More Evidence that the Moon Came from the Earth

Will et al. Indigenous noble gases in the Moon’s interior. Science Advances, Aug 2022.

Humankind has always been fascinated with the Moon and studying it for nearly five centuries since Galileo. A recent discovery now adds new evidence to the currently favored “Giant Impact” theory which hypothesizes that the Moon was formed by a massive collision between Earth and another Mars-sized celestial body around 4.5 billion years ago. A group of researchers examined six samples of lunar meteorites collected in Antarctica using an exceptionally sensitive mass spectrometer and found that the meteorites contained noble gases like Neon and Helium, consistent with those found in the Earth’s mantle. Researchers proposed two possible scenarios for how the noble gases became trapped in the Moon’s interior. In the first scenario, impactors got mixed with the lunar mantle during cooling of the magma oceans to solidify over few million years of the Moon’s formation. In the second scenario, the Moon has been formed from a debris field surrounding the Earth where noble gases were directly mixed into the Moon’s interior mass. Discovery of noble gases on the moon may also inform us about its water content, too. If these gases are still there, then water could also been present in the Moon’s interior. Such water resources could be an invaluable resource for future human missions. More broadly, this study suggests that a wide variety of life-forming material can survive giant impacts early in a planet’s life. We now could make more reliable models of how planets and solar systems form and even how life is originated on the Earth.

Restoring cell functions after death?

Andrijevic et al. Cellular recovery after prolonged warm ischaemia of the whole body. Nature, August 2022.

Organ transplantation is an extremely complicated medical process. There is a massive shortage of donor organs. Waiting lists are long. Even if a patient is lucky to match with a donor organ, getting that organ before it dies through cell damage has been a big challenge. A new technology may offer a solution to extend the time that donor organs survive. A group of researchers has recently developed a technology called OrganEx, which can restore cellular activity even after death. Very shortly after the death of an organism, all cells start to die and organs begin to fail. The researchers worked with one hundred pigs to see whether cellular structures could be saved, or cell damage could be reversed, when OrganEx is applied after death. OrganEx has two major components. First is a device that simulates the heart and lung function by pushing a mix of blood and a drug cocktail to the organs. Second is the drug cocktail made of 13 chemical compounds. One hour after death, the pigs were hooked up to the OrganEx machine which pumped the cocktail to the animal’s organs for six hours. The results were striking; OrganEx could restore critical cell functions after death. While this is a huge step for organ preservation, researchers still have to make more tweaks for the technology to be used in humans. Once fully developed, OrganEx is expected to keep organs outside the body for long-term or transported longer distances.

Sweat-powered wearable electronic devices

Liu et al. Microbial biofilms for electricity generation from water evaporation and power to wearables. Nature Communications, July 2022.

Researchers have developed a biofilm that sticks to the skin like a Band-Aid to harness sweat for electricity that could power wearable devices. The biofilm is made using a type of bacteria called “geobacter sulfurreducens” known for its ability to produce electricity. In this biofilm design, bacteria convert energy from evaporation into electricity by using the moisture on a person’s skin. Most strikingly, researchers found that the biofilm bacteria do not need to be fed because they are dead! They do not need to be alive to produce electricity. The biofilm consists of thin sheets of bacteria colonies (thickness less than 0.1 millimeter) that is sandwiched between two mesh electrodes and sealed with a soft, sticky biopolymer to enable it to grip to the skin. Sticking this biofilm on your skin is like plugging in a battery. This technology has potential to revolutionize wearable electronics by solving the major problem of power supply. Moreover, this is a real green energy-driven device made naturally by the microbes and devoid of any unsustainably produced materials and toxic waste byproducts. The current version of the biofilm can produce enough energy to power small devices such as medical sensors or personal electronics, but the researchers hope to explore larger films that can power even more sophisticated devices.

In his Twentieth Word, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, a 20^th century Islamic scholar and teacher, uses an interesting phrase, where he argues that the miracles of the prophets represent the highest points that scientific developments would ever attain and as such, they are set as goals which humanity should seek to accomplish. In interpreting the verse about the miracles of Jesus, upon whom be peace, in which it is said that Jesus would raise people from the dead by God’s leave, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi indicates that there is a cure to every disease which can be found through research. He also employs an interesting phrase in this section: “It is even possible to give a temporary tinge of life to death” [1]. While some suggest that with this intriguing sentence Nursi points to recent developments in medicine such as those involving organ transplantation or the use of ventilators, it appears that this phrase implies going one stage further.

The Holy Qur’an relates several miraculous events regarding raising the dead in the present, worldly life. In Chapter Baqara (2:67-73), the Holy Qur’an tells us of the incident upon which the chapter was named: Prophet Moses, upon whom be peace, and his people were told by God to slaughter a cow and strike a dead person with part of the slaughtered cow, afterwards the dead man was resurrected and told them who had killed him. Thus, the Qur’an reasserts that God Almighty has the power to resurrect people. Reflecting on this verse, Fethullah Gülen maintains that in addition to the miraculous nature of striking the dead body with a piece of the cow, the mention of this incident may imply that humanity is guided toward a scientific or technological goal [2]. In medicine, biological drugs used to treat certain diseases are produced from certain animals. Also, certain medications, such as insulin, can be produced making use of the ability of bacteria to produce genetically coded proteins. Perhaps, biological drugs to be obtained with the help of other living organisms may contribute to being able to give a temporary tinge of life to death. In this regard, researchers are particularly interested in stem cells and their potentials. In this method, it may be possible to use a person’s stem cells to produce organs, tissues, and replace malfunctioning organs with new ones without the risk of rejection. We have so far heard no positive results in these directions, but it was demonstrated that stem cells taken from a person and transplanted into an embryo of another living being started to grow [3]. God knows best, but this method may be part of the truth behind the act of striking the man’s corpse with a part of a cow in reference to the verse in question.

Chapter Baqarah gives two more examples concerning resurrection in worldly life. A man passed by a town that had fallen into utter ruin and asked himself in bewilderment, “How will God restore life to this town that is now dead?” God made him remain dead for a hundred years and then raised him to life, and asked him, “How long did you remain in this state?” He said: “I remained so for a day or part of a day.” God said, “No, you have rather remained thus for a hundred years. But look at your food and drink: it has not spoiled; and look at your donkey!” The verse tells us that only bones were left of the donkey (2:259).

The next verse is about Prophet Abraham, upon whom be peace, who prayed God to give him certainty in the heart about resurrection. He had to kill four birds and then put them on different hills which resulted in them being restored to life and flying back to him (2:260). While it may not be related to resurrection fully, the story of Ashab al-Kahf (“People of the Cave” or “Seven Sleepers”) is certainly intriguing and carries a similar theme. God made seven men fall sleep in a cave for roughly 300 years and then restored them to life temporarily, however they had believed that they had fallen asleep for only a very brief period. They were probably considerably skilled and well-educated young people with high positions in society, however falling asleep for three centuries caused them to lose their positions and possibly disappoint those who had invested in them at that time. Yet God Almighty’s wise purpose requires otherwise by making those people send a message to future generations, i.e., us, and giving them praiseworthy remembrance after their death. The same sura also describes the travels of Prophet Moses, upon whom be peace, accompanied by Yusha’ ibn Nun, during which the cooked fish they were carrying with them for supper was resurrected and swam into the sea (18:61-64). In a tradition of Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, it is recorded that he talked to a dead girl by God’s leave upon her parent’s request, but the girl refused to come back to this world as she had found something better there [the Hereafter] [4]. 

The prevention of aging, alongside the wish to attain immortality, has long been one of the greatest aspirations of human beings. Several scientists and philosophers of the previous century argued that this might become possible in the 21st century. Chapter Baqarah refers to a prototypical society with greed for life, noting that people of that society wish “if only [they] might be spared for a thousand years” (2:96). Perhaps, the ultimate goal of today’s medical research is to try to ensure human beings live forever in this world. Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, warns that this is a vain thought, although we should seek healing by all possible means: “O servants of God, search for remedy for your diseases. Indeed, God has created no incurable disease except one: old age (or, death, in another narration)” [5]. Nobel laureate Alexis Carrel maintained that human cells are immortal under favorable conditions but Leonard Hayflick, later, demonstrated that cell divisions are limited due to DNA damage and shortening of telomeres [6, 7]. According to the Hayflick limit, the maximum lifetime a person can get even if he or she lives under the best conditions is 125 years. Telomeres are the structures located at the end of the chromosomes that protect DNA, and during cell regeneration, the length of telomeres decreases with each cell division and the number of divisions declines after a critical limit. Scientists dream of slowing down the aging process by reactivating these telomeres, but they have not made much progress despite some positive results in experiments with rats.

Big technological corporations have recently been making considerable investments in order to find ways to further increase human lifespan. Venkatraman Ramakrishan, who won the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 2009, said, “Californian billionaires are having such a good time at the party of life that they don’t want it to stop” [8]. The investments and efforts in this field do not seem very promising because the human body is not suitable for immortality. Instead, scientists are pursuing the idea of merging human brains with machines, which would require uploading a human brain to a computer. In today’s world where research on artificial intelligence is rapidly advancing, a human being’s habits and memory are supposed to be transferred to a computer. Elon Musk, the founder of Neurolink, a company that seeks to restore memory using gadgets planted into the human brain, once said that digital intelligence and biological intelligence would converge over time with increased interaction between the two. This sounds promising for the treatment of certain diseases such as Alzheimer’s. There is, however, another lead in this research according to Josh Bocanegra: “When the time comes and all the necessary advancements are in place, we’ll be able to freeze your brain, create a new artificial body, repair any damage to your brain, and transfer it into your new body” [9]. This may be an artificial body developed using stem cells with possible aid from diverse robotic devices. Ray Kurzweil, who works on Google’s machine learning project, argues that the use of tiny robotics that connect a human brain to computers may be possible by 2029, which will in turn extend human lives considerably. Another futurist, Ian Pearson predicts that in 2050, humans will achieve virtual immortality and a person’s personality transferred to a computer will be able to communicate with people in the future [9]. A recent New York Times article suggests that brain implants could change humanity [10].

Ultimately, it is hard to predict the extent of scientific and technological developments. The idea of eliminating death reminds us of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi’s saying that it is impossible for the lake of Barla (the town he lived in at the time) to be destroyed for the time being, but people can imagine such destruction and this imagination does not change the reality. Yet even the very imagination of eliminating death may serve as a false hope for people who rationalize everything and try to forget about the idea of death, and in this way, they stick to worldly pleasures more fervently. At this point, Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, shows us the correct manner of thinking: “Remember death frequently as it dulls out pleasures” [11].

In the Qur’an, the most important verses concerning raising the dead are about the miracles of Jesus, upon whom be peace. It is emphasized that he would breathe into something fashioned out of clay in the shape of a bird, and it would become a bird by God’s leave, and that he would revive the dead and heal ill people (3:49). As a matter of fact, Mary becoming pregnant with Jesus and Jesus speaking when he was a baby are also medical miracles. It is interesting to note that today, just as in the time Jesus, materialistic thought dominates the scientific and medical research, which are mostly construed solely with a materialist perspective. Almost all discoveries are used as evidence for disbelief, and they reinforce the self-conceit of those who make them. Bediuzzaman predicts that as Christianity will be purified from superstitions in the End Times, and that science will have the upper hand in rule and power. If such a purification will occur, then one tends to think it is not going to be only in political and administrative fields. Possibly, the change of scientific, or more specifically, medical perspective may constitute a major stage in the purification process that could save modern medicine and science from materialism and become instruments of discovering the truth. Who knows? God Almighty may make a vulnerable and weak baby speak to send a message to a purely materialistic community as a manifestation of His divine power.

References

1. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, 20th Word, First Station, Words.
2. Fethullah Gülen, Kurandan İdrake Yansıyanlar.
3. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/26/science/chimera-stemcells-organs.html
4. Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, 19th Letter, Letters.
5. Bukhari, Tib 1; Abu Dawud, Tib 1; Tirmidhi, Tib 2.
6. Carrel A, Ebeling AH. Age and multiplication of fibroblasts. J Exp Med 1921.
7. Hayflick L. The limited in vitro lifetime of human diploid cell strains. Exp Cell Res 1965.
8. https://www.livemint.com
9. https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/307675
10. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/28/opinion/sunday/brain-machine-artificial-intelligence.html
11. Tirmidhi Hadith No. 2307.

In 1981, scientists discovered ways to derive embryonic stem cells from early mouse embryos. Since then, they have been the subject of intense scrutiny, controversy, and advocacy.

They are unique cells, which can be derived from human embryos and can be differentiated into virtually any kind of different cells. In humans, there are about 200 different types of cells including bone, muscle, and nerve cells, and within these cells there are about 20 different types of structures or organelles. Essentially, stem cells can be derived from human embryos, and with the right enzymes, can be stimulated. For instance, bone cells can originate from osteocyte cells, or liver tissues can come from hepatocytes.

Stem cell types and research

There are three types of stem cells:

• Embryonic stem cells
• Adult stem cells
• Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC)

Embryonic stem cells are derived from human embryos. Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells (meaning “clean slates” with the potential to change into another cell variant) found throughout the body after development; they multiply via cell division to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC), which were discovered in 2006, are derived from skin or blood cells that have been reprogrammed back into an embryonic-like pluripotent state that enables the development of an unlimited source of any type of human cell needed for therapeutic purposes. While these types of cells are interesting and certainly worthy of research, this article will focus on embryonic stem cells as they are consistently the most well-known and discussed type by the general public.

Embryonic stem cells are potent and often sought after due to their abilities to proliferate without limit and contribute to any cell type. However, with great power comes great responsibility and stem cells are no exception. Poorly processed cells have been documented to mutate into cancerous tumors that can wreak havoc upon people’s bodies. Bearing this in mind, scientists also do not believe that this should derail stem cell therapies considering that there are DNA tests to check if stem cells will turn out to be problematic or not.

The stem cell project is regularly a subject of ethical debate in both the academic and public sectors. Most embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro—in an in vitro fertilization clinic—and then donated for research purposes with the informed consent of the donors. People willingly donate their eggs for this research, and this process does not constitute child-killing since the eggs are near their zygote phase, not a whole mature embryo. Scientists obtain those types of cells from an embryo which has not yet completed its formation to develop into a human being. Researchers then use these cells for various treatment and research purposes. It is important to stress that they are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman’s body and that they are produced in a plastic laboratory culture via clinics in vitro.

Some examples of embryonic stem cells being used in research include the following:

1. UCLA stem cell gene therapy cures bubble baby disease

Researchers at UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) have developed a cure for babies born with Bubble Baby Disease, a rare and life-threatening condition that can be fatal within the first year of life, by using stem cells from multiple patients and gene therapy to correct the genetic mutation of these patients.

2. Asterias biotherapeutics restores some independence to those suffering from paralysis caused by spinal cord injuries

Asterias Biotherapeutics spent much of 2016-2017 developing a stem cell therapy to restore upper body motor function to quadriplegic spinal cord injury victims. Through lengthy and rigorous testing in human clinical trials, the therapy was found to be safe for use in people with all patients treated reporting at least some improvements. Asterias is now expanding its clinical trials to include patients with sub-acute injuries.

3. UC Irvine scientists engineer stem cells to destroy cancer

In a study conducted by University of California, Irvine researchers, a stem cell-based technique was devised to find and destroy breast cancer cells that had already metastasized. The cells “feel” the stiffness of the surrounding tissues and destroy the cancer-causing cells.

Embryonic stem cells can remain undifferentiated when they are grown in a well taken care of culture that is under stable conditions. Problems primarily begin to arise if cells are allowed to clump together to form embryoid bodies in which they begin to differentiate, or change into more specific cell variants, spontaneously. Although spontaneous differentiation is a good indication that shows which cultures of embryonic stem cells are healthy, the process is uncontrolled and, therefore, an inefficient strategy to produce cultures of specific cell types.

The ability of stem cells being able to differentiate into hundreds of other types of cells continues to amaze scientists as this is no small discovery. Researchers believe that the possibilities with stem cells are near endless, especially in regard to “regenerative medicine,” the process of “replacing, engineering, or regenerating human cells, tissues, or organs to restore or establish a new function.” It is even believed that even whole organs could be synthetically grown by using them.” Additionally, stem cells have the potential to rebuild healthy tissues, help people with heart disease, diabetes, ALS, Alzheimer’s disease, liver disease, Parkinson’s disease, cancer, and many more illnesses.

In a stem cell transplant, embryonic stem cells are first specialized into the necessary adult cell type. Then, those mature cells replace tissue that is damaged by a disease or injury. This type of treatment could be used to:

• Replace neurons damaged by spinal cord injury, a stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, or other neurological problems.
• Produce insulin that could treat people with diabetes and heart muscle cells that could repair damage after a heart attack
• Replace virtually any tissue or organ that is injured or diseased.

Sometimes scientists use stem cells as a drug. For example, it is possible to inject a stem cell into joints to reduce swelling and pain, or in order to promote the healing processes of soft tissues. Stem cell therapy is performed by injecting the patient’s own stem cells to stimulate the body to repair and replace damaged tissue in any joint or soft tissue structures – such as knees, shoulders, hips, wrists, ankles, elbows, tendons, ligaments and non-healing bone fractures. Cellular Dynamics, a large biotechnical company, sells human heart cells called cardiomyocytes that are derived from induced pluripotent stem (IPS) cells. Pharmaceutical companies are adapting to this new and innovative trend on a day-to-day basis. Stem cells can also be used to test the quality and safety of investigational drugs by testing them on stem cells that have been transformed into tissue-specific cells. Researchers are able to monitor the side effects before exposing the drug to a patient and thus have a greater expectancy of how their body may respond to the drug. This allows us to test for cures for potentially fatal diseases in ways that would otherwise be risky or unethical.

With all of the aforementioned advantages, stem cells are a fairly new, but exceptionally promising, research area. For some people, it may seem unethical to use stem cells on the grounds that extracting stem cells damages the blastocyst, which is a structure formed in the early development of mammals, more specifically the sixth or the eighth day of the development of an embryo. In 2006, President Bush vetoed the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act stating that the federal government should not support “the taking of innocent human life.” Although stem cells are very promising for science and can open new doors to many new treatments in the medical field, it looks like there are still differences of opinion on their ethical use. This is perhaps because there is need for more convincing evidence or people are not informed accurately on the details of this research area.

References

• https://stemcells.nih.gov/info/Regenerative_Medicine/2006Chapter1.htm
• https://www.healthline.com/health/stem-cell-research
• https://www.statnews.com/2017/04/26/stem-cells-cancer-mutations/
• https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stem-cells/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5398703/
• https://www.mayoclinic.org/documents/the-amazing-stem-cell/doc-20249792
• https://www.unmc.edu/stemcells/educational-resources/history.html
• https://www.cirm.ca.gov/patients/power-stem-cells
• https://www.nature.com/news/stem-cells-take-root-in-drug-development-1.10713
• https://hsci.harvard.edu/examining-ethics-embryonic-stem-cell-research#:~:text=Opponents%20argue%20that%20the%20research,taking%20of%20innocent%20human%20life.%E2%80%9D

Cancer is a prevalent disease among humans and animals, affecting millions of lives across the globe. It can be caused in a variety of ways and can affect virtually every part of our bodies, ranging from skin cancer caused by prolonged exposure to the sun’s harmful UV rays to lung cancer that results from carcinogenic substances smokers inhale. However, plants do not die of cancer despite sometimes being exposed to the sun for over a thousand years – and they do not use any sunscreens!

Humans and animals who live to a certain age are very likely to get cancer one day. We see this situation mostly in our pets which have been specially bred and protected from predators and diseases. Cancer has become part of our lives and remains a top world health priority. The probability of prostate cancer is roughly 80% in 80-year-olds, 90% in 90-year-olds, and 100% in 100-year-olds. However, these statistics yet again do not apply to trees.

What is cancer?

Cancer is a disease caused by the uncontrolled growth of cells that have become abnormal in a part of the body. These abnormal cells are not foreign invaders that have entered our bodies from outside but are instead our own cells. However, in time, various factors such as radiation, viruses, and chemical substances that they are exposed to cause the accumulation of errors, or mutations, in the genetic codes of cells. Some of them then acquire very different characteristics and become alien to their own body.

With old age, errors arise in the genetic code in an increased rate when our cells divide by copying their own DNA. External factors, such as “free radicals” and various radiations that affect our DNA, play a role in these errors. For young people, when there are too many errors in a cell’s genome, a process called “apoptosis” takes place after which faulty cells die before they can multiply in a potentially cancerous manner and forming a tumor. However, sometimes these accumulated errors cause the cell’s growth process to become stuck in the “on” position, and the cell begins to grow and divide continuously. Cells that emerge with out-of-control divisions ignore the commands coming from the healthy cells of the body, continue to grow and reproduce according to the erroneous commands from the cell’s disrupted genome. This situation lasts until death.

What is a tumor?

Cell growths that result from defective genome proliferation will eventually form a mass called a tumor. Some cells grow very slowly and stop at a certain size after a while and do not spread anymore and are called benign tumors. Masses formed by fast-growing, defective (cancerous) cells are known as malignant tumors. Cells that detach from malignant tumors and grow rapidly can attach to another organ where they will begin to grow again when they enter the bloodstream. The process by which cancerous cells start from a tumor and spread all over the body to different organs is known as metastasis.

Why does this process not happen in plants?

One of the most destructive features of cancer when it enters metastasis is the mobility of malignant cells to varying degrees according to their type. Blood vessels, i.e. the transportation pathways of the circulatory system, act like a highway for cancer cells. As the blood vessels surround the entire body, a single cancerous cell can travel to and settle almost anywhere in the body, from the toes to the head.

Plant cells have a vital feature that is different from human and animal cells. In plants, cells do not change their locations because their cells are surrounded by a very rigid, strong, and impenetrable wall outside of normal plasma membranes. Cell walls are made of cellulose, which constitutes the main substance of plants, and form the wooden structures that ensure the plants stand upright and harden while at the same time locking each cell in place and preventing it from migrating within the organism.

Another important difference that is unique to plants is that they do not have blood circulation in which cells are carried; they have a circulatory system in which only water and food are carried. This system is often used to pump water from the roots to the leaves and to transport organic products such as sugar, which is a product of photosynthesis, from the leaves down. Therefore, there are no blood cells or immune system cells in these carrier channels, which are known as wood and roe tubes (xylem and phloem), in plants.

In addition, animal cells are specifically employed in tissues and organs such as muscle, bone, liver, and skin during embryonic development. Thus, when they divide only new cells of the same type are created. Tumors that occur in animal tissues can metastasize into different tissues and disrupt different organs. We can think of animal and human biology as a very complex system in which each cell, tissue, and organ has a task and purpose. In such a system, all elements work in cooperation for the continuation of life. This system is of a kind of irreducible complexity. A human being cannot live without organs like brain, heart, or lungs, while plants, on the other hand, have fewer simpler internal structures which are not as vital. When plant cells divide, they retain their ability to form new cells of any type. This is called totipotency.

In plants, every necessary structure can be recreated from the few tissues they have. For this reason, a gardener can grow new plants from the roots, branches, or leaf parts of a plant.

Plants are equipped with very powerful antioxidants to protect them from the sun’s harmful rays and mutations that may be caused by radiation. Therefore, tumors can develop only due to bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and insects. For example, in a situation that we can call “information confusion” that occurs when Agrobacterium Tumefaciens bacteria insert some of its DNA into the plant’s DNA, an anomaly occurs in the plant’s genome. Cells that go through a rapid growth process and form tumors are not normally classified as cancer, since they simply remain in that area and cannot be transported elsewhere. Since the tumors cannot spread to the whole plant, they may cause only minor distress at most in a specific area rather than a fatal disease such as cancer. Just as the plant continues to grow around a rock that it encounters, it grows around the tumor as well. The tumor can continue to grow for years, but does not spread to the rest of the plant, meaning there is no metastasis.

In summary, plants can also be cancerous, but a cancerous tumor is not a deadly threat to a plant, as its cells are immobile and do not have vital and complex organs like humans and animals. Thanks to the cellulose walls gifted to the them, plants continue their role in the ecosystem by continuing to grow with healthy cells around the tumor as if nothing had happened.

References

• Luis Villazon. “Can a plant die of cancer?” www.sciencefocus.com/nature/can-a-plant-die-of-cancer
• Sam Westreich. “Do Plants Get Cancer?” medium.com/@westwise/do-plants-get-cancer-60eb435c6d1a
• Stuart Thompson. “Plants couldn’t run away from Chernobyl—but that’s what saved them. Why plants don’t get cancer.” www.popsci.com/chernobyl-plants-radiation-cancer

All human beings have similar organs, but each organ has qualities unique to itself and to the person it belongs to. Research has revealed that even some of the genes of monozygotic twins are different [1]. As opposed to the previous assumption that “when it comes to DNA, every cell in the body is essentially identical to every other cell,” it has been found that each cell has a DNA of its own [2]. This uniqueness originates from the fact that the order and number of molecules and proteins are different, which is valid for atoms and sub-atom particles as well. Having spent countless hours on microscopes and spectroscopes, a university professor of mine once said, “I witnessed different structures of iron atom each time I observed one. We even need to produce a separate periodic table for the iron element alone.”

We also witness that particles have been created uniquely, just like human beings are. From the micro universe (one millionth of a meter) down to femto universe (one quadrillionth of a meter), each particle is called a boson or fermion. When particles are examined to find out in what conditions they resemble each other in the femto universe, doors of a new world will be opened in terms of knowledge and contemplation. According to this new perspective, while the things and events are sometimes explained through mathematical equations and formulations, they are sometimes explained through experiments of thought trying to attain the truth behind them. Pauli exclusion principle is one such experiment.

Pauli Principle

There are around 380 sub-atomic particles [3]. In atomic and subatomic dimensions, two fermions (e.g. two electrons) of an atom cannot have the same set of quantum numbers. Wolfgang Pauli first explained this principle in 1925 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1945 after experiments proved that the theory was correct. This theory has gone down in history as the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

The motion equations of subatomic particles are expressed by their magnetic states. Pauli said that none of the electrons of an atom can share the same quantum state at the same time. In other words, two electrons in the same atom cannot share the physical features such as magnetism, motion, position and velocity in the same state [2].

In addition to the three quantum numbers (principal, subordinate, and magnetic quantum numbers) described so far, Pauli defined a quantum number for the spin of a fermion (e.g. electron). The spin quantum number is related to the rotation of the electron around its axis because an electron rotates around its own axis as it rotates around the atomic nucleus. According to the Pauli Principle, if an orbit has an electron with a spin of 1/2, an electron with a spin of -1/2 can be placed in the same orbit. If we assume that the spin of an electron rotating clockwise is 1/2 the spin of an electron rotating counterclockwise will be -1/2. Thus, with Pauli’s contribution, four quantum numbers were defined for subatomic particles and it was stated that even if the other three quantum numbers were the same, electrons with different spin quantum numbers could circulate in the same orbit.

The Pauli Principle shows that atoms are not identical. This principle also applies to solid crystals, that is, the materials we use daily. The Principle is also able to explain the fact that the ores that make up the element are different, and the fact that there are different elements in the periodic table. With this principle, important properties of superconductors have been discovered.

In 1927, based on the Pauli Principle, German physicist Karl Werner Heisenberg showed that it is not possible to measure the physical properties of a particle, such as the position and momentum, at the same time and that these results can only be expressed with uncertain probability and statistics [5].

This uniqueness also manifests itself in the space we call the macro world. Stars consisting of only neutrons are called neutron stars. A neutron star is very dense: its mass is 2–3 times that of the Sun, but only about 10 km in diameter. A neutron star should theoretically collapse into a black hole, but this does not happen. The reason for this, it has been discovered, is that neutrons that cannot share the same position prevent collapse and that neutron stars remain in balance [6].

The universe has been created with balance, and everything, from the minutest particles to the stars in the outer space, follows their particular courses to maintain the order.

References

1. scientificamerican.com/article/identical-twins-exhibit-d/
2. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090715131449.htm
3. lbl.gov/2017/listings/contents_listings.html
4. wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli
5. phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/uncer.html
6. phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pauli.html

How excessive cell phone usage can cripple a child’s mental development

The scene of a quiet child tapping away at a phone or tablet with glee is an image that, by now, most people are familiar with. It may seem cute at first, however a sinister reality lurks beneath this scenario. Overwhelming research now shows that excessive cell phone usage in infants and adolescents can slow down, or even permanently alter, various parts of their extremely sensitive and still growing brains. Social skills, cognitive abilities, and emotional awareness can all be affected. This technology is often incredibly addicting because of its constant bombardment of lights, colors, and rewarding sounds that can thus inhibit a child’s ability to focus, learn how to properly socialize with other humans, and develop an interest in other activities. We as a society should be more aware of the effects that our phones have on our children so that we do not end up altering the biology of an entire generation. It should be our utmost goal as a society that we stay technologically literate so that we make our technology supplement our lives and work for us as opposed to being dependent on it to survive.

How much time is too much time?

Smart phones have positive benefits for children when used in small amounts, however there are dangerous consequences if their usage is excessive and left unchecked. For the sake of clarity, “excessive phone usage” will refer to the American Academy of Pediatric’s (AAP) 2018 suggested screen time limits.

“Avoid digital media for toddlers younger than 18 to 24 months other than video chatting. For children 18 to 24 months, watch digital media with them because they learn from watching and talking with you. Limit screen use for preschool children, ages 2 to 5, to just 1 hour a day of high-quality programming” [1].

Cell phones can permanently stunt a child’s neural development

Scientists have identified the first three years of a child’s life to be their “critical years,” a time when their brains are undergoing the most development and are the most sensitive to new information. It is imperative that children constantly interact with their parents via face to face communication, problem solving, and play in order to begin experiencing life while establishing the literal building blocks that will enable them to perceive and interact with the world around them for the rest of their lives. Children’s minds are akin to soft clay that can be easily molded, and both positive and negative experiences can have lasting effects on them. Excessive screen time can cause permanent damage to the brain and can inhibit “the ability to focus, to concentrate, to lend attention, to sense other people’s attitudes and communicate with them, (and) to build a large vocabulary….”

The short term, immediate gratification responses that phones constantly give usually train our brains to become addicted to always expecting quick responses from tasks that we engage in. This can make completing longer tasks that require more focus such as reading, paying attention in class, doing homework, or holding a conversation more difficult and can have lasting ramifications on a child’s performance in school and in social settings [2].

Excessive usage can make children socially awkward and anxious

As most teens and adults learn the hard way, the best way to grow socially is by directly engaging in the social behaviors that we often dread the most. Making new friends, talking to the opposite gender, and public speaking all become easier the more a person partakes in the activity despite how nerve-wracking they may initially be. This is especially true for children, who are socially clean slates that learn how to socialize by interacting with other children, their parents, and through play. Cell phone usage promotes a sedentary lifestyle, and a child can rarely grow socially by being sedentary. Playing with other kids teaches cooperation, empathy, and compassion. These are very human traits that cell phones cannot teach a child. Failing to develop strong social skills can lead to social anxiety, which has a host of its own problems, since a child may be ill-prepared to deal with social scenarios such as these ones.

The AAP recommends interacting with your child by asking them questions and encouraging a response while they use phones instead of just leaving them to their own devices. This way, they are interacting with their parents, as is necessary for their growth, and having the phone supplement their learning in the way that it is supposed to.

Prolonged usage can easily lead to addiction and dependence

Our brains have a built-in reward system that awards us when we achieve something of value. The chemical most commonly associated with this system, and most well-known by society, is dopamine. Normally, our brains receive dopamine in reasonable and completely safe doses as we go about our day whenever we feel we should be rewarded for something. This can include finishing an assignment, sending a difficult email to an even more difficult colleague, or when eating sweets. It makes us feel good and relaxed but can be addicting in large amounts. Cell phones can cause an overproduction of dopamine that has been compared, though to a lesser extent, to the excessive amount of dopamine produced as a result of abusing hard drugs, such as cocaine. Have you ever caught yourself reaching for your phone, without even thinking about it, as soon you hear a text message notification go off? That’s dopamine at work. It’s the rush that we get when something satisfactory happens, and it is all too easy to trigger with phones. Dopamine can easily become addictive, and the brain can become dependent on receiving a certain amount of dopamine every once in a while if it receives too much too quickly. This may be one reason why we may sometimes glance at our phones even if we know there is nothing new to look at.

In children whose brains are still developing, this dependence on dopamine can be catastrophic towards their growth. Their brains are much more susceptible to dopamine addictions than teens or adults are, though this is not to imply that older populations are safe. This is why a child may seem impossibly glued to a phone and will throw a tantrum once they are told to put it down. A proven method to help rid addictions, including cell phone addictions, is to replace the addictive behavior with a similar, healthier, but equally satisfying behavior. Phones can be replaced with Legos, or other interactive toys, in order to teach a child that there are ways to have fun besides phones. Going cold on an addiction rarely works as it does not sate the brain’s hunger for dopamine.

It is entirely possible for us to regain control

Fortunately, there are plenty of solutions that families can utilize in order to make sure that phones do not dominate their lives. Professional organizations such as the AAP and Mayo Clinic stress the importance of unstructured playtime for the minds of young children. In general, psychologists have realized that unstructured play is actually vital for the growth of children’s brains since it encourages creativity, imagination, and problem solving. Their brains are encountering problems, and thus creating solutions that lead to growth and understanding, while they play. Cell phones, on the other hand, tend to do the work for them instead and do not allow the brain to learn. This is especially true for videos that tell children everything that they need to know and do not give them time to problem-solve on their own.

The AAP encourages parents to establish a Family Media Plan that clearly outlines when and where family members can use their technology. Parents may consider forbidding technology at certain places, such as the dinner table, or doing activities, such as weekly board game nights, without technology either in order to remove the barriers that technology so often puts between us. A strong family is one where all family members have firm trust, understanding, and respect in between one another. Less face-to-face interaction, and an obsession with screens from both parents and children, can very much damage these bonds. You can make a Digital Media Plan for your family at www.HealthyChildren.org/MediaUsePlan.

Technology is awesome when used properly and in reasonable amounts!

Virtually every person can name at least one technological medium that brings them joy and can bring them closer to the people that they care about. For some, this may be gathering around the couch and watching a movie or TV show. Others may prefer interactive video games that can bring the family together and can promote bonding in ways similar to board games. The internet also possesses an infinite treasure trove of resources that can greatly enhance education and our general quality of life. This technology mainly becomes problematic once we fail to monitor it properly and allow it to spiral out of control. But in moderation and under control, these innovations are a series of mind-blowing inventions that dazzle the mind and can very much aid our personal and family goals.

There are organizations out there that are constantly raising awareness and promoting online safety

In recent years, parents have realized how destructive cell phones can be to their families and have decided to do something about it. “Wait Until 8^th” is a grassroots movement that encourages parents across the country to take a pledge that they will not give their children a smart device until they are at least 8 years old. It was started by Brooke Shannon and a few other parents in Austin, Texas, and works to empower parents and communities about the dangers of cell phones for kids. You can learn more about the pledge at www.waituntil8th.org.

There is also a wealth of resources for parents that are concerned about their children’s online safety. The National Cyber Security Alliance, Project Safe Childhood, and National Center for Missing and Exploited Children all help spread awareness about internet safety and the consequences of careless internet surfing. It should be a goal of every parent to stay technologically literate and up to date about which websites their children are visiting and the apps that they use.

Make technology work for you, as opposed to working for it

Our world is changing faster than we can adapt to it, and smart phones are no exception. New technology always presents new challenges, especially when it can take so long to thoroughly research the effects that this technology can have on our minds and bodies. It is important to always stay technologically literate so that we may provide the best quality of life that we can for our families. Technology, above all else, is a double-edged sword.

References

1. “Children and Media Tips from the American Academy of Pediatrics.” org, 1 May 2018, www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/news-features-and-safety-tips/Pages/Children-and-Media-Tips.aspx.
2. “What Screen Time Can Really Do to Kids’ Brains.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/behind-online-behavior/201604/what-screen-time-can-really-do-kids-brains.

There are many ongoing studies into fasting, a practice prescribed across many religions. Increasingly, there is evidence to support that intermittent fasting is beneficial to human health.

The opposite of fasting – overeating – has been revealed to be a major culprit in many illnesses, including cancer, obesity, and heart disease. For many years, the medical consensus was that fasting, i.e. prolonged hunger, too, could have deleterious effects on the human body. From kidney failure to loss of muscle, fasting was believed to be harmful – thus calling into question the benefits of this widespread religious commandment.

People of faith – including Muslims – have long believed that God wouldn’t recommend a practice that was harmful to the body. The hardships and troubles that accompany a religious practice are not too extreme for people aware of their servitude to God: they regard their trials as a testament of their faith. Part of that faith is the certainty that God wouldn’t recommend a harmful or unbearable practice.

In this article, we will share with you two unknown benefits of fasting that have been recently discovered.

Regenerating stem cells

There is a substantial body of evidence showing that staying hungry during certain periods of the day heals the body’s metabolism, hastens loss of fat, decreases oxidative stress,* and improves the functions of the tissues that make up various organs including the liver, the intestines, and the brain. The first of the two new discoveries about the underlying processes, however, provides a missing piece of the puzzle by helping us understand the incredible changes hunger triggers in stem cells.

Researchers at MIT, Duke University School of Medicine, and Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research in Cambridge published an article recently on stem cells, indicating that part of stem cell’s mystery could lie in the oxidation (burning) of fat in the mitochondria [1]. Omer H. Yilmaz and his fellow researchers found that a 24-hour fast hastens fat breakdown in intestinal stem and special progenitor cells of rats.

To run the study, Yilmaz and colleagues let the mice go hungry for 24 hours to study the state of their stem cells. They found that the functions of intestinal stem cells increased, and fat metabolism quickened, in both young and aged mice, even during early periods of hunger. They saw that the body’s tapping into fat for its energy needs maintained the health and strength of the intestinal stem cells. Moreover, they noticed that if the aged mice did not fast, they started to lose their ability to break down and use fats for energy expenditure.

The researchers obtained more interesting results as the studies progressed. It was found that a single period of hunger for 24 hours boosted renewal of intestinal cells – and the stem cell functions increased even more significantly in aged mice. Another interesting finding was that mice with damaged intestines that were fasted recovered faster than those that were fed.

“My lab is really interested in understanding how diet, in general, can be used to improve tissue function,” Yilmaz said. “One of the tissue types I study is the intestine. In my lab we study the intestine because it’s one of the largest organs in the body. It’s also a tissue that experiences rapid cellular turnover.” [2]

The intestine is lined by a single layer of cells, Yilmaz explains, that turns over every 5 to 7 days. The workhorses of the intestinal lining and this cellular turnover are intestinal stem cells. These cells must retain a high level of function or cellular health in order to replenish the intestinal epithelium on a regular basis. Intestinal stem cells are particularly important in terms of repairing intestinal damage caused by gut infections and chemotherapy, for example.

The single layer of epithelial cells needs to be renewed every 5-7 days: the aids and enzymes secreted in the intestine for digestive and absorptive activities damage cells despite the protective mucus layer, and some other cells already burst and die as they empty their secretions. Moreover, some medications, particularly chemotherapy, cause the destruction and breakdown of the epithelial cell layer. However, fast-multiplying stem cells replenish the epithelial cells. Stem cells are very active and young and have the ability to divide and multiply continuously.

Dr. Yilmaz also says:

“As we age, stem cells in the intestine as well as in many other tissues of the body, including in the blood and nervous systems, become less functional. We believe that reduced adult stem cell function contributes to some of the decline of function associated with old age. My lab is very interested in studying low-calorie interventions to delay this decline. As a field, we’ve known for over 100 years that low-calorie states such as fasting or caloric restriction can have positive effects on tissue health and aging. We’ve seen evidence that fasting during times of intestinal infections that lead to diarrhea may promote healing of the intestinal lining, for example.” [2]

This quote emphasizes the importance of the issue. Yilmaz adds that despite all this knowledge, the cellular mechanisms of this renewal have not been discovered, and he and his team are working to find out how fasting and hunger enable this recovery.

Stem cells become happy in fat!

The researchers discovered through the experiments that the stem cell function could be brought about in hungry mice by the burning (oxidation) of fatty acids in intestinal cells. When they stopped the fat metabolism through genetic engineering, they noticed that the benefits of fasting on intestinal stem cells were negligent.

In the present dietary conditions, we obtain nearly 60-70% of our energy from carbohydrates or sugar, 20% from fats and 10% from amino acids. Yet an interesting finding revealed by Dr. Yılmaz and his research team is that we essentially obtain much greater energy from using fats once we fast. According to their experiments on mice, during fasting, the intestinal stem cells in both young and aged mice switch from carbohydrates to fats as the primary source of energy, and this shift enables improvement in stem cell functions.

It is not yet known what underlies the fat metabolism that boosts stem cell functions in response to fasting, but it is observed that stem cells work better when they burn fat. The ability to metabolize fats efficiently decreases with age.

It is likely that this hastened metabolism – encouraged by certain diets, like the keto diet, where the amount of fat ingested is raised to 70% and carbohydrate intake is limited to 5% – helps with epileptic seizures and similar neurological disorders: the ketone bodies generated during metabolism of fats are used as energy sources by the brain.

According to Dr. Yilmaz, if fasting can improve the functions of intestinal stem cells through metabolism of fats, the key is the mitochondria, the powerhouses of the cell responsible for this function. Fat metabolism, or the immediate breaking down or “burning” of the fat entering the cell, is carried out in the mitochondria. Disrupted energy generation associated with aging and decreasing mitochondria can be a reason for the brain’s susceptibility to age-related illnesses. Positive developments in brain functions can therefore be viewed in connection with the correlation between fasting and the oxidation of fatty acids.

Cleaning by fasting

Just like the spring cleaning in our homes, our cells need a thorough cleaning to function properly. Wrongly folded protein particles, remains of damaged organelles, broken molecular pieces, and aged cells that can no longer divide should be disposed out of our cellular structure. Fasting perfectly performs the task of cleaning these wastes and clearing the area in the cell.

“Everything has zakat (a means of cleaning), and the zakat of the body is fasting.” (Ibn-i Majah, Siyam: 44)
“Fasting is a protective shield.” (Bukhari, Sawm: 2)

What is autophagy?

Autophagy is the compound of two ancient Greek words: auto (self) and phagos (eating). What is meant by “self-eating,” is the breaking down and recycling of protein waste and old, impaired molecules by intracellular digestive organelles called lysosomes. In this way, proteins or cellular organelles are digested and taken out of circulation. We can liken autophagy to garbage collection.

Japanese researcher Yoshinori Ohsumi’s study, which brought him the 2016 Nobel Prize for Medicine, found that the autophagy that occurs inside the cell due to fasting or starvation plays an important role in preventing ageing, infections, and tumors. If autophagy breaks down, many illnesses may be triggered, including cancer. Conversely, if autophagy activity is regular, tumors may be suppressed – depending on the stage of development and type of tumor. Cancer research has long focused on channeling these autophagic activities. Restriction of food intake through fasting shows promise: it may protect normal cells while triggering autophagy and thus increasing the effect of cancer treatments. Autophagy might offer solutions or treatment options for other illnesses, too, including inflammatory diseases [3], neurodegeneration [4], metabolic and cardiovascular diseases [5], obesity [6], and metabolic disorders.

Preclinical studies have shown that dietary restrictions by fasting contribute to the increase of a person’s lifespan and slow the development of age-related diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases [7].

* Oxidative stress: The damage caused as a result of excessive proliferation of free oxygen radicals released from foods that spike blood sugar (with high glycemic index) as metabolic waste. A good example of oxidative stress is the browning of certain foodstuff such as apples, bananas, etc. sometime after they are peeled.

References

1. Yilmaz, Omer H. et al. 2018. “Fasting Activates Fatty Acid Oxidation to Enhance Intestinal Stem Cell Function during Homeostasis and Aging.” Cell Stem Cell, Vol. 22, Issue 5, May 3, pp. 769–778.
2. Paige Brown Jarreau. 2018. “Eating (Or rather, Fasting) Our Way to Rejuvenated Stem Cells?” in Life and Tech @ LifeOmic. June 7. A Medium Corporation.
3. Cadwell K. 2016. “Crosstalk between autophagy and inflammatory signaling pathways: balancing defence and homeostasis.” Nat Rev Immunol.16 (11): 661–75.
4. Menzies FM, Fleming A, Caricasole A, Bento CF, Andrews SP, Ashkenazi A et al. 2017. “Autophagy and Neurodegeneration: Pathogenic Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities.” Neuron. 93 (5):1015–34.
5. Bravo-San Pedro JM, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. 2017. “Autophagy and Mitophagy in Cardiovascular Disease.” Circ Res. 120((11)):1812–24.
6. Lavallard VJ, Meijer AJ, Codogno P, Gual P. 2012: “Autophagy, signaling and obesity.” Pharmacol Res. 66 (6):513–25.
7. O’Flanagan CH, Smith LA, McDonell SB, Hursting SD. 2017. “When less may be more: calorie restriction and response to cancer therapy.” BMC Med. 15(1):106.

It is estimated that there are approximately 100 trillion cells in the human body. They fulfill their duties harmoniously with all the systems, organs, and tissues manifesting innumerable signs of wonder and wisdom. If a disruption occurs to the working of cells or the coordination among cells, the process leading to cancer starts to develop in the body’s tissue.

The recent increase in cancer occurrences has led researchers to look into its development. The phrase “cellular anarchy” is sometimes used to refer to cancer’s development. Indeed, when we examine the mechanism of cancer development, we see that cells engage in irregular – anarchic – activities in addition to regular ones.

Abnormalities emerge in cancerous cells during cell division and differentiation (when they transform into specialized cells according to different tissues). Cancer cells divide uncontrollably. Under normal circumstances, numerous genes are active in cell division. In cancerous cells, however, failures occur in the mechanisms that control division. Moreover, due to differentiation flaws in cancerous cells, undifferentiated cells, which fail to acquire features that enable them to function in a tissue or organ, form groups of cells that constrain and damage other cells because of the space they occupy.

Checkpoints in cell division and tumor suppressing genes

How is cell division controlled in a normal cell?

Our cells go through numerous stages as they divide. The beginning of each stage is called a “checkpoint” because it is where errors in cell divisions are checked. At each checkpoint (called G1, S and G2) are proteins with certain duties. One of these proteins, P53, suppresses development of cancer. In other words, P53’s job is to prevent failures during cell division, hence blocking the path to cancer’s development in the cell. Whether there is a flaw in the DNA it is checked over and over again at each checkpoint. If no error is identified, the next stage proceeds. In this way, it is ensured that there is not any genetic error in the cells formed as a result of division. If there is an error, cell division is stopped. First an attempt is made to correct this genetic error. If it can be corrected, cell division is resumed. If the error is too big to be corrected, then the cell is scheduled to die; this is called apoptosis. It is worth remembering at this point that proteins that are too minute to be observed even by microscopes are tasked to perform these stupendous mechanisms. It is remarkable that they were designed to work so effectively.

Because these systems are disrupted during the development of cancer, genetically flawed cells form and multiply. Proteins produced with the genetic codes of the flawed cells are also flawed, and these flawed proteins cause a failure of the mechanisms that constrain cell division. Unconstrained cells have an abnormal capacity for division and they divide continuously, which is why cancerous cells have a greater ability to divide than normal cells.

Proto-oncogenes and oncogenes

It is essential that the parts of our body that grow, develop, or get damaged be repaired. In such cases, our cells synthesize certain “signal” molecules which are responsible for carrying to the nucleus the information that our cells should divide. As a result of the incoming information, some DNA regions called proto-oncogenes are stimulated and cell division gets underway. Proto-oncogenes are genes responsible for checking the start of cell division. When the human body encounters various cancer-making elements, damages occur in proto-oncogenes, which transform into oncogenes, or genes with the potential to cause cancer. Oncogenes lead a cell to develop cancer because cell division does not stop where it should and continues endlessly in the absence of healthy proto-oncogenes. Underlying abnormal tissue growth and spread to other organs is the fact that the control over cell division is lost.

Genetic treatment of cancer

It became apparent that age-old treatment methods proved wrong once it was discovered that the biological foundations of cancer stemmed from genetic disruptions. Despite its increase in the last century, cancer has in fact been seen throughout the history of mankind; even ancient Egyptian papyri talked about it. Because there was not a definite treatment for cancer, radical treatments were used, such as burning or cauterizing the tumor. In the first half of the twentieth century, only surgical methods were implemented in cancer treatments. Desired results could not be obtained by surgical procedures, which ended up with the excision of entire organs.

Research studies were launched in the second half of the twentieth century into whether it was possible to treat cancer using drugs. These studies revealed that cancer stemmed from genetic flaws (like the ones in oncogenes and tumor suppressing genes), which led to questions about types of treatment. Treatments of flaws at the genetic level are based on genes themselves. These treatments use such methods as stopping genes that work abnormally, eliminating the products of these genes, and killing cancer cells by making use of their genetic mechanisms.

New incidents of cancer are likely to continue to develop, for people are exposed to factors that cause disruptions of the makeup of genes. To prevent cancer, it is critically important that one should have a conscious, natural, and balanced lifestyle. People should be well-informed about the effects of smoking, genetically modified food, radiation, stress, and chemicals, so that they can lessen exposure to such risk factors. Moreover, more frequent implementation of screening tests will make early diagnosis easier. More effective methods with fewer adverse effects should also be developed for higher success rates in cancer treatment. Genetic treatment of cancer is a relatively new field but an increasing number of studies focus on it. These studies aim to kill only cancerous cells and spare healthy ones. It can be expected that research into this field will produce promising outcomes in coming years.

We are all aware of the fact that there is certain rhythm and order in the movement of the sun and the earth, as well as other planets along their pre-assigned orbits. This order has ongoing without a glitch for possibly billions of years. The day and the night become longer and shorter on a schedule, and this is how we can develop calendars by calculating seasons, months, and days.

The movements of celestial bodies impact in multiple ways the biosphere in which we live. Trees shed leaves or bloom, some animals hibernate, and others enter reproduction season.

Time advances not linearly but in cycles. The internal systems by which the metabolisms of living things are organized are made to work according to numerous biological clocks that depend on the cyclical nature of time. These biological clocks are sometimes based on the length of a day and sometimes on long cyclical patterns that may span years. Periods of sunspots followed by explosions on the surface of the sun, for example, cause the reproduction cycles of populations of lynx and hare to peak every 11 years. This cycle is also tied to an increase in the production of wheat and certain species of fish breeding in abundance. The internal clock of the human metabolism is likewise organized during the day.

Scientists have long since noticed and started to research the different reactions of the human body to different time intervals throughout the day. It was realized that pains eased during certain times of day and intensified during others. There are also rising and falling cycles for hormones and the nervous system. These coincided with periods of hunger, meals, and sleep.

It has been found that certain changes occur in the physical and mental makeup of humans during the year, seasons, month and day. Researchers agree that every human has a unique physical and mental clock, but there are generally broad similarities. The scientific field researching these is called chronobiology. Researchers in chronobiology have demonstrated that certain changes occur, according to time periods, in the endocrine and autonomic nervous system as well as the body’s water and salt balance.

Other studies have focused on biological changes with respect to space. The regulation of the body’s biological rhythm is found to be influenced by the movements and positions of the earth on its own axis, the moon around the earth, and the earth around the sun. As the atmospheric environment changes, so do living things.

Towards the end of the 1960s, scientists found that a synthetic corticosteroid drug called methylprednisolone was more reliable for treatment of arthritis and asthma when taken in the morning rather than at other times. “These rhythms might affect responses to cancer treatment,” says Eric Holland, a neurosurgeon at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, adding that there are optimal times for administrating radiation in mice.

A forty-three-year-old patient with 27 tumors in her liver whose drug treatment for colon cancer did not work volunteered for a trial and recovered from cancer after rescheduling the administration of her drugs. Oncologist Francis Lévi was so amazed by this effect on the patient that he became a supporter of chronotherapy, or time-cycled treatment. To Lévi, who works at Warwick Medical School in the United Kingdom, timing can prove even more important than dose. In the trial, the patient was first wired up to a device like a clock so that metabolic rhythms could be better monitored. The patient had extremely regular sleep-wake cycles, which Dr. Lévi believed was likely to have contributed to the success of the treatment. This novel understanding did not spread before because researchers could not explain molecular foundations of daily rhythms, or circadian cycles, until 10 years ago, and clinical data was inconsistent.

Lévi and his team randomly divided 186 chemotherapy patients into two groups. They administered medicine to one group in accordance with the participants’ biological clocks and to the other group according to the standard procedure. More than 50% of the former responded well, whereas the rate remained at only 29% for the latter. Another study found that 298 patients who had heart operations in the morning were twice as likely to have unsuccessful operations and develop complications as compared to 298 patients who had operations in the afternoon. To prevent the effects of the surgeon’s selection of patients, the same surgeons operated both in the morning and in the afternoon.

The 2017 Nobel Prize for the field of physiology was awarded to three American biologists, Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, and Michael W. Young, for their study into biological rhythms. Their research presents remarkable insights into the reasons why the biological rhythms of plants, animals and humans are created in coordination with the movements of the earth. The researchers used the fruit fly, an exemplary organism, and found the genes that controlled its daily biological rhythm. Discovering that these genes initiate the secretion of a protein that accumulated overnight and dwindled during the day, the researchers revealed that these proteins caused a mechanism made to work in a certain rhythm when the time was right. It was like a watch had been set inside the fruit flies’ cell.

It is estimated that approximately 80% of our genes follow night and day rhythms (and also possibly seasonal rhythms). Indeed, it has been identified that fits of asthma and epileptic seizures develop according to certain daily rhythms. The products expressed by the genes that are active in most tissues peak early in the day and in the afternoon and reach lows after dinner and before bedtime. All these activities are carried out by the “molecular biological watches” written in our genes. If we can better understand our internal clocks, researchers believe they could discover breakthroughs in the treatment of up to 150 diseases, including cancer.

The time machine

Many tissues in the body have their own time schedules arranged by regular cycles in which numerous innate “clock genes” envelop the body like a net. The timing of all these clocks can have a powerful impact on metabolic activity, the increase in the number of immune cells, and many other things. “The best advice I can offer is don’t mess with your body clock,” says Professor Derk-Jan Dijk, director of the Surrey Sleep Research Center in the city of Guildford, England. [1]

The biological clock is an extraordinary system. A group of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain, called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, are assigned as the central clock for all these activities in the body. The signals from this region play a role in initiating and finalizing the activities of the genes, which channel drugs to their molecular targets and help produce enzymes that destroy drugs. “Clock” genes are found virtually in every organ and tissue, and they are particularly important during cancer treatments, because interventions performed during such critical processes as the cycle of cellular division and growth and repair of DNA damage become significant for killing cancerous cells.

Cisplatin, an effective drug used for almost 50% of solid tissue cancers, kills malignant cells by binding to their certain parts, yet because the drug is toxic to the kidneys, lungs, and nervous system, efforts have been made to develop less toxic versions. Just as a cell develops cancer due to DNA damage, so is the destruction of the cancerous cell started by damaging the cell’s DNA. For this reason, some drug trials focus on blocking the DNA repair of the cancerous cell.

Observations made on the appearance and repair of DNA damage showed, as expected, that DNA damage was repaired more easily during certain periods of the day, leading to the hope that cancer can be treated through DNA repair if drugs are administered in tandem with this cycle. If optimal periods could be established for numerous normal cells to repair their DNA damage, administration of drugs can both optimize the useful effects of drugs and minimize toxicity of drugs with toxic properties.

The human organism and cells are not static, but dynamic. The behavior of our cells changes dramatically before and after a meal. Similarly, the movement and frequency of numerous materials circulated in our body when we are sleeping are different from when we are awake. Therefore, if the amount of a material doubles after lunch followed by a cup of coffee and if the material negates a drug taken by a patient, then that drug can be administered when this material is at its lowest in the body. For example, if the material is at a minimum at two in the morning, the drug can be given at that time, ensuring that the effect is maximized.

The studies into “man, the unknown” are bound to lead to many more discoveries about both treatments of diseases and the knowledge, power, and wisdom waiting to be found in the creation.

Note

1. https://woolcock.org.au/new-2/why-you-shouldnt-mess-with-your-body-clock-expert

References

• Leder, K., Pitter, K., LaPlant, Q. (2014). Mathematical Modeling of PDGF-Driven Glioblastoma Reveals Optimized Radiation Dosing Schedules. Cell. Cilt 156, Sayı 3, s. 603-616.
• Lévi, F., Zidani, R. & Misset, J.-L. (1997): Randomized multicentre trial of chronotherapy with oxaliplatin, fluorouracil, and folinic acid in metastatic colorectal cancer. Lancet 350, 681–686.
• Peeples , L. (2018). Medicine’s secret ingredient — it’s in the timing. Synchronizing drug delivery with a patient’s body clock can yield clear benefits. But will the data be enough to overcome long-standing hurdles? Nature 556, 290-292 (2018).
• “Why You Shouldn’t Mess with Your Body Clock: Expert,” woolcock.org.au. August 7, 2018.

Embryonic stem cells are cells in the early stages of embryonic development when a fertilized egg cell is divided first into two cells and then into four, eight, and sixteen. Each grows into a brand new cell type and multiplies as per the codes present in its DNA program as tissues form and organization starts. 

After twenty years of research and accompanying debates on the human embryo, we are finally on the threshold of both reshaping our present concepts in biology and moving on to clinical case studies. The first human embryonic stem cells were produced in 1998. Studies researching the question, “Can we treat diabetes by reprogramming the DNA in these cells at the beginning of life?” switched first to how human genes worked and which genes are responsible for the development of particular tissues and then to the embryonic stem cells for these areas and ultimately to replacing or reprogramming a “faulty or deficient” gene.

The most controversial topics in genetics and embryonic studies are related to bioethics. Many scientists are grappling with questions like whether is it ethically correct to intervene with the genetic programming of a fertilized human egg (zygote)? If so, what should be the limits? Are we trespassing a divine domain?

Embryonic stem cells have been an excellent source of information that we lacked throughout history about how living organisms started to develop. Like astronomers who trace their knowledge to the Big Bang in order to obtain fundamental information about the origin of the universe, biologists have been researching how the molecules in a single cell went through sequential and planned changes, how they transformed and acquired new functions that triggered the mind-blowing developments in diverse, miraculous living organisms. Scientists have found out how primordial embryonic cells transformed into more than 200 cell types that constitute various tissues and organs. The number of studies has skyrocketed about which molecule types can be used to regenerate the damaged tissue, say, after a traffic accident. Embryonic studies that focus on the regeneration or reparation of medulla cells (spinal cord) have been a source of hope for some patients with permanent paralysis because of a broken back injury or severed spine in a traffic accident or those who are still stranded in wheelchairs. Similarly, the preliminary findings of research into Parkinson’s and diabetes are extremely promising, and a new study reports of two blind people with macular degeneration (which causes blindness) who have been treated.

Initial studies

In 1981 researchers successfully obtained stem cells from a rat embryo culture. They soon realized that the cells held a secret potential: they could grow into 200 different types of cells. Later Wisconsin-Madison University biologist James Thomson derived stem cells from primates for the first time. Three years afterwards, Thomson derived the first human embryonic stem cells from donated but unused embryos.

The increasing number of research studies into embryonic stem cells sparked off intense debate both in religious circles and among the science community that care passionately about the sanctity of humans. Allegedly, lab studies were conducted on human embryos without restrictions, which were grown until tissues and organs formed but were then killed. In 2001, the US president George W. Bush slashed federal funds, stating that stem cell research was not strictly ethical. Deriving embryonic cells was banned in many countries including Germany and Italy. In other countries, however, studies went full speed ahead. Indeed, reports flooded in about stem cells grown by researchers in Australia, Singapore, Israel, Canada and the USA into nerve cells, immune system cells, and heart cells.

Before long, a new idea emerged about transferring new cells into the egg cell – like nuclei of body cells used in cloning Dolly the sheep – to produce various tailor-made, fully DNA-compatible tissues and organs, as they had the same genome as the donor’s. It became a topic of everyday conversations that spare organs could be cultivated for the human body just like spare parts of cars or other machinery were produced to replace a faulty or damaged part. In fact, if it were not for claims such as “creating a new human” there would be no objections against producing a kidney, lung, or heart from the DNA of a patient and thus overcome the major problem of tissue rejection in transplantation of organs.

If faulty or defective genes could be removed and replaced by healthy genes in the DNA of stem cells, many incurable genetic diseases could easily be fixed and many prospective parents who avoid having a child because of a defective gene they carry would welcome the development enthusiastically.

We are on the threshold of reshaping our present concepts in biology and moving on to clinical case studies. Embryonic studies have been a source of hope for even patients with diseases like paralysis and blindness.

Just in time and in the right amount

Embryonic stem cells are cells in the early stages of embryonic development when a fertilized egg cell is divided first into two cells and then into four, eight, and sixteen. Each grows into a brand new cell type and multiplies as per the codes present in its DNA program as tissues form and organization starts. It is most mysterious and miraculous that the molecules that lead a stem cell to transform into a new type of cell are synthesized at exactly the right moment and in the precise amount.  Scientists are currently trying to figure out which molecule leads a cell to become a nerve, muscle, or bone cell when attached to it. They are likely to decode the molecules by monitoring the tissues that remain undeveloped because of missing genes resulting from DNA mutations observed in certain genetic diseases.

The new field that has developed in the last two decades called regenerative medicine is predicated on tapping into the potential of stem cells by repairing missing or faulty tissues, or completing a link in the chain necessary for the functioning of a dysfunctional metabolic process. In 2006, stem cell biologist Shinya Yamanaka of Kyoto University in Japan successfully transformed adult rat cells into an embryonic state. The following year, human body cells were transformed into embryonic stem cells. The ensuing research has led to the acknowledgement that it was theoretically possible to transform stem cells into any cell type, a promising cure for diseased embryos that have genetically missing parts.

The major problem, however, is keeping these delicate cells alive in a culture medium. In 2007, Yoshiki Sasai discovered a molecule called rock inhibitor that nourished the cell colonies he grew. The success rate in generating new cell colonies rose to 27%. Parmar from Swedish Lund University heralded “a new golden era” by producing new neurons from embryonic stem cells for the treatment of Parkinson’s.

As new techniques were developed for producing cells fast and reliably, these cells turned out to involve a very low risk of developing cancer. “We don’t yet know how this hidden power and balance that can be transformed into any cell type is controlled,” states Hiromitsu Nakauchi, a stem cell biologist at Tokyo University who researches making blood platelets out of stem cells derived from the embryo or somatic cells.

Experiments are underway that aim to treat disorders by activating stem cells stored in the body that have not yet differentiated through the help of proper stimulating molecules. 

Miraculous differentiation

As the techniques for producing and feeding stem cells got easier, researchers aimed at growing and forming tissues and organs. A connective tissue or an outer covering like the skin that lacks a shape but takes the shape of the underlying muscles and bones can be produced even in a Petri dish and then transplanted to a burned or missing area of the skin. The present aim is the production of organs such as the kidney or the heart that has a particular shape and is made up of a number of different tissues. If the correct signal molecules responsible for cell division and differentiation can be identified and readily used where necessary and at the right amount, then organs including any type of tissue can be produced. Researchers like James Wells at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital in Ohio have tested the damage of drugs on intestines by using the partial intestines they developed from stem cells rather than administer them to normal humans, thereby hailing the imminent age of intestine transplants.

In 2004, the doctors who did tube baby experiments for a patient in Chicago known to have a genetic disorder started to produce a series of stem cells from generated embryos. They made models at the cellular level of the emergence of such genetic disorders as thalassemia, Huntington’s disease, Marfan syndrome, and muscle dystrophy. In 2007, they used embryonic stem cells to suppress molecular changes that trigger mental disorders caused by a genetic disorder called fragile X syndrome.

Research shows that multipotent (mesenchymal) cells stimulated at the outset of tissues are even more promising than embryonic cells with respect to diseases because it is easier to repair damaged or missing tissue by guiding them. However, it is essential in a genetic disorder that cells derived at the beginning of the embryonic stage should be used in order to replace faulty genes with healthy ones and address the disorder at its outset.

Experiments are underway that aim to treat disorders by activating stem cells stored in the body that have not yet differentiated through the help of proper stimulating molecules. In this way, as many as ten illnesses are likely to be treated, some of which include diabetes, macular degeneration in the eye, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s.

Douglas Melton from Harvard Stem Cell Institute in Cambridge has worked for fifteen years to transform embryonic stem cells into insulin-producing β-cells. He has produced pancreatic cells that sense glucose and produce insulin and he hopes to transplant them to end the dependence of patients of diabetes type-1 on insulin shots. The last obstacle remains to be the introduction of these cells to the system so that they are not destroyed by the patient’s immune system.

Clinically, it is believed that stimulated multipotent cells have a greater advantage than embryonic cells because the produced cells and tissues have the same DNA as the patient and thus do not cause any immune reaction when they are transplanted. The problem for many genetic disorders including type-1 diabetes is that the patient has the same mutation in his or her genes, and a method should be devised for cleaning and replacing these cells.

Another problem is the cost. It is reported that preparation of a series of multipotent cells will cost about one million dollars. However, the cost is expected to decrease and cells will be developed for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, which is caused by a loss of neurotransmitter substance, which enable communication between nerves, and dopamine.

Treatment of macular degeneration is a popular target in this field. Patients gained the ability to read, though slowly, one year after the transplantation of part of stimulated multipotent cells to a damaged retina.

Such research studies normally cause some opposition. Playing with genes and embryos involve certain ethical and health risks. Yet, as reported in a Prophetic tradition, with all our God-given abilities like intelligence, curiosity, and willpower, humans can, and hopefully will, find cures for all diseases. Research into stem cells has the potential to provide many breakthroughs in these efforts to find healing for every human. Scientists and ethicists have to work together to determine our direction not to cause any unintended harm to any single soul while moving forward with this research.