles, showing that great teams thrive on mutual support and flexibility.

Gordon emphasizes that building such teams requires purpose, passion, and commitment. He wrote The Power of a Positive Team for teams to read together, fostering a shared understanding of what makes them great. This resonates with the Medina community’s collective ethos, where every member—from the poorest laborer to the Prophet himself—contributed to a vision beyond individual gain.

The power of positivity

Gordon’s second key insight is that positivity is a superpower for teams. He rejects “Pollyanna positivity”—a naive optimism that ignores reality—in favor of a gritty, purposeful optimism that confronts challenges head-on. John Gottman’s pioneering research on marriages offers a compelling parallel to team dynamics, showing that a five-to-one ratio of positive to negative interactions predicts success (Gottman, 1994). Through decades of observing couples, Gottman found that thriving relationships don’t eliminate conflict but overwhelm it with positivity—moments of kindness, appreciation, and support. When positive exchanges outnumber negative ones (like criticism or contempt) by at least five to one, couples build resilience, trust, and a buffer against stress. Below this ratio, negativity erodes connection, often leading to divorce. This “magic ratio” underscores Gordon’s point: positivity isn’t just feel-good fluff—it’s a measurable force for winning. In teams, as in marriages, frequent affirmations and constructive energy can transform challenges into opportunities, fostering unity where pessimism might fracture it. Gottman’s insight bolsters the idea that positivity, applied consistently, is a practical strategy for success across human endeavors.

During my sophomore year of college, I joined a group project in a literature class that quickly turned chaotic. Our team of five was tasked with analyzing a novel and presenting it to the class, but we couldn’t agree on anything—themes, roles, or even meeting times. Two weeks in, with the deadline looming, frustration peaked, and we were on the verge of giving up. I remembered my vineyard days and suggested we pause and share one thing we each liked about the book. It felt awkward at first, but as we talked, the mood shifted. One teammate, usually quiet, lit up discussing the protagonist’s resilience, sparking new ideas. I proposed we focus on that theme, and suddenly, roles clicked: he researched, I wrote, others handled visuals. Our presentation wasn’t perfect, but we delivered it with enthusiasm, earning praise for our unity. That experience taught me that positivity isn’t ignoring problems—it’s finding a spark to reignite the team, turning chaos into collaboration.

Gordon shares stories of teams he’s coached, like the Atlanta Falcons under Mike Smith, who adopted a “No Complaining Train” to maintain morale during grueling seasons. This practical application of positivity shows that optimism, paired with action, builds unstoppable teams.

Transforming negativity: a collective responsibility

Positivity isn’t passive; it requires weeding out negativity, Gordon insists. “One of the biggest mistakes teams make is that they ignore the negativity within their team,” he writes. He recounts working with the Jacksonville Jaguars in 2007, where Coach Jack Del Rio used The Energy Bus to confront “energy vampires,” leading to a playoff run. Similarly, Mark Richt at the University of Georgia curbed negativity with an “energy vampire” wall, turning a losing streak into ten consecutive wins.

The Prophet faced a parallel challenge during the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 CE. When the Quraysh barred the Muslims from Mecca and imposed a seemingly humiliating truce, Companions like Umar ibn al-Khattab voiced frustration (Ibn Hisham, 1955). Rather than reprimand them, the Prophet listened with empathy, explaining that God’s plan would unfold. His calm transformed their doubt into acceptance, and the treaty later enabled Islam’s peaceful expansion. Gordon’s three-step approach—confront, transform, or remove—mirrors this: transformation is ideal, but removal may be necessary.

Fethullah Gülen’s philosophy of service (hizmet) complements this: “A community that seeks to serve others must be a garden of positivity, where each member uproots the weeds of envy and plants seeds of compassion” (Gülen, 2004). In my vineyard, my cousin’s willingness to switch roles weeded out my negativity—my fear of failing—and fed my confidence. Gülen’s metaphor of a garden aligns with Gordon’s “weed and feed” strategy, emphasizing proactive cultivation of a positive culture. Gordon shares a school principal’s story: a negative teacher resigned, overwhelmed by a relentlessly positive staff.

A few years after college, I volunteered to help organize a fundraising gala for a local nonprofit. Our small team was passionate, but as the event neared, tensions flared. One member, usually reliable, grew pessimistic—grumbling about low RSVPs, tight budgets, and even the venue’s lighting. His negativity dampened our meetings, and others started doubting we’d pull it off. Reflecting on my vineyard days, I decided to shift the vibe rather than let it fester. I invited him to grab tea after a planning session and asked what was weighing on him. He confessed feeling overwhelmed by outreach calls and feared we’d fail. I suggested we split his tasks—another teammate took half his list. He softened, even laughed, and at our next meeting, he arrived with a list of confirmed donors instead of complaints. The gala went off beautifully, raising more than our goal, and our team bonded over the win. That experience taught me that negativity isn’t the enemy—it’s a signal. Listening and tweaking roles transformed his frustration into fuel, proving a team can thrive when we lift each other up.

Practical tools for a positive culture

Gordon offers concrete tools, like the “No Complaining Rule,” where complaints must come with solutions. Michael Phelps’ Olympic swim team enforced positivity, enhancing their 2016 Rio performance. Said Nursi’s Risale-i Nur adds a spiritual layer: “Complaining about the decree of God is a veil over the beauty of existence. Instead, seek the wisdom within it” (Nursi, 1996). During the Meccan boycott (617-619 CE), Prophet Muhammad rallied his clan to share scarce resources, reframing starvation as a test of solidarity (Al-Haythamī, 2000).

In my vineyard, if I’d complained without adapting, the harvest might have stalled. The “No Complaining Rule” echoes Nursi’s call to focus on wisdom, pushing teams toward solutions.

Positive conflict: strength through trust

Gordon clarifies that positivity doesn’t mean avoiding conflict. “Positive conflict” strengthens teams when rooted in trust and respect. Writing partners Brian Koppelman and David Levien debate ideas constructively, as did volleyball stars Kerri Walsh Jennings and Misty May-Treanor. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) mediated between the Aws and Khazraj tribes in Medina, turning decades of enmity into alliance through dialogue (Ibn Hisham, 1955). Gordon notes, “If there’s no trust, respect, and love, the conflict hurts the team.” My cousin’s trust in me to cut grapes, despite my inexperience, turned a potential clash into collaboration.

A spiritual and practical synthesis

Cultivating a positive culture weaves together practical and spiritual threads, offering lessons for diverse teams. My vineyard lesson taught me adaptability and support; my college project showed positivity’s spark in turning a failing group into a united front; and the nonprofit gala proved empathy transforms negativity, yielding a successful event that uplifted our community. Gordon’s framework—emphasizing unity, positivity, and proactive negativity management—provides a practical structure for these experiences, while the Prophet’s examples offer timeless inspiration. The Qur’an’s call to stand as a “well-compacted building” (61:4) and promise of “ease with hardship” (94:6) infuse these efforts with divine purpose, while Gülen’s vision of compassionate service and Nursi’s reframing of challenges deepen their spiritual resonance.

Nonprofits, in particular, stand to benefit profoundly from this synthesis. My experience with the gala illustrates how Gordon’s principles—listening to transform negativity, fostering unity, and maintaining optimism—can turn a struggling team into a force for good. Nonprofits often operate with limited resources and high stakes, relying on volunteers and staff united by a shared mission, much like the Prophet’s community in Medina. By adopting tools like the “No Complaining Rule” and embracing positive conflict, they can maximize impact—whether feeding the hungry, educating the underserved, or healing the sick—mirroring the mosque’s role as a hub of service. Gülen’s hizmet ethos further aligns here, urging nonprofits to cultivate positivity as a garden of collective action, amplifying their ability to serve humanity.

This is a blueprint to build teams—families, workplaces, or organizations—that reflect unity in diversity. Whether harvesting grapes, working a college project, or fundraising for a cause, the principles of collaboration, optimism, and empathy turn shared purpose into transformative action, echoing the prophetic legacy of building communities that endure and inspire. Together, we can create a brighter future for all.

References

• Gordon, J. (2018). The power of a positive team: Proven principles and practices that make great teams great. Wiley.
• Gottman, J. M. (1994). What predicts divorce? The relationship between marital processes and marital outcomes. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Puri, M., & Robinson, D. T. (2007). Optimism and economic choice. Journal of Financial Economics, 86(1), 71-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2007.02.002
• Ünal, A. (Trans.). (2006). The Qur’ān with annotated interpretation in modern English. The Light, Inc.
• Al-Haythamī, N. A. (2000). Majma‘ al-Zawā’id wa Manba‘ al-Fawā’id (Vol. 6). Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah. (Original work published ca. 14th century)
• Ibn Hishām, A. M. (1955). As-Sīrah an-Nabawiyyah (Vol. 2). (M. Al-Saqqā, Ed.). Mustafa Al-Babi Al-Halabi. (Original work published ca. 9th century)
• Gülen, F. (2004). Toward a global civilization of love and tolerance. The Light, Inc.
  Nursi, S. (1996). The words: The reconstruction of Islamic belief and thought (H. Şimşek, Trans.). Sözler Publications. (Original work published ca. 1920s-1930s)

One of the important concepts in Abrahamic faiths is thanksgiving.

Thanksgiving is a profound sense of gratitude that involves recognizing aspects of our biological structure for which to be thankful. According to research, it has various positive effects on both physical and emotional well-being. “Whoever is grateful, it is for the benefit of his own soul” (Qur’an 31:12). Throughout history, religious leaders and philosophers worldwide have expressed ideas about the essence of thanksgiving. One of the primary reasons many believers inquire about each other’s well-being is to create an opportunity to express gratitude to God. In this way, those who ask and express gratitude engage in an act of worship together, preparing the ground to benefit from material and spiritual blessings.

The feeling of gratitude, at the heart of thanksgiving, helps us turn to God wholeheartedly; it gains the value of worship through the acknowledgment of its true source. In recent years, particularly in the fields of neuroanatomy and genetics, various studies have begun to highlight the biological influences and outcomes of feelings like gratitude.

Brain structure and gratitude

One aspect of gratitude’s connection to healing, satisfaction, and happiness is that it serves as a reward for both our worldly life and our state of mind. True gratitude occurs with the full recognition of the blessing, as appreciating the giver of the blessing is largely dependent on recognizing the blessing itself.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of brain tissue have shown that people with a developed sense of gratitude have more gray matter. Gray matter, responsible for processing information, functions more effectively in learning and decision-making mechanisms for those who are consistently in a state of gratitude. According to studies, the limbic system, responsible for emotional experiences in the brain, helps control challenging emotions such as sadness, anger, and anxiety when gratitude is felt. Those with a strong sense of gratitude have healthier nervous systems, as gratitude suppresses problem-producing mechanisms and activates problem-solving systems. Gratitude is an active form of thinking that disables most of the negative emotions of the ego. Many negative emotions lying in the subconscious, such as jealousy, greed, hatred, ambition, laziness, and arrogance, are related to ingratitude. Gratitude cleanses these layers of negative emotions, but it requires serious effort to recognize and appreciate the blessings we have received.

The prefrontal lobes of the brain contain regions involved in empathy, decision-making, and self-control. Research has shown that feelings of gratitude stimulate these areas of the brain. The hypothalamus, which plays a significant role in regulating sleep cycles, is also activated when we feel gratitude. Feeling gratitude for the blessings received activates the hypothalamus, leading to better quality sleep with positive thoughts. Studies show that even recognizing simple acts of kindness can activate the hypothalamus, thus regulating all body mechanisms it controls. Being in a state of gratitude and recognizing blessings contribute positively to brain health.

Psychological effects

Neurotransmitters—the chemical substances secreted by the brain that transmit stimuli between neurons—affect human emotions. Conversely, human emotions also influence the secretion of these substances. Dopamine and serotonin are two of the most important neurotransmitters responsible for regulating mood. Those who deeply and sincerely feel gratitude secrete more dopamine and serotonin, which have happiness-inducing effects. Dopamine, often called the “motivation molecule,” contributes to feelings of motivation, happiness, and focus. Serotonin, often referred to as the “happiness chemical,” plays a critical role in feelings of well-being and happiness.

When the brain receives enough positive neural signals through gratitude and thanksgiving for endless blessings, these neural pathways strengthen, leading to feelings of happiness and satisfaction that develop with constant and conscious gratitude. Studies show that gratitude, which acts as a natural antidepressant, serves as a bridge between past happy moments and future hopes.

One should not wait to be happy to be grateful; every moment of gratitude increases happiness. (Thanksgiving itself is a blessing and requires its own expressions of gratitude). It is understood that thanksgiving activates the brain’s memory center and the amygdala, reduces the secretion of stress and anxiety-inducing hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline) and improves mood. This leads to stronger heart function and greater resistance to emotional negativity. Long-term research shows that those with a sense of thanksgiving cope better with stress and toxic emotions. Various studies support the fact that recognizing blessings is a significant factor in leading a less stressful life. Recognizing blessings increases feelings of sufficiency, which leads to a decrease in symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Effects on physical health

While reducing stress hormones, gratitude also helps to better manage autonomic nervous system functions. Neurochemical hormones secreted by the nerves contribute significantly to our physical health. Dopamine plays a role in regulating blood vessel function and heart rate, while serotonin is involved in sleep and the digestive system. Although serotonin is primarily found in the intestines, it affects the brain by crossing the blood-brain barrier.

A study evaluating the impact of gratitude on physical well-being showed that patients who kept a gratitude journal experienced a 16% reduction in pain symptoms and were more willing to collaborate with doctors for treatment. Studies have also shown that thanksgiving regulates dopamine levels, increasing vitality and thereby reducing perceived pain.

People with a well-developed sense of gratitude experience slower neurological deterioration. Additionally, inflammation decreases in grateful individuals, making it easier to regulate blood pressure. The feeling of gratitude, formed by recognizing received blessings, leads to the secretion of the hormone oxytocin, which dilates blood vessels, lowers blood pressure, and protects the heart. Through these physiological processes, gratitude has a pain-relieving effect.

The promise in the verse “If you are grateful, I will increase My blessings upon you” (Qur’an 14:7) may also indicate that the blessing of healing readily comes into play through various physiological pathways that affect our physical health, beyond just psychological channels. It also refers to the otherworldly rewards associated with gratitude and thanksgiving.

We perceive the world around us through colors, sounds, geometric patterns, and smells. Although various theories and models have been proposed to explain how the senses are processed in the brain as sight, sound, and smell, we are still in the infancy stage of understanding these magnificent senses that God has gifted to animals and humans.

There are two types of photoreceptors in our eyes, which are in the form of rods and cones. These receptors are equipped with the ability to perceive certain wavelengths of vibrations in the outside world as light and color. They are sensitive to colors and to differences between black and white. The hundreds of color tones perceived by the cone cells reveal themselves by combinations of different wavelengths of red, green, and blue light.

Hearing receptors located in the inner ear are stimulated according to the frequency and volume of sounds, similar to the logic of vibrating strings of different lengths in an instrument and are perceived as sound in the brain. In the olfactory sense, there are about 400 different receptors.

Before the sense of smell occurs in the brain, an extremely complex decoding system operates within millions of odor molecules. It is not yet known how the signals from these receptor cells are brought together to trigger a particular sense of smell. If the codes of smell can be decoded, it may be possible to understand how animals find mates, offspring and food, and how molecular regulation is involved in understanding emotions, stress, appetite, and mood.

One of the biggest problems in understanding odor is that there is not always a relationship between the chemical structure of a molecule and the smell that is sensed. Two chemicals with very similar structures can smell very different, or two very different chemical structures can be perceived as almost the same odor. Often, fragrances are not a single substance, but a mixture of tens or hundreds of aromatic (odor-producing) molecules. For example, the smell of coffee or fermented cheese consists of a mixture of dozens of different proteins, fats, vitamins, and carbohydrates.

In this complex structure, the question is how a certain molecule gets in contact with other molecules to produce a common odor pattern. When you look at the tastes of three or four different types of pears or apples, the smell is different, as is the flavor of each one. When we isolate each of the minerals, organic and inorganic compounds in the structure of the apple, the smell they will produce individually is very different from the smell they will produce together. The fact that each of the apple types exhibits a different smell is related to the amounts and combinations of substances it has, but we do not know much about how this happens.

It is more or less understood how the two types of receptor cells in the human eye respond to light and the chemical processes involved in their operation. But it’s unclear how signals from 400 different kinds of olfactory receptors come together to trigger a particular sense of smell. Also, because working with the proteins in the membranes of these receptors is a difficult task, what these membrane proteins look like and how they work is based on guesswork. However, thanks to the developments in the field of computers and artificial intelligence in data analysis, we can hope that there will be more progress soon in decoding odors and the fine architecture of biological structures.

In a study published in Nature, thousands of scents were introduced to a panel of people and to an AI system. “Using the structure of these molecules alone, the AI algorithm did well at predicting the smell of compounds compared with the average group assessments …, and it performed better than the typical individual sniffer.” One thing that can be deduced here could be that smelling is a subjective experience. Artificial intelligence, on the other hand, is man-made and does not have a soul, and is also deprived of the experiences that people encounter throughout their lives. Thus, it has been successful in dividing odors into groups more accurately in the predictions it makes by looking only at the codes of the molecular structures uploaded to the computer [1].

An arcane password

There are millions of olfactory neurons in the nose. They are created as the biological hardware used for sensing smells, and each typically carries only one type of olfactory receptor. The group of genes encoding them was discovered in the early 1990s, a discovery that was awarded with the Nobel Prize [2]. Each of these receptor types can recognize one or more odors, and each odor can also be recognized by multiple receptors. Therefore, it has been calculated that millions of neurons connected to 400 different types of olfactory receptors will respond to approximately one trillion chemical odor substances with the combination they will make together. Aashish Manglik, a biochemist at the University of California, San Francisco, argues that this system is incredibly perfect and flexible, and that this is the only way to understand the incredibly diverse chemistry of nature.

An important step in decoding odors will be to understand what these olfactory receptors look like and how they recognize chemicals. However, according to Manglik, these proteins, which are located in the membranes of the recipient cell, are very difficult to decipher, because it has not yet been possible to produce and isolate enough proteins to be analyzed.

Some of the scientists who study the subject of smell on insects have figured out the structure of the receptors that insects use to smell [3]. However, although the olfactory receptors in insects appear to be completely different from those in mammals, it is estimated that the working logic is the same [4].

Recently, two more receptor cells in the olfactory system of mice were deconstructed, and it was found that both of these receptor types detect clearly bad odors, such as the smell of fish or rot, which are the main components of common body odors in many animals [5, 6].

One research team succeeded in imaging for the first time in an electron microscope how a protein in a human odor receptor binds to an odorant molecule. It was seen how propionate, the cause of a pungent cheese smell, enters and binds to a pocket on the receptor, then changes the shape of the receptor and transmits information. Still, the exact nature of this occurrence is not understood [7].

Although the researchers are very excited, they are also aware that solving just one of the hundreds of receptors that detect odor substances will not yet say much.

They later saw that two separate compounds, both of which smelled of menthol, bound to the receptor at different places. They think that different odors probably bind to a single receptor in different places, triggering different events. This helps explain the level of complexity in scent codes. It can explain why two different chemicals can have similar odors, or why chemically similar compounds can smell so different. For example, the two types of carvone compound have the same structure as the mirror image of each other, but while one of them is perceived as the smell of mint, the other smells as cumin or dill. The mystery of this is hidden in these olfactory receptors. Efforts to unravel this mystery continue; our findings so far can be compared to a few drops of water from the ocean of God’s infinite knowledge. Meanwhile, with the help of techniques such as machine learning and artificial intelligence, odor molecules that bind to 20% of the olfactory receptors in humans have been identified. During the studies, they scanned millions of compounds to figure out which molecules would bind to the two receptors and found that one of these receptors was tuned to the smell of orange blossom and the other to the smell of honey [8].

Nose-brain connection

When a molecule of an odor attaches to the receptor cell and is processed, the resulting molecular information goes to a brain region called the olfactory bulb, which is located behind the bridge of the nose, and from there to the olfactory cortex in the brain. This olfactory cortex is much more mysterious. Research focuses on understanding how the information from the receptors is organized in the brain and by what principles and patterns the perception of smell emerges. If the mystery of this is solved, it may be possible to generate a similar pattern in the brain to detect a certain smell as if there is a substance even though there is no smell.

It seems that many new paths of discovery will be opened in the future of our world. Perhaps we will be able to understand how animals react to certain odors and find their direction. We may develop new techniques for eliminating harmful insects, diagnose diseases such as tuberculosis, cancer, and diabetes through smell, and discover how the coronavirus destroys smell receptors and suppresses the sense of smell. We might also produce devices that detect explosives and drugs, as well as electronic noses capable of identifying substances in contaminated wastewater. It is even possible that smartphones will one day be enhanced to detect and transmit smells, just as they currently process images and recognize voices. In relation to these developments, aromatherapy is another potential field that could advance significantly if we can identify which areas of the brain are activated by specific scents and how this knowledge can be applied to treat diseases.

Some faith traditions attribute the unpleasant odors associated with certain psychological disorders to metaphysical beings, such as demons. As we deepen our understanding of the olfactory system, we may uncover some of the underlying causes of these psychological conditions. The wisdom behind practices like drawing water into the nose during ablution in certain forms of worship may also become clearer, as scientific research continues to reveal more about the connection between the nose and the brain.

References

1. Smith, K. (2024): The most mysterious sense: Cracking the odour code. Nature, Volume 633, 5 September.
2. Buck, L. & Axel, R. (1991): A novel multigene family may encode odorant receptors: A molecular basis for odor recognition. Cell 65, 175–187.
3. Butterwick, J. A. et al. (2018): Cryo-EM structure of the insect olfactory receptor Orco. Nature 560, 447–452.
4. del Mármol, J., Yedlin, M. A. & Ruta, V. (2021): The structural basis of odorant recognition in insect olfactory receptors. Nature 597, 126–131.
5. Guo, L. et al. (2023): Structural basis of amine odorant perception by a mammal olfactory receptor. Nature 618, 193–200.
6. Gusach, A., et al. (2023): Molecular recognition of an aversive odorant by the murine trace amine-associated receptor TAAR7f. Preprint at bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.07.07.547762
7. Billesbølle, C. B., et al. (2023): Structural basis of odorant recognition by a human odorant receptor. Nature 615, 742–749.
8. Jabeen, A., de March, C. A., Matsunami, H., & Ranganathan, S. (2021): Machine learning assisted approach for finding novel high activity agonists of human ectopic olfactory receptors. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22, 11546.

“Our human compassion binds us, the one to the other—not in pity or patronizingly, but as human beings who have learned how to turn our common suffering into hope for the future.”
– Nelson Mandela [1]

Scrolling through social media has become part of our daily lives, but lately, it feels less like a connection to the world and more like a window into growing cruelty. This was made painfully clear in the wake of the tragic murder of Brian Thompson, a prominent health insurance CEO [2]. While any loss of life should prompt solemn reflection, the response was instead marked by a disturbing celebration of the violence. Social media was flooded with posts praising the act as a justified rebellion against the perceived flaws in the healthcare system. This reaction not only stripped Thompson of his humanity but also reduced a complex societal issue to a single act of violence. Such responses are a symptom of a broader societal desensitization, where individuals are no longer seen as human beings but as symbols to be attacked or defended. The ability to empathize and mourn is increasingly replaced by a toxic culture of outrage and vindication, making cruelty the norm rather than the exception.

This disturbing reaction reflects a larger societal problem. From viral videos of street violence to indifference toward wars that displace millions, we are constantly exposed to images and narratives that normalize cruelty. The question looms: When did we become so desensitized? At what point did we stop seeing the humanity in one another? As a society, it feels like we are standing at a crossroads, forced to choose between clinging to our compassion or allowing ourselves to become increasingly hardened and cruel.

Our society today is often described as a VUCA world [3], a term first coined by the U.S. Army War College to describe the challenges of the post-Cold War environment. The acronym stands for Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity, and it reflects the unpredictable, fast-changing, and interconnected nature of modern life. These conditions don’t just create stress and anxiety on a personal level; they also lay the groundwork for societal cruelty, desensitization, and polarization.

For example, volatility in how quickly information spreads—often sensationalized or lacking context—creates an environment where people react impulsively, sometimes with cruelty or judgment, rather than empathy or understanding. Uncertainty, such as that surrounding systemic problems like healthcare or economic instability, leaves individuals feeling powerless, prompting them to channel their frustration outward, often toward scapegoats. Complexity arises from the interconnected systems in our digital age, where a single event can spark global outrage or dehumanization, as seen in the online response to the tragic murder of a CEO. Finally, ambiguity makes it difficult to discern facts from misinformation, enabling false narratives that justify or even celebrate acts of cruelty under the guise of righteousness.

These conditions create heightened stress and anxiety, often leading to defensive or reactionary behaviors. The constant bombardment of information and the pressure to adapt swiftly can diminish empathy and foster environments where cruelty and negativity thrive. Social media amplifies these effects by rewarding outrage and divisiveness. Inflammatory posts garner more engagement, creating feedback loops that normalize harshness. In such a chaotic environment, the tendency to externalize frustrations, often through unkind or harmful behaviors, becomes more pronounced. Recognizing the influence of this VUCA framework is crucial in understanding why society seems to be increasingly harsh and polarized.

Cruelty, though, often begins subtly, as an emotional defense mechanism or an outlet for frustration. Psychologists explain that it grows when individuals experience feelings of powerlessness or anger and direct these emotions outward, often targeting those perceived as less powerful or morally culpable. On social media, cruelty thrives because anonymity diminishes empathy. A study on the Social and Psychological Effects of Internet Use [4] revealed that people are far less likely to consider the emotional impact of their words in anonymous online settings.

Over time, cruelty becomes self-reinforcing. Negative interactions release adrenaline and dopamine, creating a temporary sense of power or satisfaction. This reward cycle can make cruelty addictive, as people seek repeated validation through likes, shares, or agreement from others. Left unchecked, cruelty becomes part of a broader culture, perpetuated through social modeling and collective desensitization.

The effects of negativity extend far beyond emotional harm; they have profound physical and neurological consequences. When exposed to negative content—whether through social media, news, or interpersonal interactions—our brains activate the amygdala, the region responsible for processing fear and stress. This initiates the release of stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, which are beneficial in short bursts but harmful when sustained. Prolonged negativity suppresses the immune system, impairs memory and focus, and increases the risk of anxiety and depression. A University at Buffalo study found that heavy social media users reported higher levels of chronic inflammation, as indicated by elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, which are linked to conditions like heart disease and diabetes [5]. Additionally, the brain becomes wired to seek negativity, creating a cycle of constant stress and reduced emotional resilience.

These effects are not limited to individuals. They ripple through families, workplaces, and communities, contributing to a culture of heightened stress and reduced emotional well-being. Yet the human brain is remarkably adaptable. Just as it can be conditioned to negativity, it can also be retrained for compassion and positivity—a concept first recognized centuries ago. Zayd Al-Balkhi, a 9th-century scholar and early pioneer in mental health, emphasized the interconnectedness of spiritual, emotional, and physical health. He believed that cultivating positive habits could rejuvenate the soul, counteract emotional decay, and foster resilience long before modern neuroscience confirmed the brain’s adaptability [6].

Al-Balkhi recommended practices such as surrounding oneself with uplifting environments, avoiding exposure to negativity, and engaging in regular gratitude reflection. For example, taking time each day to reflect on blessings fosters a sense of joy and contentment, while balancing work and rest helps maintain mental clarity. Modern research aligns with these teachings. At Duke University, researchers found that reflecting on three positive experiences daily significantly improved mood, reduced stress, and enhanced sleep over time [7]. Similarly, a study revealed that even a week of exposure to positive content could increase optimism and reduce stress levels. These findings underscore the transformative power of intentional positivity [8].

Dr. Barbara Fredrickson, a leading researcher in positive psychology, has shown through her “broaden-and-build” theory that positive emotions can expand an individual’s mindset, fostering greater resilience, creativity, and empathy [9]. When individuals practice gratitude, optimism, and mindfulness, they are better equipped to approach others with understanding and kindness. This ripple effect extends beyond personal well-being, influencing how communities interact and respond to challenges. By intentionally creating uplifting environments and modeling compassion, individuals can counteract the culture of negativity and cruelty that permeates modern society. In a world where harshness often dominates, small acts of positivity, informed by both ancient wisdom and modern science, can collectively rebuild societal compassion and encourage a shift toward kindness in both personal and public spaces.

As adults, we hold a profound responsibility to model compassion and empathy for younger generations. Children and teens learn not just from what we say but from how we act. When we engage in online cruelty, speak harshly to others, or fail to demonstrate kindness in our interactions, we normalize these behaviors for them, sending the message that such actions are acceptable. Conversely, when we model patience, understanding, and generosity, we show them that kindness is not a weakness but a strength that builds meaningful relationships and contributes to a better world.

Parenting and education play critical roles in fostering empathy. Teaching emotional intelligence, such as helping children recognize and manage their emotions, can lay the foundation for healthy interpersonal relationships. Schools can incorporate programs that encourage respectful discussions, teach active listening skills, and provide opportunities for collaborative problem-solving. Modeling forgiveness—both in personal relationships and in public disputes—demonstrates that reconciliation is not only possible but essential for emotional and societal well-being.

On a societal level, leaders, influencers, and institutions must champion empathy and create spaces that prioritize understanding over divisiveness. For example, initiatives that bring together individuals from different cultural or socioeconomic backgrounds can help bridge divides and foster mutual respect. Public figures, especially those with significant platforms, have a unique opportunity to set the tone by promoting messages of kindness and demonstrating accountability when mistakes are made. Institutions, from workplaces to community organizations, can implement policies that reward collaboration and inclusivity, fostering environments where empathy thrives.

Furthermore, media and technology companies bear a significant responsibility in shaping the cultural narrative. Algorithms that prioritize outrage and divisiveness could instead be adjusted to amplify positive interactions and constructive dialogue. Campaigns highlighting stories of compassion, resilience, and unity can inspire individuals and communities to choose empathy over hostility. Research from the Greater Good Science Center at UC Berkeley shows that exposure to uplifting stories and acts of kindness increases the likelihood of individuals engaging in prosocial behaviors themselves, creating a ripple effect of positivity [10].

Ultimately, the responsibility to nurture compassion extends to every facet of society. Whether as parents, educators, leaders, or individuals, we must recognize the power of our actions to shape the world that younger generations inherit. By consciously choosing to model empathy and understanding, we can inspire the next generation to build a kinder, more connected, and more compassionate society.

The Quran beautifully reminds us: “And do good as God has done good to you” (Surah Al-Qasas, 28:77). This verse calls us to reflect divine mercy and kindness in our own actions. By embodying these values, we can foster a culture where empathy is not just an ideal but a daily practice.

We are indeed at a crossroads. On one side lies the path of desensitization, where cruelty becomes second nature, and negativity dominates our minds and bodies. On the other side lies the path of humanity—a path of compassion, understanding, and intentional positivity.

The choice we make today will shape not only our lives but also the lives of future generations. In a time increasingly defined by rapid change and uncertainty, our collective actions hold the power to determine whether cruelty or compassion becomes the dominant cultural norm. Every act of kindness, no matter how small, reinforces the value of empathy in our shared human experience. A thoughtful pause before reacting—whether in a heated online discussion or a face-to-face conflict—demonstrates the strength it takes to prioritize understanding over anger. Every decision to amplify positivity over negativity, such as sharing uplifting stories or offering words of encouragement, becomes a ripple in the larger fabric of societal behavior.

When these individual choices are repeated and modeled consistently, they transcend isolated acts and become habits. Together, these habits build a culture where compassion is not just an occasional choice but an ingrained part of daily life. Such a culture fosters resilience, unity, and hope, qualities that are urgently needed in a world fraught with division and despair. By choosing compassion today, we lay the groundwork for a future where kindness is not seen as an exception but as the expectation; a future where generations to come will look back at this moment as the turning point toward a more empathetic and humane society.

Notes

1. http://www.mandela.gov.za/mandela_speeches/2000/001206_healing.htm
2. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/12/astonishing-level-dehumanization/681189/
3. https://www.vuca-world.org/where-does-the-term-vuca-come-from/
4. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4789623/
5. https://www.buffalo.edu/news/releases/2022/01/022.html
6. https://iamphome.org/abu-zayd-al-balkhis-sustenance-of-the-soul-the-cognitive-behavior-therapy-of-a-ninth-century-physician/
7. https://dhwblog.dukehealth.org/reflect-on-three-good-things/
8. https://fountainmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/GGSC-JTF_White_Paper-Gratitude-FINAL-485.pdf
9. https://positivepsychology.com/broaden-build-theory/#:~:text=What%20is%20Fredrickson’s%20Broaden%2Dand,their%20personal%20resources%20over%20time.
10. https://fountainmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/GGSC-JTF_White_Paper-Gratitude-FINAL-485.pdf

It had been three years since I had arrived in Germany and only a few months since I began working as an assistant doctor. It had been a long and tiring day. I had breakfast early in the morning before heading out, and my lunch was just a banana and a cup of coffee. By the time I got home late in the evening, I was both very hungry and tired. The past few years had been challenging and weighed heavily on me. I was no longer as young as I used to be, nor was I a specialist doctor, as I had been back home. I was trying to survive in a foreign culture, struggling to communicate in a language I barely knew. To the many wounds in my body and soul, aching and waiting to heal with hope, was now added the stress of an unfamiliar work environment.

When I stepped into the kitchen to quickly prepare something, I accidentally cut my left index finger. Although the cut wasn’t very deep, it started bleeding right away. “Here’s another wound to wait patiently to heal,” I thought to myself. I looked closely at my bleeding finger. The blood trickled slowly down into my hand like a tiny red spring, accumulating over the cut before finally stopping after about three minutes. From the outside, it seemed very simple, but it wasn’t like that at all.

Repairing a hole in a ship floating in water is extremely challenging. High-pressure water outside meets low-pressure air inside, and this significant pressure difference causes seawater to continuously rush in. Similarly, repairing a hole deep in a dam wall is also difficult. Due to gravity and pressure differences, water tries to gush out of the hole, potentially bursting through the solid walls around it. While repairs are straightforward when the dam is empty, fixing a damaged area when the dam is full of water is much harder, as neither iron nor cement can easily hold under these conditions. How is it that the bleeding can be stopped so quickly when the vessels that carry our life-sustaining blood are damaged? With certain pressure in our vascular network, estimated to be 90,000-120,000 kilometers long, our blood flows continuously, delivering essential nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and removing byproducts of cellular metabolism. Blood pressure, regulated by the contraction and relaxation of the heart, is considered normal if below 140/90 mmHg, with an ideal reading below 120/80 mmHg. Yet, we have no advanced machines, nor any extraordinary bricks or superglues in our blood to repair vessel damage. So, which craftsman, and with what materials, stops this bleeding?

In a healthy individual, bleeding time ranges between two and nine minutes, with an average around five minutes. The blood flowing in the vascular network of tens of thousands of kilometers in our body contains coagulation factors and coagulation cells (called platelets or thrombocytes), whose role is repairing the vessel wall when it is harmed. The coagulation process, also called hemostasis, takes place in two stages: primary and secondary. This process activates immediately upon bleeding, both on our skin and within our body, where even a small injury can trigger major reactions.

One of the most crucial roles in the coagulation process is assigned to coagulation cells, known as platelets. These are actually cell fragments, not complete cells, and are named platelets because of their flat, plate-like shape. Measuring 1.5–3 μm (micrometers) in diameter, these fragments are produced in the bone marrow from large, multinucleated cells called megakaryocytes. After production, platelets have a lifespan of 9–10 days and are then broken down in the spleen once their role is complete. Although they lack a nucleus, platelets contain numerous vesicles (granules) filled with various substances. Through channels formed by inward extensions of their cell membrane, they are kept informed of changes in external tissues and developments in the blood.

As I pondered these mechanisms within the blood, I thought of the massive devices in the laboratory at the hospital where I work—machines required for measuring even the simplest blood tests. Yet these minuscule cells in our bodies, far too small to be seen with the naked eye, are endowed with far greater abilities than those large machines. Not only do they function like tiny laboratories, but they also sense alarms in the blood, rushing to the rescue like soldiers awaiting orders. We are remarkably well-equipped, with between 150,000 and 450,000 platelets in just one milliliter of blood, and around 5 liters of blood in total. Primary coagulation, the initial stage of stopping bleeding, begins as soon as there is a vascular injury. When the endothelial cells lining the inner surface of the vessels are damaged, the underlying connective tissue is exposed. Platelet “soldiers,” alerted by certain molecules released from this tissue, spring into action. Blood clotting involves a chain of reactions occurring in sequence, with various factors contributing at each step. Each of the approximately 16 factors have a specific task. In the coagulation process, which functions like a row of dominoes, each factor has been precisely chosen, appreciated, and positioned with boundless knowledge and wisdom. If even one factor is missing, the chain breaks, and coagulation is disrupted. Therefore, an event as complex as blood clotting could not arise randomly through mutations or chaotic chemical reactions. This phenomenon, called platelet activation, is like a commander’s declaration of mobilization. Platelets adhere to the damaged area with the help of “Von Willebrand factor”—a protein that binds platelets to collagen exposed in the tissue when a vessel is injured. The ADP (adenosine triphosphate) secreted by platelets discharges the messenger molecule, signaling other “soldiers” to come help. Arachidonic acid is secreted from the cell membrane of the platelets adhering to the injured wound, leading to the production of two molecules: thromboxane A2 and PGI2 (prostacyclin). These two molecules work together to stop the bleeding.

The task of thromboxane A2, which is synthesized from arachidonic acid in coagulation cells, is to skillfully arrange platelet bricks, allowing them to cluster and form plugs. Additionally, coagulation cells secrete serotonin, which helps the vessel wall to constrict, reducing the bleeding surface and thus the amount of blood loss. The actin and myosin strands in coagulation cells contract and shrink further strengthening the platelet plug.

The second stage, known as secondary coagulation, activates later and makes the platelet plug—initially fragile and weak—much more stable and stronger. During this stage, fibrinogen molecules in the blood bond together, transforming into a sticky, thread-like protein called fibrin. Fibrin fibers act like a powerful adhesive, binding to the platelet plug and, along with red blood cells, weaving into solid layers. As with any biological system, there is a need for some agents to oversee and regulate the process. The endothelial cells lining the vessel’s inner surface monitor the events with the meticulousness of an inspector, as if they had studied biochemistry. When the time comes, these cells secrete prostacyclin (PGI2), synthesized from arachidonic acid taken from platelets. This prevents platelet aggregation and expands the vessel wall, confining the plug to the damaged area and ensuring uninterrupted blood flow to distant regions.

Limiting coagulation is just as vital as stopping bleeding. Without molecules such as prostacyclin, clots formed in a period of seconds would extend along the vessel for meters, and organs deprived of blood flow would face gangrene. Meanwhile, a separate clot-dissolving system has been established to ensure that vessels supplying vital organs, such as the brain, heart, and lungs, are not blocked. Again, the enzymes in this system, created with endless knowledge, mercy and wisdom, dissolve unnecessary clots and prevent blockages.

“Another wound has been bandaged and is now waiting to heal,” I thought. The Almighty, who heals even the smallest and seemingly insignificant wounds in this way, is surely able to heal all wounds in a way we never expected – as long as we are patient.

Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, a twentieth-century scholar, emphasizes that God sent Prophets as guides and leaders to humanity for spiritual development, and that He gave some wonders to each of those Prophets for material progress. God assigned them like “foremen” and “masters” for people, and this is why, Bediuzzaman says, the Prophets should be strictly followed [1]. Many scientific developments today encourage us to contemplate Bediuzzaman’s words.

According to Bediuzzaman, the miracles of the Prophets indicate the limits of the future of knowledge, events such as the resurrection of the dead and healing the blind by Jesus (peace be upon him), the extraction of water when Moses (peace be upon him) struck the stone with his staff, the adhesion of organs back to where they were cut—returning to a healthy state through the blessed saliva of Muhammad (peace be upon him) when applied to a protruding eye or a severed arm—set encouraging and promising goals for the future of medicine and other sciences. Another example from the life of the Prophet was about a famous poet called Nabigha al-Ja’di (his real name was Abu Layla), who recited a poem of his in the presence of God’s Messenger. When he recited the couplet

Our honor and praise have reached the skies;
We want to ascend even higher!

the Messenger asked him, jokingly: “To where, O Abu Layla?” He replied: “To Paradise, O Messenger of God.” Afterwards, he recited another meaningful poem, and the Messenger of God prayed: “May God not deform your mouth.” It is told that Nabigha had all of his teeth in good shape when he reached the great age of 120 years. Whenever he lost a tooth, a new one would appear in its place [2].

Can we hope to keep our teeth as healthy as Nabigha’s? Current research in dentistry shows very promising results. In a research conducted by Japan’s Kyoto and Fukui Universities on mice, scientists examined the limiting effects of a gene related to uterine sensitization. They discovered that during the deficiency of this gene when a special group of antibodies were activated, a large number of teeth were created from dormant cell groups in the palate [3]. After the promising results of the research on mice, a Japanese pharmaceutical company decided to support the study. The research has moved on to start testing on other animals.

Scientists conducting the research have announced that they were aiming to bring a drug that will stimulate the growth of new teeth to market by 2030. After the research team succeeded in growing new teeth in mice in 2018, they set their sights on enabling new tooth growth in healthy people, with funding from the pharmaceutical company Toregem Biopharma at Kyoto University.

In fact, there are “tooth buds” in the human embryo embedded in the palate, which are separate from the baby teeth and permanent teeth that will replace them at the age of six or seven. These buds lie dormant, much like a plant waiting to sprout, lying there for a while with a potential to become full teeth, before eventually disappearing. 

The research team succeeded in producing an antibody that inhibits the effect of a protein produced by the gene that suppresses tooth growth and turning it into a drug. This antibody drug acts on dormant buds and stimulates their growth. After successful trials in mice, the researchers began testing the drug on ferrets, which have both baby and permanent teeth, similar to humans. The tests showed that new teeth grew in the ferrets.

When examining the condition of teeth in animals, three types of tooth development can be observed. Teeth are important for animals as they provide sustenance and serve as weapons, depending on their location. The shape of teeth, how they attach to the jaw, and their potential for different forms are crucial factors.

Turtles and birds have no teeth at all. Instead, they have sharp-edged, beak-shaped jaws covered with keratin that perform the function of teeth. Other auxiliary structures in their digestive systems also support the breakdown of food in the absence of teeth.

Sharks and other predatory fish have teeth that are constantly worn down, broken, and shed throughout their lives. However, they are never toothless. Sharks have teeth coated with a very hard layer called vitrodentin and are structured as placoid scales. These teeth, which are uniform in structure, are continuously renewed (a process known as polyphyodonty). The scales covering their bodies and the corners of their mouths grow over the palate and transform into teeth.

Most mammals develop two successive sets of teeth, a process known as diphyodonty. The first-generation teeth are called milk teeth. In various species, these teeth fall out at different times and are replaced by permanent teeth. However, some animals, such as guinea pigs, duck-billed platypuses, and toothed whales, do not change their teeth throughout their lives; they are considered monophyodont.

A small mutation in the genes responsible for promoting or stopping the development of teeth can sometimes, though rarely, cause the permanent tooth set to not develop in some children, a condition known as anodontia. Starting in 2025, the research team plans to inject a dose of their antibody to stimulate tooth development in children with such dental defects. If they can get successful results, this could increase the possibility of using this drug for adults who have lost their teeth to cavities. Katsu Takahashi, co-founder of the pharmaceutical company and head of dentistry and oral surgery at Kitano Hospital in Osaka, stated that missing teeth negatively affects the development of the jawbone, highlighting the importance of the issue. He hopes their drug will hopefully eliminate such problems, too [4].

If the research goes as planned, God willing, we may soon witness a new Prophetic miracle becoming real. It is important for believers not to confine faith to ritualistic practices of worship only, but also to expand it into exploring the book of universe through scientific research.

References

1. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, Words, Istanbul: Sahdamar Publications, 2010, pp. 269–270.
2. As told by Nursi in The Letters, The Nineteenth Letter, NJ: The Light, p. 169. For the source of the hadith, see Ibn Hajar, al-Isaba, No. 8639; al-Bayhaqi, Dala’i al-Nubuwwa, 6:232; Ibn Kathir, al-Bidaya, 6:168; Ibn ‘Abd al-Bar, al-Istiab 4/1516, 1743.
3. A.M. Sugunami et al. “Anti–USAG-1 therapy for tooth regeneration through enhanced BMP signaling,” Science Advances, 7/7, 2021.
4. “Japan pharma startup developing world-first drug to grow new teeth,” The Japan Times, Osaka, 24-9-2023.

Countless studies, books, and articles have explored the taste, swallowing, and speech capabilities of the human tongue, often regarded as merely a small piece of flesh. One significant distinction between humans and animals lies in our ability to utilize the tongue for language, a capacity not shared by animals. However, what other roles might animal tongues serve?

Suitable for nutrition

The tongue, found in the vast majority of vertebrate animals (with the exception of a small group of frogs), possesses a remarkable flexibility owing to the arrangement of its muscle fibers in a multidirectional web. The variety of tongue structures across animal species reflects differences in their habitats, dietary habits, and lifestyles. It is crucial to note that for most terrestrial vertebrates, survival would be severely compromised without their tongues. In aquatic environments, where food tends to be softer and readily digestible, tongues aid in biting and mixing food with digestive enzymes. Conversely, the multitude of solid and dry foods found on land, including fruits, vegetables, and animal source foods, require soaking and softening for digestion. Animals thus necessitate tongues created in the best convenient form for their body structures and dietary needs to effectively consume such diverse foods. The remarkable diversity in animal tongue morphology underscores the intricate design and adaptation evident in all of creation, suggesting a divine understanding of each creature’s unique characteristics and the provision of suitable organs to match their needs.

Fish species like carp and catfish lack a mobile and extensible tongue, instead possessing a muscular bundle known as the palate. Unlike humans, fish don’t require mobile tongues for swallowing food. They open their jaws wide to expand their throats and pump water through their gill slits forming a bellows-shaped mechanism that generates a powerful suction force, enabling them to swallow food effortlessly without the need for a moving tongue to assist in biting.

In contrast, land animals lack a bellows-like mechanism such as gills to facilitate food swallowing. While they could potentially use air instead of water for suction, air lacks the density to generate a comparable swallowing force. Instead, they are given the tongue, an organ equipped with robust muscles. However, some birds, due to the slender structure of their mouth and neck regions, cannot accommodate a thick tongue. Instead, they have been taught to swallow by utilizing gravity, keeping their heads raised.

The need for food is one explanation among many as to why tongues are in so many different forms, structures, and functions. Some species of salamanders have a sticky tongue which is longer than their body; they catch insects by snapping their tongue at its prey like a whip. Webbed salamanders (Hydromantes) protrude their attached throat skeleton from their mouths, along with their tongues, which is covered with a sticky secretion, to catch insects or spiders. The tongue is then refolded in its former place in the throat with a special mechanism, where it stores energy for a while to be ready to catch the next prey.

Nearly eight thousand species of salamanders and frogs, chameleons and many lizards quickly pull their prey into their mouths by throwing their tongues like ballistic missiles to hunt. Chameleons, for example, catch crickets in less than a tenth of a second by propelling their tongues at a speed close to five meters per second. These tongues are covered, of course not coincidentally, with very small lumps called papillae, which produce a sticky secretion. The secreted saliva is so sticky that the prey, even if it is 50% heavier than the hunter, cannot save itself from it [1].

Horned lizards (Phrynosoma) use their sticky saliva-covered tongues not only to catch prey, but also to protect themselves from the possible danger of their prey. Ants, which are the prey of these lizards, have poisonous and strong bites. However, despite this, horned lizards swallow them alive. In a 2008 study, it was discovered that the dense and sticky slimy substance secreted from the blister-shaped glands on the tongues and throat walls of lizards protects the lizard from the venom of ants [2].

Some animals, such as the mace-headed giant gecko (Rhacodactylus auriculatus) that lives on the island of New Caledonia, use their tongues to clean their eyes. Snakes sniff their surroundings with their forked tongues, that is, the tongue of snakes is the organ of smell, not the organ of taste. The vibrational frequency of their tongues, which are created to locate their distant or hidden prey, varies according to the intensity and distance of the smell. In order to understand the nature of the odor molecules that stick to their tongues from the air, snakes insert their forked tongues into the Jacobson’s organ in their upper palate so that the smell is perceived in their brains. It is amazing that they are created with this mechanism and taught to follow this procedure.

Bird tongues are like surgical instruments of specialist doctors so that they can benefit from different food sources. An important factor in the diversity of tongues in birds is related to the shape of the flowers, which carry the sweet nectar of the plants. The tongue of most birds is made of very little muscle and connective tissue and is covered with a keratin cover. Attached to the root of the tongue is a system of levers made of bone which is tasked to function like a production line, moving the tongue back and forth so the food is transported from front to back. The woodpecker, for instance, inserts its bill into tree cavities and use their specially structured tongue to pull insect larvae into their mouths.

The tongue is the most vital organ for animals which feed on nectar, such as hummingbirds. Their tongues are created to suck high-energy nectar from the depths of the flowers, like a straw. Nectar is easy to find, but the tongue needs to be suitable for the unique structure of the flower. This is of vital importance so the birds can get a drop of nectar at the bottom of these flowers, which are usually long and narrow-throated.

Previously, it was thought that the nectar passively rose up the round and thin straw-like bills with a capillary mechanism. However, research has shown that, contrary to previous understanding, nectar is collected into the grooves on the tongue through the broom-like end, as observed in the Pied Honeyeater (Certhionyx variegatus). It’s been found that the physical capillarity is not fast enough to drink the nectar of flowers, so hummingbirds move their tongues 15 times per second while hovering, running their tongues back and forth like the piston of a pump [3].

We see that not all nectar-feeding birds are like hummingbirds, and that each bird is equipped with a bill and tongue structure suitable for its food. The tongues of the lorikeet (Trichoglossus moluccanus), who are members of the parrot family, are similar to those of humans, but with their fleshy-looking tongues with brush-like tips, they collect nectar from long-necked flowers by turning it into paste. Unlike the lorikeet, which has a brush-like tongue tip, other species of parrots have a grooved tongue tip to collect nectar; their tongues vibrate very quickly to pump nectar into the esophagus [4].

The tongue and hand skills in humans

Xu An, a neurobiologist at Duke University, and his colleagues have discovered an area in the monkeys’ cerebral cortex called the “oromanuel” region that exerts control over both hands and tongue. There are observations suggesting that a similar brain region exists in humans. For example, as the fingers of children who learn to write move, so does their tongue with similar curves. When they focus too much on what they are doing with their hands, we can see that some people unconsciously open their mouths and move their tongues left and right with a certain rhythm. Some scientists do not see this as an oddity and say that these tongue-twisting movements can increase the accuracy of movements in delicate manual work. However, it is difficult to observe this situation because most people have their mouths closed.

By examining the neural activity records in monkeys, information was obtained about how the complex tongue movements involved in feeding, drinking, and perhaps even vocalizations are coordinated in the brain. It has been determined that in a region the size of a penny in the cortex, there are both sensory neurons coming from the tongue and mouth, as well as movement (motor) neurons that are instrumental in controlling tongue movement. In addition, while it was once thought that chewing movement was under the control of the brain stem just as, for instance, walking is, it has been shown that this center occupies a lot of space in the cerebral cortex, and that the curving of the tongue in complex and asymmetrical ways according to the type of food at the time of chewing is controlled very quickly from here.

Tongue saved from teeth

The most important function of the tongue in mammals is to position food so it is properly chewed and swallowed. Have you ever thought about how agile our tongue must be to stay between our teeth and not get bitten when we talk or chew food? Depending on the species, it takes great timing to shift the food from one side of the mouth to the other with each bite, or to limit it to just one side, keeping the tongue itself safely away from the teeth so that it can’t be bitten. Then, with the addition of secreted, slippery, and softening saliva, the tongue, with appropriate movements, forms the food into a round bite that can easily pass through the throat. Finally, when pushing this bite into the esophagus to be swallowed, a precise adjustment is observed so that not even a small piece escapes into the airways.

Shape and volume ratio

The human tongue, like a water balloon, is a muscular hydrostat whose total volume of mass must remain the same, no matter how much its shape changes. Therefore, when we stick out our tongue, it becomes thinner and longer compared to its bulk shape in the mouth. Similar movements apply when the giraffe’s purple-colored tongue which extends 45–50 cm outward to collect leaves from a thorny tree branch.

In addition to functions such as assisting in eating and distinguishing between thousands of different tastes, the human tongue is unique in helping us speak our complex languages. This is possible because of our tongue’s ability to change shape easily. For the tongue to instantly convolute according to the thousands of words formed in the mind and send food to the pharynx without being bitten, there must be centers in the brain with very different and complex neuron units. The brain is responsible for adjusting all body behaviors by informing other parts of the brain about the processes in these centers. For example, the management of hundreds of functions, such as grimacing because of a sour taste or the immediate reflection of a sudden change in our thinking while speaking and in our choice of words seem to be under the control of neurons in these centers. Looking at these amazing activities, one surely seeks a source of power and wisdom beyond biological structures – neurons or otherwise – that can command all the nerves and atoms in our body.

In all species, the tongue is equipped with taste buds in order to be able to “gate” in directing nutrition and to understand the nature of food. All these special skills given to the tongue enable mammals to eat more food faster and in greater quantities than other vertebrates and to digest this food efficiently. Thanks to this feature given to their tongues, mammals can have their high metabolic rate and activity, both the mother and offspring can be nourished during long-term pregnancies, and the energy needs of large brains are met.

The tongue, which is braided by a complex network of muscle fibers that can move in complex ways, contributes to sucking in most species, but in others, such as dogs, it helps thermoregulation (heat regulation). The excess heat of their bodies, which get very hot by running, is cooled by sticking their tongues out. Bats, on the other hand, click their tongues to produce sounds that are used for echolocation (locating and locating by sound).

A home for microbes

Our tongue is also home to a complex community of bacteria that can affect our health. According to Jessica Mark Welch, a microbial ecologist at the Forsyth Institute, the tongue is an unknown and very important part of the human microbiome as an important source of bacteria. Welch says that the proportions of these microbes vary from person to person, but each bacterial community may have a specific function. For example, the bacterium called Veillonella on our tongue contributes to the regulation of blood pressure by performing the function of converting nitrate to nitrite, which the human body cannot do without. Other bacteria are also thought to possibly play a role in regulating the immune system [5].

We started with a tiny piece of meat, but as we finished it, I hope we understood that our tongue, which is a miracle of creation, is not a small and simple piece of meat.

References

1. C. A. Noel, D. L. Hu, “The tongue as a gripper”, Journal of Experimental Biology, 2018, 221/7, s. 1–10.
2. W. C. Sherbrooke, K. Schwenk, “Horned lizards (Phrynosoma) incapacitate dangerous ant prey with mucus”, Jez-A Ecological and Integrative Physiology, 2008, 309A/8, s. 447–459.
3. A. E. Hewes et al. “Variable evidence for convergence in morphology and function across avian nectarivores”, Journal of Morphology, 2022, 283/12, s. 1483–1504.
4. A. Rico-Guevara et al. “Nectar feeding beyond the tongue: hummingbirds drink using phase-shifted bill opening, flexible tongue flaps and wringing at the tips”, Journal of Experimental Biology, 2023, 226 (Suppl. 1), s. 9356–9360.
5. S. A. Wilbert et al. “Spatial ecology of the human tongue dorsum microbiome”, Cell Rep, 24 Mar 2020, 30/12, s. 4003–4015.

Visiting the dentist is a nightmare for most of us, especially children. It is also one of the moments when we truly appreciate our teeth. If we have to undergo costly treatments such as dental implants or bridges, we also realize their financial value. We usually visit a dentist after attempting to crack hard objects with our teeth or consuming excessive fizzy drinks, or when we fail to maintain proper oral hygiene. Leftover food waste in our mouths can accumulate and eventually lead to the formation of bacterial plaques. Bacteria use the glucose in this plaque to produce acid, which in turn causes cavities in our teeth or gingival diseases.

Structure of our teeth

When we examine our teeth under a microscope, we can observe zigzagging curves, indentations, and protrusions on their surfaces. These protrusions, known as tubercles, serve important roles in chewing and aesthetics. They are formed with remarkable precision, often differing by mere millimeters depending on a person’s age and the specific tooth. Teeth in the upper and lower jaws are positioned in such a way that there is a perfect alignment between these indentations and protrusions. Dentists ensure the ideal fit of a denture in a patient’s mouth by verifying the proper implementation of these indentations and protrusions. Teeth are assigned with the duties of chipping, chewing, and speaking, serving as perfect examples of creation with their aesthetics, gloss, and structurally solid function. Incisors are sharp and serve the purpose of biting off food. Canines are pointed and they are used to tear food apart. Molars are created to grind food like grindstones.

If all of our teeth had been of the same type – if we had 32 canines or incisors, for instance – it would be virtually impossible for us to eat food. This perfect design regarding our teeth can be seen in their arrangement as well. Every tooth is situated in its optimal position, with incisors at the front and molars at the back of our mouth. If our incisors were replaced with molars, this finely tuned organ would become useless. While calcium (Ca) plays the central role in giving teeth their hard and resistant structure, phosphorous (P), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K) salts are also critical. During the embryo stage, millions of cells store calcium before aligning in the jaws to form a large block in a convenient shape. In this process, cellular groups in the lower palate position themselves to correspond with those in the upper palate, moving as if they were seeing each other. This alignment ensures that jaws can later close correctly and perform proper chewing movements. The resulting array and shapes of teeth are special and unique, much like fingerprints.

Parts

A tooth has two main parts: a crown and a root [1]. The white and porcelain-like part of a tooth visible inside the mouth is called the crown while the part that is not visible from outside and secures the tooth to the jawbone is named the root. The crown is made of – from the inside out – enamel, dentin, and dental pulp. Cementum, which is a special substance that ensures attachment of the tooth to the jawbone, can be listed as a separate layer. The distribution and thickness of cementum vary depending on particular teeth and it is 65 percent mineral, 23 percent organic material and 12 percent water.

Enamel provides a protective covering for dentin and dental pulp. It is the hardest organic material known, extending from the gingiva level and composed of 96 percent mineral (calcium salts), 2 percent organic tissue, and 2 percent water. Its ranking on the Mohs hardness scale is 7 (compared to 10 for diamond), allowing teeth to be more resistant to the forces exerted upon them. The enamel on the surfaces where chewing takes places experiences the highest load and are as thick as between 2-2.5 mm; this thickness decreases to 0.1 mm in the sections closer to the gingiva. Enamel actually does not have a smooth surface; rather, it features small crevices that are not very deep. When examined under a microscope, it is observed that the enamel layer consists of hexagonal columns extending from the surface to dentin, without allowing any space between them. This intricate crevice and rod-like design showcase incredible wisdom as they effectively distribute pressure on the enamel, preventing damage to the tooth [2].

Dentin, which forms the largest part of a tooth, is a layer covering the pulp tissue that contains the nerve and capillary packages at the center of the tooth. While it is similar to other bones in the body, dentin is structurally different. With its hard bony structure, dentin is 70 percent mineral, 18 percent organic matter, 12 percent water, and it has some flexibility. The hard yet flexible quality of dentin allows this layer to act as a shock absorber, minimizing the pressure transmitted by the hard enamel tissue and reducing the frailty of the enamel tissue.

Structurally, dentin is made up of tubules extending from the enamel border to pulp and cementum, and it contains collagen fibers. Information related to contact, temperature and other characteristics of anything touching the enamel layer is transmitted through a highly sensitive fluid inside these tubules. The intricate composition of teeth serves as a source of inspiration for materials science engineers due to the combination of calcium, the primary element in all three layers (enamel, dentin, and cementum), with trace amounts of other substances. This fusion provides enamel with diamond-like hardness, dentin with elasticity, and cementum with adhesiveness. In short, considering the pressures and hardness to which teeth are subjected, it is clear that there is vast knowledge and power in their creation [3].

The pulp, situated at the center of teeth, is the only dental tissue that allows blood circulation within it. Its structure varies with age, containing not only capillaries and nerves but also odontoblasts, which are young dental cells that have not yet differentiated. The nerve cells inside the dental pulp play a role in sensing stimulus such as heat, cold and pressure. The pulp tissue ensures that teeth are provided with nutrients through capillaries, giving vitality and strength to teeth.

The periodontal ligament, an immensely robust connective tissue that fastens the dental root to the jawbone and gingiva, is also noteworthy. This tissue acts as a shock absorber and consists of various cross fibers, which are made of micro fiber bundles. These fibers that add strength and flexibility to teeth are stronger than the steel robes with the same thickness. The fibers counteract a pressure as much as 250-300 kg (up to 400 kg) that act on the teeth during chewing. They not only prevent teeth from sinking deeper, but also ensure that they return to their former state after being pulled upward, such as when gum sticks to them.

Perfect sequence of creation

Our teeth undergo a wondrous process of creation [4]. They remain dormant in the palate until we are around six months old, as they are not immediately necessary during this time. These first teeth, known as milk teeth, emerge as our bodies prepare to transition from breast milk to solid foods. Subsequently, at about six years old, our milk teeth gradually give way to our permanent adult teeth, a process that continues until around the age of 12. The wisdom teeth grow when our jaws are adequately developed to accommodate them, which is another indicator of our creation in harmony and wisdom [5].

Milk teeth

The eruption of milk teeth in the palate typically begins after the sixth month, and it ceases precisely when it should. As a single tooth or a group of teeth emerges approximately every six months, all milk teeth are typically grown by the age of three. Incisors develop between the 6th and 12th months, premolars between the 12th and 18th months, canines between the 18th and 24th months, and posterior molars between the 24th and 30th months. With about 20 milk teeth grown by the age of three, children utilize these teeth until around the age of six. To ensure the proper development of our teeth, we require calcium. Breast milk, the primary source of nourishment for babies, is abundant in calcium. The calcium obtained from milk begins to accumulate in the form of hydroxyapatite [Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆(OH)₂], which contributes to the structure of enamel. The transformation of breast milk into teeth does not occur randomly or accidentally. The location and type of each tooth, the maximum length each tooth will attain, the duration of this growth process, the specific arrangement of each tooth without hindering others, and the harmony between the size of the mouth and head are all determined by a program encoded into our DNA. All the substances needed during this process are provided by breast milk.

The areas covered by milk teeth are preserved for the eruption of adult teeth, which are guided by the milk teeth. In addition, milk teeth support the jawbone acting like bored piles. If milk teeth are pulled out or lost prematurely, this placeholder function is eliminated and adult teeth erupt irregularly from the jaw. This can lead to bone loss or distortion of the gingiva [6].

Wisdom teeth

Wisdom teeth are often a subject of debate, for some view them as evolutionary remnants. These teeth typically emerge between the ages of 15 and 25.  The number of teeth of a healthy adult rises from 28 (eight incisors, four canines, eight premolars and eight molars) to 32 with the eruption of wisdom teeth [7].

Our wisdom teeth emerge only after our jaws become mechanically suitable. The critical placement of these teeth is at the back of our mouths, closest to the joint. As we chew our food, both our teeth and our entire jaw structure undergo significant mechanical pressure. Therefore, if our wisdom teeth were to grow earlier, our jaws could be damaged, as they would not be ready to handle this pressure.

The claim that wisdom teeth are subject to atrophy has been refuted in many articles. This is generally the result of wrong feeding habits. As our chewing practices increasingly decline and we tend to drink juices instead of eating fruits by biting them and we prefer soft, processed foods, these faulty practices slow down the rate of development and growth of our palate and jaw structure. As a result, wisdom teeth may exert pressure on neighboring molars during eruption, causing pain. People who habitually eat hard fruits like apples and quince or meat by biting since childhood have well-developed jaws and all their teeth easily fit into their mouths without causing any problem. Lack of proper chewing results in poorly developed jaws, which, in turn, paves the way for problems related to wisdom teeth.

Our teeth are extremely hard, but living structures, and they are found nowhere else in our bodies. They happen to be in their perfect locations and sequence in the lower and upper jaws, fitting perfectly with each other and in an aesthetic manner. They have a magnificent structure and fulfill many duties, including chewing as the first step of digestion. Given all these amazing features, it goes against reason to suggest that our teeth have come into existence by chance.

Notes

1. Y. R. Zhang et al. “Review of research on the mechanical properties of the human tooth”, Int J Oral Sci, 2014, 6, 61–69.
2. Orhan Eker, “Dişteki Savunma Sanatları” (Art of Defense in Teeth), Sızıntı, February 2013.
3. “Understanding Your Sensitive Teeth”, www.santamonicadentalpractice.com/blog/2018/2/7/understanding-your-sensitive-teeth
4. “Teeth facts and figures”, www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-body/teeth-facts-and-figures
5. “When will my baby’s teeth come in?”, www.healthline.com/health/deciduous-teeth#when-will-deciduous-teeth-come-in
6. “Permanent Tooth Eruption”, discoverykidsdentistry.com/dental-topics/permanent-tooth-eruption
7. “We finally know why we grow wisdom teeth as adults”, https://www.popsci.com/science/why-we-get-wisdom-teeth/

De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (On the Structure of the Human Body in Seven Books) by Andreas Vesalius is a collection of books on human anatomy published in Europe during the Renaissance. It can be considered as the most famous book of its kind with quality anatomical pictures and accurate depictions for that time. Hundreds of studies have been conducted on human anatomy since the first edition of this famous book was published in 1543. New atlases of anatomy have been published as more organs are described and depicted in illustrations. Today, modern anatomy books, including Sobotta Atlas of Human Anatomy in particular, are decorated with perfect illustrations, drawings, and descriptions demonstrating that human body is a source of infinite miracles. The science of anatomy has paved the way for many to feel awe in this magnificent creation of God. This was true even during the science’s infancy when it was dealing with organs at a macro level in terms of proportionality, balance, and perfect fitness to their functions. As the science moves deeper into the micro levels, the magnificence of divine art and embroidery increases and helps people attain more profound faith.

Even when people suggest that it is no longer possible to discover a new organ or tissue, new developments in the field are announced, bringing novel purposes into the spotlight. An article published in the journal Science on January 5, 2023, refers to a new “protective shield” discovered by scientists in addition to the existing ones. This shield is like a watchtower, so to speak, for the cells of the immune system.

According to the article, this novel anatomic structure acts as a barrier and serves as a platform for cells of the immune system so that they can watch over and monitor the brain. The study conducted on mouse and human brains found that this protective shield facilitates the cleaning of waste resulting from brain activities and functions as a “sentry tower” for immune system cells that look for signs of infection.

The brain is wrapped by a cerebrospinal fluid that acts as a protective cushion. The ependymal cells that line the four interconnected ventricles in the brain are given the task of producing up to 500 ml of cerebrospinal fluid on a daily basis. The fluid in these ventricles is made to circulate around the brain and the spinal cord so that it can protect the brain from mechanic concussions and clears away waste. This fluid is eventually sucked by capillaries into the blood’s circulation.

This system of removing waste products coming from the cerebrospinal fluid is called the glymphatic system. Studies suggest that this process occurs mostly during sleep. A 2013 article indicated that in mice, the gaps between the cells in the brain expand by 60 percent during sleep, allowing faster removal of amyloid beta (plaques found in Alzheimer’s disease) by the glymphatic system compared to when the mice were awake. One of the reasons for the great importance of sleep is that it helps to clear away this neurotoxic waste via the glymphatic system [1].

The novel discovery reported in the above-mentioned study is that a thin tissue having a thickness of only a number of cells was observed to divide horizontally into two the subarachnoid space of the middle one of three membranes surrounding the brain (namely, the dura mater (thick membrane); arachnoid mater (the membrane resembling a spider web); and the pia mater (delicate membrane)). This space between several different tissue layers located between the inner surface of the skull and the outer surface of the brain is actually not empty, but contains the cerebrospinal fluid, large blood vessels, and a spider web-like connective tissue [2].

This fluid surrounding the brain acts as a shock absorber just like a cushioning inside a bike helmet. This fluid does not stay in the subarachnoid space but circulates through the tubing and cavities inside and around the brain, filtering the waste products and bringing them to the blood’s circulation. The authors of the above-mentioned study believe that the newly discovered “shield” may assist the cerebrospinal fluid in controlling this cleaning function.

Dr. Maiken Nedergaard, one of the authors of the study, notes that the newly discovered anatomic structure that helps to regulate the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid inside and around the brain not only assists the cerebrospinal fluid at flushing away the waste but also plays a very important and strategic role in the protection of the brain by the immune system.

This shield, referred to as the subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane by the authors, separates the space beneath the arachnoid mater into two compartments, one closer to the skull and the other closer to the brain. The experiments on mice showed that the pia mater prevents most proteins from migrating between compartments, allowing only extremely tiny molecules to pass. In addition, tissue samples taken from adult human brains provided evidence of this new tissue.

The studies on the newly discovered membrane-like tissue layer demonstrated the link between the dirty cerebrospinal fluid containing waste products and the amyloid plaques found in Alzheimer’s disease, showing that the cerebrospinal fluid can help to segregate and flush them. However, more extensive studies should be conducted into the functioning of this protective shield in a healthy brain as well as brain defects caused by its dysfunction.

Researchers revealed that numerous and various immune system cells may be embedded into this shield and the number of these cells increased in mice in response to inflammation and advanced aging. This finding supports the view that this tissue serves as an “immunologic observatory” where immune system cells monitor the cerebrospinal fluid for signs of infection and inflammation and call for additional firepower when needed.

The cells of the capillaries that nourish the brain form a boundary called the “blood-brain barrier,” preventing large molecules from entering the sterile inner area of the brain and allowing certain special proteins to carry food and molecules required for the vitality of neurons. If the newly discovered shield is destroyed, the immune system cells coming from the skull’s spongy bone marrow can occupy the brain surface which they cannot normally reach. This explains why traumatic brain injuries usually lead to extended inflammation of the brain and disturbs the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid, but these hypotheses need to be tested.

In addition, there is increasing support to the theory that traumatic injuries to this newly discovered protective shield are linked to increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.

Most of our brain cells are not neurons

The surface of the human brain has a folded structure due to deep crevices called sulci and smaller ridges called gyri. There are approximately 100 billion brain nerve cells (neurons) in this thick layer called the cerebral cortex. This folded surface creates larger space and more processing power inside the limited skull cavity.

The widely-held belief that we can use only 10 percent of our brain power is not correct. Yet, it has recently been demonstrated that neurons constitute only 10 percent of all brain cells. The remaining 90 percent are called glia, meaning “adhesive” in Greek, and these glial cells correspond to approximately half of the brain’s weight. They are not only adhesive cells that keep neurons together but also have important functions such as cleaning excessive neurotransmitters, fortifying the immune system, and ensuring the growth and functioning of synapses.

The more excellent or splendid a work of art, the higher care or diligence is needed to protect it. Indeed, a sculptor will not allow his work to be subjected to rain, wind, or storm after working on it for months. Rather, he or she will secure it with supports from all sides and ensure that it stands on a sound platform and is fastened with ropes, and he or she will drape protective covers and sponges on it. Likewise, the Creator of our body ensures that our brain, the most excellent living organ ever created, is covered with three layers with different characteristics for protection, and a cushioning layer consisting of a special fluid is placed under each cover. It is further placed inside a protective case made of bone and its surface fashioned with a skin. There are still unknown aspects or characteristics of the human body and spirit. Apparently, we will continue to be surprised with new discoveries in coming years.

Footnotes

1. L. Xie et al. “Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain”, Science, Oct. 2018; 342 (6156). 2013, s. 373–373.
2. M. Nedergaard et al. “A mesothelium divides the subarachnoid space into functional compartments”, Vol 379, Issue 6627, 2023, s. 84–88.

No craftsman leaves work he has built unprotected and open to destruction. Sometimes protection mechanisms are more complex than the work itself. Our body, too, has not been created without protection. New scientific discoveries reveal some of the protection measures preventing the body’s thousands of systems, each a marvelous work of art, from being destroyed by a virus or bacteria.

When we are healthy, we tend to ignore how this mechanism ensures all of the mind-stopping biological events continue to function in our body. But at all times, there is a very perfect army protecting our body.

This perfect army, known as the immune system, has unfathomable combat tactics against both the mutated and cancerous “anarchist” cells within itself and the viruses, bacteria, and fungi that may come from outside. As science develops, almost every day a new secret about this system is revealed in immunology labs. One of these is a glazed group of cells emerging in the mother’s womb. This immune system cell, called the “B-1 cell,” was identified as in women’s wombs during a study to map the cells in the human body and classify cell groups. However, it was not easily understood. In fact, while B cells are known as a general group, these mysterious cells of a different character were first discovered in mice in the 1980s [1].

These cells, which appear in the womb in the early stages of the development of mice, produce various antibodies when they are stimulated and activated. While some of these antibodies normally attach to microbes and render them harmless, they also attach to the mouse’s own cells and help expel dying or dying cells from the body. If the defective cells, which are now old and exhausted, are not eliminated from the body, the areas where they are located become garbage, and inflammations that we can call “putrefaction” appear. B-1 cells, then, produce as the first line of defense antibodies against pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria.

After the discovery of B-1 cells in mice, a research group in 2011 reported that they had also found equivalent cells in humans, but these results have not yet been accepted as conclusive evidence. B1 cells are different in many ways from the B cells we have long known. Their most obvious feature is that they play a role in the production of immunoglobulins, which are vital in protecting against disease agents. B1 cells are strategically important in fighting autoimmune and malignant diseases, but the number of B1 cells decreases with age, which makes the elderly more prone to disease. Since the nature and behavioral patterns of B1 cells during health and disease are not yet well understood, discussions about these cells continue [2].

The development of the immune system is a process that is seen with the development of all other systems and organs of the embryo. This takes place in a controlled manner at any time, taking into account new conditions and the possibility that tissues, which develop in a protected and sterile environment (such as the uterus) and differentiate every day, will encounter an abnormal situation, like an alien microbe.

In a sense, the embryo that has embarked on the journey of life is facing elements that can cause thousands of diseases until and after birth. However, it is maintained by a structure that emerges in the whole body, gradually showing the network landscape. In other words, as the embryo develops, each new cell group and tissue is memorized by being marked and encoded by the cells of the immune system for easy future identification. This is how our organs, such as the kidney, pancreas, heart, and our whole body can decode and separate the microbes without making mistakes at the time of infection. What happens if a mistake is made? Autoimmune diseases can develop. During this “misprogramming,” the system that’s supposed to protect the body can instead destroy it.

There is strong evidence that B1 cells are created in the first and second trimesters of human development. Dr. Nicole Baumgarth, a professor at the UC Davis Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, said that B-1 cells can play critical roles in early development, and by studying them further, scientists can better understand healthy immune systems in humans.

The human immune system is developed in various parts of the embryo throughout pregnancy. Immune cells begin to be produced from special cells on the vitellus (yolk) sac, which are initially membranes surrounding the embryo from the outside, and then in the liver and bone marrow, the mesodermal that will form the kidneys, sex organs, and dorsal aorta without moving on to the tissues that produce the actual blood cells. It continues to be created from stem cells in the region. The immune cells produced from these basic blood-forming sites are then sent in the form of seeds to developing lymphoid organs and other organs. These studies show that the entire immune system in the embryo develops after being restructured as a distributed network between tissues, specifically focusing on one or several organs.

To make a detailed schematic of the immune system, cells of at least six organs were extracted between the 4th and 17th week of pregnancy using the yolk sac, prenatal spleen, and skin-separated cells, and the distribution of early blood-forming tissue and cell amounts in the lymphoid organs, which are critical for B and T cell development. It has been determined in which period and in which organ about 900,000 cells belonging to more than 100 cell types are grown and encoded and sent to the appropriate places. Finally, the characteristics of the B and T cells created before birth in humans were defined, and the functional confirmation of the unknown antibody secretion of human B1 cells was made.

 These studies can be considered as the first step in what can be done to repair the genome of defective organs by reading them before their formation and to take precautions against congenital immune system disruptions with new technologies that we can call “cell engineering” [3].

Notes

1. N. Baumgarth, “A Hard(y) look at B-1 cell development and function”, Journal of Immunology, Nov 15, 2017, 199 (10): 3387–3394.
2. D. O. Griffin, “Human B1 cells in umbilical cord and adult peripheral blood express the novel phenotype CD20CD27CD43CD70”, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Apr. 11, 2011, 208(4): 871.
3. C. Suo ve ark. “Mapping the developing human immune system across organs”, Science, 2022, 376/6597.