A: Genuine knowledge (ilm) is a source of infinite light covered with truth, which leads enlightened people toward the righteous path. Modern science is built and developed upon existing information gained through experimentation and correcting previous errors. In general, science represents theories and hypotheses that we devise and pursue in order to acquire knowledge. From this point of view, knowledge and science are not the same and must not be considered as synonyms. For example, sometimes ilm is mistranslated as science, because the translators do not take into consideration the genuine meanings of the words. This mistake can be excused when it is made by the general population, who might not be aware of the difference; however, we expect scientists and professionals to use these terms correctly, according to their core meanings, so that their different meanings become obvious and clear.

Knowledge is born and developed between our hearts and minds. On the contrary, science is totally material, belongs to this world and all physical beings, and depends fully upon Earth’s natural rules. Science is born through theories, and its continued development always engenders doubt. Initially, science was built on rationalism and developed through positivism. It sprouts in the world of the five senses, and continues its life with reference to the theoretical mind. Most of the time, science rejects things that cannot be seen or heard. In fact, its eyes are blind to the concealed meaning of existence, and its ears cannot hear it. Modern science accepts only those objects and events that can be perceived by the five senses.

Scientific developments in the classical Islamic world have had a tremendous influence upon the achievements of modern science. Several Western scholars and writers, among them Maurice Bucaille, Jacques Cousteau, Alex Carrel, Thomas Carlyle, and Roger Garaudy agree with this fact, and state that the West totally owes all its achievements to the East. Andalusia, a Muslim state in Spain, was a perfect example of this process. In some cases, Western scientists considered the roots of the knowledge derived from the East to be abstract theories, and so they did not consider what they had given to humanity and upon what basics and pillars they had been built.

The West has mixed its materialistic ideas in the development of these ideas and sciences, and by restricting their analysis only to subjectivity, they alienated the roots from their origins. As a result, religion in the West was confined to the church and people could learn about their religion only when they came to the church to participate in religious ceremonies. Thus religion could not enter fully into the people’s lives. In fact, after Constantine, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, proclaimed Christianity to be the empire’s official religion in 315, the government strictly controlled its all relations with life. This approach toward religion was a bad luck for Christianity. The first 3 centuries of Christianity was the best time for this religion, despite the severe pressure that it faced, for it was a time of blossoming and purity. After became the official religion, Christians no longer faced oppression. However, the religion fell under the control of the government and was corrupted. According to the state, religion belonged in the church, and while people occasionally would come to the church to practice their religion, they could not make it an intimate part of their life. As a result, Christianity was divorced from everyday life, society had to accept that there was life without religion, and that there was religion without life. Given this reality, scientific research and implications had nothing to do with Christianity, and that religion became a moral institution whose only responsibility and activities were the ceremonies connected to birth and death.

The West’s scientific roots lie in the classical Greek and Roman civilizations. This knowledge was incorporated into the Islamic civilization, whose scholars and scientists developed it, made original contributions to it, and passed it on to the West. Unfortunately, Western scientists developed modern science as an independent enterprise completely separate from religion. Thus, its scientific development was built of unbelief and differs dramatically from the understanding of science and knowledge in the East.

On the other hand, knowledge and science flourished for centuries in the Islamic world. Some of its luminaries are Jabir, Ibn al-Haytham, al-Khawarizmi, al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina, and al-Farabi. Ancient Greek scholars claimed that the smallest particle of being is an atom. However, theologian Ibrahim al-Nazzam (d. 835/845) said that substance could be divided into pieces an infinite number of times, and spoke as a modern scientist who would say the same thing today. If we look at this from the theory of particles, it would be clear that al-Nazzam’s statements are true.

Muslim scholars never rejected or separated their inventions and discoveries from religion. Rather, knowledge and science reinforced their belief and understanding of religion. Even though they argued about various scientific matters, their attitude toward religion never differed from one another. For example, a Muslim physician-scholar like al-Razi had mystically spiritual intellect. Muslim scholars explored the universe in the name of The Creator, and every single discovery and invention brought a new passion, a new enthusiasm, and a spirit of new devotion. That is why they always traveled in the horizons of is there any more? and they lived in a state of continual passion of searching for the truth.

It is true that Muslim scholars understanding of knowledge developed their understanding of religion and created metaphysical tension in their lives. Several Qur’anic verses, such as: Behold! In the creation of the heavens and Earth, and the alternation of night and day, are Signs for men of understanding(3:190), always attracted Muslim scholars. Using such verses to inspire them, they devised their theories with a feeling of prayer toward God and built their knowledge upon a foundation of such an understanding and approach. Muslim scientists explored the heavens and Earth in the light of such verses, and learned and researched the relationship between the universe and Earth, such as the connection between a flower and the sun, the association of the smallest animals and living things to the sunlight, and so on. As a result of this approach, and by reciting the Qur’n while studying the universe (the Book of Existence), Muslim scholars strengthened their faith in and closeness to God.

However, due to today’s materialistic theories, Western scientists will never be free of the fear, anxiety, and unexpected surprises that might arise in their fields even though they reach the heavens and continue to solve the mysteries of the universe. On the contrary, Muslims believe that they can build castles even in the center of black holes, for: God’s Existence, Divine Beauty, and Power are behind everything. Perhaps black holes are no more than dark hallways toward brightness and light. As we enter the grave and come out of it toward Paradise, these undesired and unwanted black holes just might be bridges between the heavens and this world.

Western society, confined within the limits of discoveries and scientific inventions, cannot see the true beauty of the material world. But Muslim scholars and scientists, while learning and exploring life by means of Divine guidance and assistance, could read the wisdom and hidden purposes behind the things and events occurring in the material world and see God’s Divine Power behind everything in the universe. For example, consider the Islamic point of view toward the human face and appearance. Muslims never attributed such things to nature, which is unconscious and blind, but rather saw in that wonderfully beautiful human complexion the reflection of The Most Merciful and The Most Compassionate God. By seeking to increase their limited understanding, they made the limited unlimited and decorated simple mirrors with the most beautiful crafts and designs. From this point of view, Muslim scientists had the chance to see hidden wisdom and knowledge side by side, and could observe and witness clearly the things and events that were taking place in the material world.

The following Qur’anic verse describes such people: He grants wisdom to whomever He wills, and the one to whom wisdom is granted receives a benefit overflowing. However, none will grasp the Message but men of understanding (2:269). Such people with intellect can see the concealed wisdom. People who look to the universe without the glasses of wisdom and concealed truth see and observe things as unreasonable and useless.

Islam understands ilm to be that knowledge that was built and developed upon these fundamental basis. As a matter of fact, Islam considers the purpose of knowledge as bound to knowledge about God, His Divine Power, and His All-Mighty Wisdom. The result of knowing God is love for God, and the result of this love is spiritual happiness. Given this reality, Muslim scholars and scientists do not feel anxiety and hopelessness, for as they pursue their studies, they discover new existences, feel closer to God, and varying degrees of spiritual peace. For those who study the universe from such perspectives, knowledge is the way to reach material and spiritual happiness; for those who follow the path of materialism, knowledge can become the way to see the undesired consequences of existence and the final end of the universe. Such knowledge will cause them to be in a state of constant unhappiness.

For those who do not know The Most Merciful and The Most Compassionate Lord of the universe, the sun will burn out in 5 billion years. Such knowledge will spread fear into their hearts, for they will think that œafter the sun burns out, the horrible end of the worlds will begin and we will dissolve into atomic pieces and face non-existence. They will suffer from being a part of this universe. In short, following a materialistic approach to science results in hopelessness, fear, and disappointment. At this point, knowledge (in the Islamic context of this world and the Hereafter) gives confidence, and science (in the materialistic context of being limited to what the five senses can perceive) gives hopelessness. Thus, the two contradict each other. Those who follow the path of knowledge, by His help and guidance, always will walk in enlightenment and will never be disappointed or have doubts about the future.

In order for such things to happen, all of the aspects of knowledge (ilm) and science must be taken into consideration. That is why many modern scholars and scientists are trying to change and direct existing materialistic theories and approaches toward the Islamic understanding of knowledge and science. A number of them are convinced that the contemporary Western approaches are based upon unbelief and that they cannot be changed. If materialistic science makes no effort to find God, and if it does not strive to become a mirror showing His Divine Beauty, humanity’s future may be unexpectedly dramatic.

In our increasingly diverse societies, we interact with people of different faiths. At times, this poses a great challenge: something deeply sacred and true for one faith might be in stark contrast with what is true in another religious tradition. How can we share our values in such a way that the true messages of our different faiths benefit people from other religious traditions? Interfaith dialog is a means for achieving this greater goal by persons of different faiths meeting to have a conversation. But dialog is not debate. notes Leonard Swindler. In dialogue, each must listen to the other as openly and sympathetically as s/he can in an attempt to understand the other’s position as precisely and, as it were, as much from within, as possible. Such an attitude automatically includes the assumption that at any point we might find the partner’s position so persuasive that we would have to change. There is a need to recognize that differences do exist and the objective is not to correct but to hear and listen to the other side.

Religion is usually cited as the cause of or at least a factor to conflict around the world. Drawing upon the experiences of the contributors, the goal of Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding is to identify the ways in which we can engage in productive interfaith dialogue. Rabbi Arthur Schneier, one of the contributors of the book, points out that religion is never the real cause of conflict within or between societies, but it is often identified as an excuse for other causes such as ethnicity, economic disparities, and regional differences. The main assertion of the book is that interfaith dialogue can be used as an effective tool to advance peace building around the world.

Based on his experience and studies on conflict resolution, Professor Mohammed Abu-Nimer identifies four phases of development in an effective experiment of interfaith dialogue. He suggests that the earlier encounters should focus on individual and group similarities in theologies and scriptures. One example could be to jointly study the sacred texts of each religion. It must be remembered that the goal for these studies is not debate or conversions. Professor Marc Gopin notes that these shared studies should yield deeper bonds through invitations to homes and meetings with families. The second phase is to deepen the relationship through joint prayers that are not contradictory to the other faith and by participating in the other faith’s rituals. Having established trust and an understanding of the other faith, the third phase is to discover and confirm differences in religious values and faith practices. The final step should be exploring the ways in which messages of different faiths can benefit people from other religious traditions in the same community.

Articles in the book encourage us to re-think elements within our religious traditions that call on us to engage in interfaith dialog. It encourages us to breakdown stereotypes we have of the other faiths and reflect critically on the practices of our co-religionists. Contributors’ experiences show that in order to be effective, talks should be accompanied by deeds. As Professor Diana Eck affirms One world cannot be built on the foundation of competition and polarization between the superpowers. One world cannot be built on the foundation of science, technology and the media. One world cannot be built on Christian, Muslim, Jewish or Sikh triumphalism. One world cannot be built on the foundation of fear and suspicion….Laying the foundations of one world is the most important task of our time. These foundations are not negotiated statements and agreements. These foundations are, rather, in the stockpiling of trust through dialog and the creation of relationships that can sustain both agreements and disagreements.

The Ottoman treasury had a surplus of revenue coming in from the booty of wars, as well as from taxes collected from Muslims and non-Muslims. This revenue was disbursed in expenditure on large and extensive public works on local amenities such as inns, hospitals, schools and places of worship, and on infrastructural projects such as bridges, roads, canals, and so on, in the conquered territories. The Ottomans aim was not to expropriate the wealth of these lands in the form of raw materials or slave labour, as the Western powers did in the lands they conquered. Rather, their aim was to spread Islam and thereby spread civilization and justice. There are a considerable number of historical buildings, bridges, inns, schools, etc., in Europe, Asia and Africa, which date from this period, some of them still in use even now. Thus, the milieu in which Sinan was born and grew to manhood was conducive to the discovery and development of his extraordinary genius. Today the works of Sinan the Architect can be found, and are admired, on three continents. The son of one Abdulmennan Efendi, Sinan was born in a small village called Agirnas in Kayseri in 1490, where he spent his childhood. In 1512 he was selected and brought to Istanbul as a recruit to the Janissary division. His life changed completely as a result of this move, new horizons opened up before him. He took part with the army in the Chaldiran campaign in 1514. Two years later, he again campaigned with the Ottoman army in Egypt under the leadership of Yavuz Sultan Selim during the years 1516-1520. During these campaigns, he saw and studied the arts of Anatolia, Persia and Egypt. In 1520 he joined the service of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and began his university education the same year. He served as a zemberekcibasi in the battles of Rhodes, Belgrade and Mohac. Here too his mind was busy, now picking up the styles and techniques peculiar to Western architecture. He went even to Baghdad and Persia during the campaigns there, in 1529 and 1536 respectively.

In that last campaign the army had to take Van Castle situated on the shore of Van Lake, the biggest in Turkey. Sinan was commissioned to design and build three galleys which the Army needed in order to conquer the Castle. He completed this task so successfully that he was given command of the galleys. On his return to Istanbul, he became the haseki or personal bodyguard of the Sultan. In 1537, he prepared the navy for a jihad to Italy. After two years, he was appointed super-intendent of police.

As the reader will have gathered, already at the age of 49, Sinan had yet to embark upon the career that was to make him world-famous. The duties given to Sinan so far had nothing directly to do with architecture. However, when in 1539 he was put in charge of the Ministry of Public Works his life and work changed dramatically. From 1539 until he passed away, he worked continuously constructing a seemingly endless series of the most remarkable and magnificent monuments from Bosnia to Makka.

Beginning in the West, according to historical documents, Sinan organized and supervised the construction of some public building on behalf of Sokullu Mehmet Pasha in Bosnia. The most important work of Sinan’s, in what is now misnamed Yugoslavia, is the 180-metre long Sokullu Mehmet Pasha Bridge on the Drina river. In Greece too there is a Sinan-designed mosque, built for Osman Pasha. In Budin, the capital city of Hungary at the time, Sinan built another mosque, this one financed by Sokullu Mustafa Pasha.

In the Eastern part of the Empire, there is a mosque and tekke (lodge) named the Qanuni Sultan Suleiman Mosque in Syria which was built by Sinan. The second of his major works was the Husrev Pasha Mosque in Halep. We can see another of his mosques in the Crimea built on behalf of Devlet Giray Khan I of Crimea. In Makka, the House of Allah was enlarged by Sinan: first of all the pillars were put in place and later minarets. In the city centre, there were a number of buildings, including Turkish baths and a university, attributed to Sinan. However, today, none of these have been conserved because of misguided Saudi hostility towards their Ottoman heritage.

Naturally, Sinan paid special attention to Istanbul as the Imperial capital. He solved its drinking water and transportation problems, as well as designing the city’s sewage system. He constructed roads and bridges; he established its navy and navy buildings; he also restored or renovated castles; he built public watertraps, dykes and waterways; and he built inns, schools, hospitals, dormitories, and so on. He restored the Aya Sophia Mosque and deserved, in every respect that his name be inscribed on the golden pages of Ottoman history and Islamic civilization. It was by his help that Constantinople, the centre of the Eastern Roman Empire, was converted into a great Islamic city, Istanbul, and the capital and centre of Islam.

Three of his monumental works are generally accepted as representing the three stages of his work. The first, the Shehzadbasi Mosque, is referred to as his apprentice work. The second, the splendid Suleymaniye Mosque is described as his master-craftsman work. Finally the Selimiye Mosque is said to be Sinan’s supreme masterpiece, the most sublime of his extraordinary achievements.

Among the fascinating innovative features of these mosques are, in the Suleymaniye mosque, 64 large earthenware jars, 50cm in length placed upside-down, which function superbly as resonating chambers for the recitation of the imam. There is also a small chamber just above the main entrance which accumulates the soot emanating from the huge candles and oil filters. The soot is carried through by means of a very soft breeze circulating inside the mosque. The black powder collected in the chamber was the best raw material available at the time to make the fine inks used during the Ottoman Empire. The mosque is situated in a compound of 700,000 square metres, housing, as well as the mosque itself, four schools, a faculty of medicine, a library, an inn, a primary school, private premises for those studying the sciences of hadith and kalam, a big bazaar and, finally accommodation facilities for the staff. The construction took seven years during which 164 account books were kept to certify where each of the 996,300 gold coins allocated to the whole project were spent.

As for the Selimiye mosque, the great man himself judged it to be his masterpiece and believed that with the construction of this mosque, Islamic sacred architecture gained an unequivocal victory over Christian sacred architecture. He himself wrote of the Selimiye:’I concentrated the whole of my powers on the Selimiye mosque. I meant to put on show the whole of my talent [so that] even if all architects and construction engineers were to come together and do their best, they would not be able to build such a masterpiece of art.’ The two minarets of the mosque are utterly stunning: although there are three winding stairways leading to each landing (sherefe), a person climbing up to any of the landings cannot, from any point during his ascent, see anyone else climbing the other. The stairways are so delicately twisted that mathematicians with very powerful modern computers have difficulty calculating the linear formulas needed. The subtlety of Sinan’s use of colour to match and vary the lines of the stairways will be clear from the photograph.

Sinan built the dome of such awesome dimensions deliberately to exceed those of the Aya Sophia: it is roughly 5 metres higher and 3.5 metres deeper. The simple reason for this rivalry was that some arrogant architects among the Christians had claimed that a dome could not be raised in the Islamic world as large as the one they had put up in the Aya Sophia. They were proud of what they had achieved to the point of claiming that such a dome would be virtually impossible to build again. In the end, Sinan more than matched what had been achieved before him: he exceeded it by a substantial margin in both engineering and artistic terms: The radius of the dome of the Selimiye mosque is 31.5 metres, while its weight is 2,000 tons.

By the time the Selimiye was completed, 400 master craftsmen and 14,000 workers had laboured on it day and night for seven years. In all, 28,000 purses of gold were spent on the project. The famous German architect and historian Professor Ernst Dier said of it: ‘…the Selimiye is above all architectural monuments in the world from the point of view of size, height, unity and brightness.’ Another European commentator expressed his admiration in these words: ‘This is not a man-made building rather it is a place for divine worship descended from heaven.’

Frank Lloyd Wright, one of the best-known architects of our time wrote in his book: ‘Two architects have come on earth. The first one is the Ottoman architect Sinan and the other one is myself. Sinan was a contemporary of both Italian Michelangelo and British Christopher Wren. While the cracks on the dome.., built by Michelangelo are being repaired by iron hoops by the blacksmiths of Rome. Sinan’s temples will stand until Doomsday.’

Sinan served four Sultans and was profoundly admired and appreciated by all of them. He had 77 properties, 40 of which were shops, inns, Turkish baths. Before he died, he established and funded a waqf (charity trust) and specified in his will that the house he resided in be made into a school, with six akche a day (old currency) to be allocated for the teachers of that school, and that orphans and widows be given clothes, and wood and coal for heating. Only a small percentage of the income of the trust was given to his family in accordance with the will. He also wished that one-thirtieth of the Qur’an be recited for his soul’s sake and one akche be given for this. As we learn from the biographies written of him, he was a very generous man. Every day and evening, some twenty to thirty people used to come and eat at his expense.

We should also record that he gave away not only his personal wealth for charitable purposes for the benefit of his fellow-men, he also passed on all his knowledge to hundreds of architects and thousands of master-craftsmen.