In a world where ideas hold the power to transform lives, Talk Like TED by Carmine Gallo becomes the guiding light for those who aspire to captivate, inspire, and change the world through the art of public speaking. Imagine a stage where the most brilliant minds converge, where innovation, inspiration, and insight take center stage. This book takes you behind that stage – the scenes of TED Talks – unveiling the secrets of the world’s most influential speakers.

Carmine Gallo, a master storyteller and communication expert, delves into the hearts and minds of TED’s most renowned speakers. He analyzes their presentations, uncovering techniques that make these talks not just informative but compelling. The book is like a backstage pass to the art of persuasion, the science of inspiration, and the power of transformation. Whether you’re an aspiring speaker, a business leader, or someone who seeks to communicate ideas effectively, this book offers invaluable insights and practical advice to help you command the stage and share your message with the world. Drawing from real-life examples and actionable insights, Gallo provides a roadmap for becoming a more compelling and influential communicator.

Gallo presents nine key principles that transform ordinary speakers into extraordinary ones. He highlights the importance of forming an emotional connection with the audience, as exemplified by Sir Ken Robinson’s TED talk, “Do Schools Kill Creativity?” Robinson’s humorous anecdotes build an emotional bond, making his talk more than just informative. Storytelling is emphasized as a cornerstone of effective communication, demonstrated by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s talk, “The Danger of a Single Story,” where personal narratives challenge stereotypes and highlight diverse perspectives. Simplicity in messaging is another key aspect, as shown by Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor’s talk, “My Stroke of Insight,” where a singular idea leaves a lasting impact.

Visuals play a crucial role in enhancing presentations, with Hans Rosling’s talk, “The Best Stats You’ve Ever Seen,” using dynamic visuals to convey complex data compellingly. Delivery skills are essential, as seen in Bryan Stevenson’s talk, “We Need to Talk About an Injustice,” where voice modulation and body language enhance emotional resonance. Cultivating wonder is exemplified by Brian Greene’s talk, “Making Sense of String Theory,” which transforms complex scientific concepts into captivating narratives. Creating jaw-dropping moments is highlighted by Jamie Oliver’s talk, “Teach Every Child About Food,” where shocking statistics motivate action. The art of persuasion is demonstrated by Brené Brown in her talk, “The Power of Vulnerability,” where she uses research and anecdotes to persuade the audience to embrace vulnerability. Finally, connecting with universal themes, as Brené Brown does, ensures that messages resonate with a broad audience by tapping into shared human experiences.

Also featuring lessons from influential figures like Sir Ken Robinson, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, and Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor, this book is a must-read for aspiring speakers, educators, leaders, and anyone seeking to harness the power of persuasive and inspiring communication. It equips readers with the tools and knowledge to leave a lasting impact, connect emotionally with audiences, and convey ideas with clarity, conviction, and authenticity.

Public speaking did not emerge with TED talks. We find in human history many examples of inspiring speeches in which we can see some of the techniques mentioned above successfully used.

Prophet Muhammad’s Farewell Sermon during his final pilgrimage to Mecca exemplifies the power of emotional connection. He connected with his followers by emphasizing equality and unity, famously stating, “Your Lord is one, and your father is one: all of you are of Adam, and Adam was of soil. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab; a white has no superiority over a black, nor does a black have any superiority over a white; none have superiority over another except by piety and good action.” 

The Prophet’s use of delivery skills is seen in the narrative of the “Night Journey and Ascension” (Isra and Mi’raj), where he described his miraculous journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and ascension through the heavens, captivating his audience and strengthening their faith in his divine mission.

Similarly, Jesus often used parables to convey profound spiritual lessons. His ability to connect emotionally is evident in the Gospel of Luke, where he shows compassion by raising the widow of Nain’s son from the dead, forming a powerful emotional bond with his followers. Jesus’ storytelling prowess is highlighted in the Parable of the Good Samaritan, which illustrates compassion and mercy, making his message accessible and memorable.

Moses demonstrated the power of a singular idea and persuasive communication in his interactions with Pharaoh. He conveyed the powerful message, “Let my people go,” symbolizing liberation for the Israelites. His dialogue with Pharaoh showed his persuasive skills, as he presented evidence through miracles and the consequences of Pharaoh’s actions, ultimately persuading him to release the Israelites.

These examples from the lives of the Prophets highlight how they applied the public speaking secrets discussed in ‘Talk Like TED’ centuries ago to connect emotionally, convey powerful messages, and inspire their followers. Their timeless teachings continue to resonate with millions around the world, emphasizing the enduring power of effective communication.

Communication is the essence of the qualities which make human beings social creatures. The primary purpose of inter-personal communication is information exchange between two parties, but the conveyed message could be influenced by many factors including emotions, body language, the mediums used, as well as cultural and social influences. The science of communication has been studied extensively in many fields including social science, psychology, sociology, business, and healthcare.

Communication involves three components: verbal (the words we choose), paraverbal (the tone, how we say the words), and nonverbal (body language). Researchers, especially in the field of psychology, extensively studied communication and concluded that the interpretation of a message is 7% verbal, 38% tone of voice, and 55% percent body language. That means that 93% of our communication is “nonverbal” in nature, a primary reason why many researchers studied to discover the “power of body language and nonverbal communication” [1].

The most common definition of nonverbal communication is “communication without words.” This silent language includes senses of touch, facial expressions, eye gaze and contact, postures, body positions, signs, and gestures. Body language tells an audience more about a person’s character than the words they say or the tone in which they utter them. In other words, nonverbal communication cues tell the truth and mostly provide objective measures and reactions of the body.

In medicine, doctor-patient nonverbal communication has received great attention from researchers. Studies found that nonverbal communication in doctor-patient interaction influences satisfaction, trust, medication adherence, health outcomes, and discontinuity of care. [2] Effective nonverbal communication is critical for doctors to establish trust with their patients so patients can adhere to, and follow, the suggestions and instructions of doctors. [3] Eye contact is particularly important for positive interpersonal communication, since it activates brain arousal systems and can elicit strong emotional responses. Eye contact has been defined by communications researchers as “the most powerful mode of establishing a communicative link between humans” [4]. The communication of babies relies heavily on body language, in particular mostly on eye gaze. As humans develop from babyhood into childhood and adulthood, eye gaze continues to be an important tool of human interactions as it provides information, regulates interaction, and expresses emotional states. Consistently, eye gaze has been correlated with perceptions of likeability, competence, intelligence, and credibility, as studies have rated those participants who made eye contact more favorably than those who did not [5]. Note that moderation in gaze is also important. Recently, excessive technology and computer usage by doctors in healthcare visits inhibited nonverbal interactions and lead to a reduction in patient adherence to treatment or a reluctance for patients to return to the physician, thus causing negative health outcomes [6].

Some other studies explored the pattern of nonverbal communication of depressed patients who have suicidal tendencies; it was found that some distinct patterns were present [7]. This is helpful for doctors to identify these patients and potentially intervene to prevent a catastrophic outcome.

Furthermore, this phenomenon is not only present in the healthcare industry. Dr. Gottman, a psychologist, observed the interactions of married couples, including their nonverbal communication for around 30 min-45 min, and predicted if they would end up staying married or getting divorced with a success rate as high as 90% [8].

For the last decade, historians and anthropologists have shown a great deal of interest in studying the various forms of nonverbal communication as one possible avenue to the cultural codes and social sensibilities of the past. Most interestingly, we are seeing increased numbers of studies exploring nonverbal communications in holy scriptures including Bible and Qur’an. These holy scriptures utilize and emphasize nonverbal communication tools like intonation, different ways of expression, from traitorous eyes to dead looks, gestures, facial expressions made in anger, derision, and eyebrow movements. There are a number of these instances in holy scriptures, but they are seldom commented on.

Exploring nonverbal instances in the interpretation of Biblical and Qur’anic scripts might provide additional and complementary perspectives to better understand the conveyed meanings of the verses as well as encourage researchers to study implications of such forms of communication. For instance, when Zechariah (peace be upon him) was told that his wife would give birth to a son, he asked for a sign. The sign is described in the Qur’an as “Your sign is that you will not speak to the people for three days except by gesture” (3:41) and in New Testament “not able to speak, until the day that these things shall be performed” (Luke 1:18–22). In another verse in the New Testament that describes wicked and worthless people, it gives details of the nonverbal cues “They are constant liars, signaling their deceit with a wink of the eye, a nudge of the foot, or the wiggle of fingers. Their perverted hearts plot evil, and they constantly stir up trouble” (Proverb 6:12-19).

The Holy Qur’an portrays Moses’ (peace be upon him) encounters and speeches with God at Mount Sinai during his journey with his family and how he was given two miracles by God to use at his mission during his encounter with Egypt’s pharaoh. The Qur’an specifically describes the body language of Moses (peace be upon him) related to his fear during this encounter at Mount Sinai: “Now put your hand through (the opening of) your collar, it will come out (shining) white, unblemished. And cross your arms tightly to calm your fears. These are two proofs from your Lord to Pharaoh and his chiefs. They have truly been a rebellious people (Qasas-32).”  This verse might have implications to study how people can control their fear with some body language cues.

The holy Qur’an has many verses which take advantage of using nonverbal communication to describe many characters, feelings, and emotions such as happiness, sorrow, anger, the characters of believers or nonbelievers, humbleness versus arrogance, and specifically describes their associated facial expressions, eye movements, gestures, and hand movements. In the surah al-Muddaththir, a nonbeliever’s reaction is described with details in his body language as follows: “Then he re-contemplated (in frustration), then frowned and scowled, then turned his back (on the truth) and acted arrogantly, saying, “This (Qur’an) is nothing but magic from the ancients” (Al–Muddaththir 21-24).

In another verse, when the Qur’an describes a regretful farmer’s action on the loss of his wealth, it portrays the exact picture including details of his hand movements: “And so all his produce was (totally) ruined, so he started to wring his hands for all he had spent on it, while it had collapsed on its trellises. He cried, ‘Alas! I wish I had never associated anyone with my Lord (in worship)!’” (Al-Kahf 42).

The Qur’an also advises Moses (peace be upon him) for the tone of communication that he should utilize when he encounters the Pharoah: “Speak to him gently, so perhaps he may be mindful (of Me)” (Ta ha 44). Some of these verses show the importance of nonverbal communication and might encourage researchers to study these behaviors and their implications in detail.

The “Messengers” who influenced millions of people were also great communicators and educators that utilized “the power of body language” in their teachings. Jesus (peace be upon him) was described as a humble and caring person, and his behavior and body language only reflected these innate qualities. We see various passages of the Bible that go along the lines of, “Jesus was warm and compassionate, and his facial expressions no doubt reflected this” (Matthew 11:28, 29). “People of all sorts sought him out for comfort and help” (Luke 5: 12, 13; 7: 37, 38). “Even children felt at ease in his presence” (Matthew 19:13-15; Mark 9:35-37).

Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was also another messenger of God, and his noble manners were described as “And you (stand) on an exalted standard of character” in the holy Qur’an (68:4). One aspect of his character is using his body language very effectively to teach others, so he was a perfect example of how to communicate with people [9]. Some of the examples we see in additional narrations about his non-verbal language are as follows:

When he pointed to something or somewhere, he used to point with his whole palm. When he was surprised, he used to turn his palm inside out (upwardly). He used to join his palms while speaking and hit his right palm to his left thumb. When he got angry, he would turn his face to the other side. When he was happy, he would lower his eyes. His laugh was mostly a smile. When he spoke to someone, he would look at his face, if he held his hand, he would not leave it unless he let go, and he would not turn his face to the other side.

In one hadith, the Messenger of God said, “One who cares for an orphan and I will be this close in Paradise,” and he pointed to his index and middle fingers.

Most of Muslim scholars in the science of hadith study and evaluate the Islamic hadith—i.e. the record of the words, actions, and the silent approval of the Prophet (pbuh)—deal with the text, we also see some narrators who report the body language he used when he says that specific statement [10].

In this technology dependent century, we use many different technologies as primary communication tools in daily life from text messaging, group chatting, to emails. This growing industry also realizes the integration of body language expressions in written messages that are vastly different from traditional nonverbal communication features. Emojis are one such people feature that allow people to express their feelings in greater detail.

As we see from current science, historical sources as well as divine sources, body language is very important and has some forms associated with negative attitude, and other forms with positive attitude. Taking proper training, and learning how to use our body language effectively, we can improve our interactions, trust, and relationships with others. It is also mindful to learn the influence of cultural differences on body language to better understand and communicate with people from multinational countries. Daily technology use is also another growing factor that influences our forms of communication overall.  However, using technology in unhealthy quantities can also potentially harm our in-person communication, especially body language since it takes away attention and creates ignorance. There is ongoing research on how technology influences in-person communication, and effort is being put into mitigating strategies to minimize potential negative influences. Finally, the trend of body language manipulation to gain trust for negative purposes is also increasing. We should also be mindful and cautious against this trend and always have checks and balances against people with such wrong intentions.

References

1. Mehrabian, Albert. 1972. Nonverbal Communication, Chicago, Aldine-Atherton.
2. D’Agostino, T. A., & Bylund, C. L. (2014). Nonverbal accommodation in health care communication. Health Communication, 29(6), 563-573. Montague, E., & Asan, O. (2014).
3. Montague E and Asan O. (2014). Dynamic modeling of patient and physician eye gaze to understand the effects of electronic health records on doctor-patient communication and attention. International journal of medical informatics, 83(3), 225-234.
4. Farroni, T., Csibra, G., Simion, F., & Johnson, M. H. (2002). Eyecontact detection in humans from birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,99, 9602–9602.
5. Montague, E, Xu,J., Chen,P., Asan,O., Barrett, B and Chewning, B. “Modeling eye gaze patterns in clinicians“ patient interaction with lag sequential analysis.” Human factors 53, no. 5 (2011): 502-516.
6. Asan, O., & Carayon, P. (2017). Human factors of health information technology: ”challenges and opportunities”.
7. Asan, O., Kim, S. C., Iglar, P., & Yan, A. (2018). Differences in verbal and nonverbal communication between depressed and non-depressed elderly patients. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 11(4), 297-306.
8. Gottman, John M., James D. Murray, Catherine C. Swanson, Rebecca Tyson, and Kristin R. Swanson. The mathematics of marriage: Dynamic nonlinear models. MIT Press, 2005.
9. https://fountainmagazine.com/2003/issue-42-april-june-2003/prophets-as-teachers
10. Bunyamin Erul. Muhammad (Pbuh) and the Body Language. Journal of Islamic Research. 1(2). 2008

Some would have you believe that these muscles are useless, or a simple quirk of human development. But in studies, ear muscles were found to contain spindle shaped fibers. There’s a wisdom behind this: spindle shaped muscles are resistant to long term contraction and relaxation. This is because when all the muscles stimulated by the facial nerve contract, the outer ear muscles also work with them. Most people assume that the auricula muscles do not contract and relax. However, when the facial muscles contract and relax, the outer ear muscles do so, too. Thus, spindle shaped muscles that are capable of extensive contraction and relaxation are required for the activities of the external ear. Calcium ions make these muscles so resistant to moving.

A strong connection

The auricula connects to the temporal bone at the side of the skull via muscles, ligaments, and skin. It is attached to the skull with five surrounding ligaments and three external auricula muscles.

The six muscles that bind the crumpled shaped cartilage frame to one another are called inner muscles. The outer muscles, which connect the external ear to the head, are specifically created to form a strong and functional ear. The curvy elastic cartilage section (Figure 2) is tightly connected to the skull via skin and ligaments.

Many animals also have moving external ears. For instance, a dog moves its ears towards the direction of a sound and pays closer attention. A dog’s ear is perfectly shaped for this task, just as the human outer ear is perfectly shaped with special curves and folds to channel sounds to the eardrum and to generate a balanced vibration in a cone-form structure.

Muscles protect the outer ear

The outer ear is a cartilage tissue of 0.5–1 mm thickness. It has a specific folded, curvy shape. When its anatomic structure is observed, three sets of folds follow each other. In addition to collecting sounds, the outer ear also has to detect the direction and location of these sounds. These outer ear muscles have a duty to gather sounds, sense their directions, and yet not become deformed.

The protection of the cartilage folds is mostly based on the contraction force of the outer muscles of the ear, working together with the inner muscles. In a study, the relationship of m. transversus and m. obliquus, as the inner auricula muscles are called, with the outer ear cartilaginous folds was evaluated. Individuals with post-natal flatness on the first groove of the outer ear were the subjects of this study. The cause of the flatness on the first upper groove (the scapha) was determined to be the lack of the m. transversus and m. obliquus muscles at birth. Hence it is understood that the contraction of all muscles are necessary for the morphology and protection of these folds. Prenatal events such as muscle weakness, abnormal attachment, and muscle deficiency were seen as inhibiting factors for outer ear folds.

A twelve year old girl had a flat upper ear (stahl ear) without folds. In this ear type, there is no third projection (scapha) on the upper groove. This projection can give a pointy look to the ear (some would describe it as a “Mr. Spock” look). She underwent surgery to eliminate this flat shape. During the operation, an anomaly was noticed at the location of the m.obliquus auruculare muscle. It was discovered that when this muscle fails to attach to its position prenatally, it causes ear deformities. The surgery then made a small incision on the cartilage to move the muscle to its normal location. After three years, an improved look was achieved. 1

Muscles provide balance

Three muscles located on the outer ear, named m. auricularis posterior, anterior, and superior balance the pulling force of the inner muscles that cause the outer ear’s folds.

Usually there are no serious problems in most of the birth related outer ear anomalies (malformations or deformations). Malformations stemming from prenatally ingested drugs or genetic code mistakes occur between the 5th and the 9th week of pregnancy.

If there are no inner ear muscles present at birth, the outer ear stays saggy, soft, and in a loose position. In cases where the outer ear muscles are deficient at birth or are attached in the wrong places, due to the forward pull of the inner muscles, a specific look known as “flap-ears” appears. With surgery, a tip of a muscle taken from the back of the ear can be positioned towards the front in a corrective autoplasty. The earlier these operations are made, the better the results. 2,10

Furthermore, due to the pressures applied on the ear from incorrect prenatal postures, the outer ear can also lose its form (deformation anomalies). Apart from surgery, with special applications like casting, these deformations can be fixed within three months. 3

Veins in the ear muscles

Our ears turn red and purple in very chilly weather. The reason for the color change is the expansion of blood vessels in order to provide nourishment and warmth to the outer ear. These vessels are located inside the outer ear muscles. Due to the wise, meticulous placement of blood vessels inside these muscles, not only are the blood vessels protected, but nourishment to the outer ear is enabled. In addition, muscles provide warmth to the ear due to their constant activity.

Cooperation and communication

The muscles of the outer ear are connected to the center of the cardiovascular and nervous systems; they flex apart from the other muscles and organs of the face. Their operation is united. Their stimulation and reflex responses take place with the same nerve. They feed from the same artery and dump their blood to the same lymphoid and vein system. They are inseparable parts of a single entity. There have been many experiments completed on this subject.

For instance, during a facial stroke, when the facial muscles are paralyzed, the outer ear muscles are also seen to be paralyzed, as they are stimulated with the same nerve. If the stroke is permanent, single-sided loss of movement, hearing, and flattening of the outer ear curves are observed. 4,12

In another study, electrodes protruding behind the ears were placed among the projections of the mastoid bones. The reactions upon stimulation are found to be very intense in the ear muscles as compared to the earlobe. 5,9

In another study with 19 facial stroke (hemi-facial paralyses) patients, the reflex stimulation applied on the eye muscle (orbicularis oris) of the paralyzed side reached behind the back of the outer ear in everybody except for two patients. 6 In opposite situations, stimulation applied on the outer ear’s posterior muscles generated lateral eye movements. 7,11

The response of the outer auricula muscles to stimuli stems from the reflex center of the primary motor neuron. In patients who suffered a facial stroke after a surgical operation or a trauma, properties of the brain stem reflexes were observed after sound stimuli. Contractions were observed on the outer ear muscles upon application of sound stimuli over the eye. This is believed to happen via transmission of signals from the eye to the spinal cord. 8,11

We can see that every organ and every tissue in our body is created to serve a purpose. The absence of even the smallest organ or tissue means the termination of a function. Like so many other wisely created pieces, these ear muscles also carry out important roles. They are hardly “vestigial.”

Notes

1. Yotsuyanagi T, Nihei Y, Shinmyo Y, Sawada Y. Stahl’s ear caused by an abnormal intrinsic auricular muscle. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 1999 Jan;103(1):171-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9915179.

2. Karaaslan O, Sonmez E, Silistreli OK, Can M, Caliskan G, Bedir YK. Splitted posterior auricular muscle flap combined with traditional otoplasty. The Journal of Craniofacial Surgery. 2013 Jul;24(4):1350-2. doi: 10.1097/SCS.0b013e31828b6afc. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23851805.

3. Porter CJ, Tan ST. Congenital auricular anomalies: topographic anatomy, embryology, classification, and treatment strategies. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 2005 May;115(6):1701-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15861078.

4. Cho HJ, Kim HY. Interesting sign of Bell’s palsy in an ear wiggler. Neurogical Sciences. 2009 Aug;30(4):345-7. doi: 10.1007/s10072-009-0096-9. Epub 2009 May 30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=%22+auriculares+muscles%22.

5. Matas CG, Neves IF, Carvalho FM, Leite RA. Post-auricular muscle reflex in the Middle Latency Evoked Auditory Response. Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology. 2009 Jul-Aug;75(4):579-85. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19784429.

6. Kiziltan M, Sahin R, Uzun N, Kiziltan G. Hemifacial spasm and posterior auricular muscle. Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 2006 Sep;46(5):317-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17059105.

7. O’Beirne GA, Patuzzi RB. Basic properties of the sound-evoked post-auricular muscle response (PAMR). Hearing Research. 1999 Dec;138(1-2):115-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10575120.

8. Kiziltan ME, Gündüz A, Sahin R. Auditory evoked blink reflex and posterior auricular muscle response: observations in patients with HFS and PFS. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 2010 Jun;20(3):508-12. doi: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2009.07.009. Epub 2009 Sep 19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19767218.

9. Bérzin F, Fortinguerra CR. EMG study of the anterior, superior and posterior auricular muscles in man. Annals of Anatomy. 1993 Apr;175(2):195-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8489041.

10. Zerin M, Van Allen MI, Smith DW. Intrinsic auricular muscles and auricular form. Pediatrics. 1982 Jan; 69(1):91-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7054769.

11. Lovell M, Sutton D, Lindeman RC. Muscle spindles in nonhuman primate extrinsic auricular muscles. The Anatomical Record. 1977 Nov;189(3):519-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/144446.

12. Iurkianets EA, Matiushkin DP. [Electrical activation of human external auricular muscles (at rest and during perception of acoustic signals)]. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 1973 Mar;75(3):16-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4804634.

If young adults are educated before and throughout the marriage process, relationship deterioration can be prevented in the long run.

Marriage is a common and significant life event that has serious ramifications for prosperity. Since it is a more complex phenomenon than it looks, a significant percentage of marriages end with a divorce. Even though, recent statistics show that divorce rates are going down in the United States, this is due to the fact that young couples, unfortunately, are no longer taking the oath of commitment, resulting in distorted familial structures in our society. To combat this issue, scholars have put forth premarital education programs that dramatically contribute to healthy marriages and decrease the likelihood of divorce. Researchers report that “premarital education is significantly correlated with higher levels of marital quality, lower levels of marital conflict, and lower divorce rates” (Doss, Rhoades, Stanley, 2009).

As mentioned, spending a life with a stranger, and more importantly, cooperating with him or her to fulfill the promise of being a human is a much more complex task than it looks. Individuals take on much longer preparations for far simpler undertakings, such as getting a driver’s license or taking a college test. Thus, it is only fitting that couples seek premarital counseling before stepping into one of the more intricate roles in their life. One of the documented benefits of these premarital education programs is improving partners’ communication skills. Most of the marital problems stem from lack of awareness between couples, which can be improved with better communication. Because communication is a soft skill, it is often taken for granted and individuals do not take time to fine tune their communication skills. Pre-marital education programs partly focus on couple’s ability to communicate. When each partner is aware of the other’s needs and character, communication improves. According to a recent study analyzing 23 studies on the effectiveness of premarital counseling over the past 30 years, couples receiving counseling scored 30 percent higher on tests that rated communication effectiveness and marriage satisfaction (Carroll and Doherty 2003).

Based on the existent literature, the ultimate goal of premarital education is to guide youth and adults before they decide on marrying someone. That is, once a person contemplates on the idea of marriage and before deciding on the candidate, he or she should start meeting with a counselor. The completion of the education program will further help candidates in shaping their thoughts about the necessary commitments for a considerate marriage. Young people should consider both their hearts and minds when seeking a life partner. The individual’s choice of partner’s values is crucial to know and to take into consideration in this important decision process. Also, counseling could certainly enhance the characteristics needed in the marriage such as trust, loyalty, and faithfulness.

Another benefit of premarital counseling education is that individuals gain a better understanding of how to deal with conflicts that will inevitably occur in a marriage. For instance, economic and emotional difficulties are often probable and cause problems for couples. If young adults are educated beforehand and throughout the marriage process, relationship deterioration can be prevented in the long run.

Religious perspectives on marriage

From a religious perspective, marriage could be seen as one of the most important stages in a person’s life. For instance, many Muslims believe that marriage is essential and a strong tradition of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Some even say that “marriage is half the religion” (Maqsood, 2000).

The value of marriage is emphasized in the Qur’an as follows: “And among His signs is this, that He created for you mates from among yourselves, that you may dwell in peace and tranquility with them, and He has put love and mercy between your (hearts): Verily in that are signs for those who reflect” (Qur’an 30:21). In this divine remark, not only is the power of marriage highlighted, but so is the equality of humans. In order to have a peaceful marriage, both partners need to be aware that they are created from the same source, and each partner has their own responsibilities to build a long-term union. Thus, verses in the Qur’an, and the main principles signified in other Holy Books, provide a foundation for prosperous marriages. The Bible also reflects the value of marriage in the following verse: “That is why a man leaves his father and mother and is united to his wife, and they become one flesh” (Genesis 2:24).

Different forms of premarital counseling

There are many approaches to premarital education, but as Madison and Madison (2003) mention in their research, good premarital education should include 16 levels: life style expectations, friends and interests, personality match, communication, personal issues, religion/spirituality/values, problem solving, parenting, sexuality, extended family, financial issues, readiness, covenant/commitment, key problem indicators, families of origin, and dual careers.

The Prevention and Relationship Enhancement Program and Relationship Evaluation Questionnaire is a great example of a resource that helps enable partners to carry out successful marriages (PREP; Stanley et al. 1999). The authors surveyed 400 churches about marriage preparation. The counselor meets the clients privately and applied four personality scales which included assertiveness, self-confidence, avoidance, and dominance. Participants in this study also answered questions regarding the quality of their parents’ marriages. The results showed that conflicted couples are reported to have the highest divorce rate (Fowers et al. 1996).

In another study, couples completed the PREPARE assessment and ended up with greater improvement in relationship satisfaction (Druckman et. al. 1979). The studies all show that couples who applied their skills learned in premarital counseling had healthier marriages. As a result, educated couples experience less issues with miscommunication and are also not as prone to divorce.

The selected studies provide three important implications for counselors to emphasize in premarital programs. Accompanied with these programs, couples are given the opportunity to improve the communication skills necessary in problem solving, working as a team, and learning to forgive one another. Men and women could also bring these communication skills to their daily lives. Such programs can also help participants focus on the ultimate purpose of marriage. Often times, especially in the modern era, young people marry for purely physical reasons. But physical considerations alone are not sufficient to sustain a long lasting, healthy relationship. And, the ultimate purpose of marriage should be helping each other to fulfill the ultimate purpose of life, which is connecting with the Creator, knowing and worshiping Him. In conclusion, couples need to dedicate themselves to work together as a team, and work on the important milestones to strengthen their marriage. Comprehensive premarital counseling can help prepare them to do this work.

References

• Carroll, J. S. and Doherty, W. J. (2003), Evaluating the Effectiveness of Premarital Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analytic Review of Outcome Research. Family Relations, 52: 105–118.
• Druckman J. M., Fournier, D. G., Robinson, B., & Olson, D. H. (1979). Effectiveness of five    types of premarital preparation programs. St. Paul, MN: Family Social Science, University of Minnesota.
• Doss, B. D., Rhoades, G. K., Stanley, S. M., Markman, H. J., & Johnson, C. A. (2009) Differential use of premarital education in first and second marriages. Journal of Family Psychology,23, 268-273.
• Fowers, B. J., Montel, K. H., & Olson, D. H. (1996). Predicting marital success for premarital couple types based on PREPARE. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 22(1), 103-119.
• Genesis 2:24
• Madison, James K. and Lynda S. Madison, (2013). A review of Research-Based Interventions on Marriage Preparation. NY, 2013
• Maqsood, R. W. (2000). The Muslim marriage guide. Beltsville, MD:Amana Publications.
• Quran, 30:21.
• Stanley, S. M., Bloomberg, S. L., & Markman, H. J. (1999). Helping couples fight for their    marriages: The PREP approach. In M. T. Hannah (Ed.). Preventive approaches in couples therapy (pp. 279-303). Philadelphia, PA, US: Brunner/Mazel.

Hate speech is much like propaganda in that it targets specific audiences that are sympathetic to their message. Manjoo (2008) called this selective exposure. All one has to do is go to any discussion board posted by various hate groups to see that most people commenting there are vehemently opposed to some group without any counter-messages. Manjoo (2008) explored another related concept, selective perception. Hate speech can simply be an issue of perception.

Manjoo (2008) describes how these different perceptions are actually a result of different beliefs and world-views. Manjoo (2008) described this phenomena with 9/11 conspiracy theorists such as Phillip Jayhan, whom he describes as harboring distrust for government. Manjoo, who described himself as having different beliefs than Jayhan, noted that, “as a consequence of his ideas about the world generally, he is naturally prone to seeing something in those pictures that I – as a consequence of my (Manjoo’s) own vastly different beliefs about the world – do not (Manjoo, 2008, p. 75).”

These dual truths can be considered a natural product of communication patterns, which Todd Kelshaw elaborates on in his chapter in the book by Shepherd et.al., on communication perspectives. According to Kelshaw, people form meaning by communicating with each other. He notes a pushing and pulling process in communication in which truth or fiction is not necessarily the premise, but values are (Kelshaw, 2006). Kelshaw (2006) adds, “since everything we know is relationally made, relationships may be defined in this way: as negotiations of values that gird personal and social ethnical frameworks and – in effect – make us who we are in light of others” (p. 158).

This definition of meaning through a process of communication adds a significant detail to this concept of selective perception. While Manjoo (2008) points out the stratification of the population into like-minded networks, values begin to develop as those individuals interact. What is apparently hate speech to others outside the group is considered normal discourse for those inside the group. When these groups attempt to spread out their message of hate, many of them might not even understand why their message is being opposed so vehemently.

Dharmapala and McAdams (2001) present, in an economic analysis, the potential linkage between hate speech and hate crimes. The authors focus on the esteem theory in which motivation is based on fame, whereas the utility of committing a hate crime increases as this motivation increases. In this case, perpetuators of hate crimes are highly influenced by hate speech. The authors note that if individuals possess common prior beliefs, engage in Bayesian inference (the adjustment of beliefs/values in relation to evidence or observations), and are risk-neutral, than speech will likely not influence them. The paper notes that this is typically not the case where Bayesian inference is replaced by correspondence bias. This correspondence bias is akin to Manjoo’s selective perception, whereas any contrary evidence is filtered through deeply held beliefs about the world. The authors backup their claims with various economic and psychological models not elaborated on here. The authors do conclude, “thus, even if potential hate offenders overestimate the number of hate crime approvers (as is likely), they will overestimate more in the presence of high levels of hate speech than they will in the presence of low levels of hate speech” (Dharmapala McAdams, 2001, p. 24).

The link between hate speech and hate crimes is where hate speech becomes problematic. When speech induces an action that hurts others – whether through institutionalized prejudice or non-institutionalized prejudice – or provokes violent actions against the group the hate speech is directed against, than that speech should not be allowed and criminalization could be an option. The problem is that because the First Amendment in the United States is so broad on free speech, it is unlikely that hate speech will ever be forbidden or criminalized there. There are differences in legal approaches to hate speech and even cases of discrimination depending on the identity of the person involved in different countries. (Elgot, 2013). While free speech of some groups might be criminalized in a given country because of their lyrics and social media statements for conspiring to provide material support to terrorist groups (Muslim Legal Defense Fund, 2013), in another country a to-be terrorist could be allowed to reference to hate speech perpetrators as many as he likes (Daily Mail, 2011).

In Islam, speech is not just words without ramifications. In 50:18 (al Qaf), the Qur’an says, “Not a word does he utter but there is a watcher by him ready (to note it)” (Ali, 2010, p. 354). The watcher is referring to the angels that watch over every living person and record all their words and movements to be used in their judgment (Ibn Kathir, 2013).
Further, it is recorded from the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, in which he states, “Let him who believes in God and the Last Day speak good, or keep silent; and let him who believes in God and the Last Day be generous to his neighbor; and let him who believes in God and the Last Day be generous to his guest” (Nawawi, 2013, website).

In this verse and Prophetic saying, the Muslims are warned against saying anything that will cause them to be judged poorly in the hereafter. This speech most definitely includes hate speech. Islam recognizes the extreme harm that wayward speech can cause and includes injunctions against it. For instance, the Qur’an states (6:108), “Do not revile those whom they call upon besides God, lest they out of spite revile God in their ignorance. Thus have We made alluring to each people its own doings. In the end will they return to their Lord, and We shall then tell them the truth of all that they did” (Ali, 2010, p. 92). In this verse, the Muslims are told not to insult the deities of others because of the potential for it to lead to bigger evils than any benefit that may be received by doing so. Additionally, those insults tend to spread like wildfire, causing bigger ramifications than at first perceived (Kathir, 2013).

During the time of the Prophet in Medina, harsh words of unbelievers were addressed to him and his community in different ways. One time, Abu Bakr, one of the leading Companions of the Prophet, entered a Jewish school and met Finhas, who was one of the respected rabbis there. Abu Bakr invited Finhas to Islam. Finhas retorted that God was poor, but they were rich so it is God who should submit Himself to them. This comment angered Abu Bakr to the point that he hit Finhas. Later when retelling the story to the Prophet, the Prophet received a revelation concerning the situation (3:186): “(So O believers, as a requirement of the wisdom in, and purpose for, your life of the world,) you will surely be tested in respect of your properties and your selves, and you will certainly hear many hurtful things from those who were given the Book before you and those who associate partners with God. If you remain patient (are steadfast in your Religion, and observe the bounds set by God in your relations with them) and keep within the limits of piety (in obeying God, and in your conduct toward them), (know that) this is among meritorious things requiring great resolution to fulfill.” (Ishaq, 1967, p. 263. The translation of the verse is from Ali Unal, 2006).

In this verse revealed about Abu Bakr and his exchange with Finhas, the Muslims are enjoined to be forgiving, patient, and forbearing with the words of those who do not believe in Islam. Ibn Kathir adds in his commentary that, “indeed, the Messenger of God and his Companions used to forgive the (polytheists) and the People of the Scriptures, just as God commanded them, and they used to tolerate the harm that they suffered” (Kathir, 2013, website). In the modern era, this advice is more than adequate when dealing with hate speech directed against the Muslims and the religion of Islam. When people insult the religion and its followers, Muslims are enjoined to forgive and bear these insults patiently.

Bearing patiently and forgiving is also not an excuse for inaction. Responses to hate speech are to be measured with a strong foundation of forgiveness and patience, but it does merit a response. Hate speech and its potential negative effects have to be addressed either by calling attention to it through research, lobbying, providing counter messages and rallies, and legal actions, if needed.

Unfortunately, hate speech is becoming more pronounced in the modern era. As fiscal crises continue to cause unemployment and economic hardship across Europe and the United States, people search for an easy scapegoat. In the past, religious minorities such as Jews were these scapegoats. Hate speech abounded decades and even centuries before the atrocities of the Holocaust in the early 20th century. This should cause some alarm amongst the Muslim minorities of Europe as far-right groups continue to emerge, spewing hateful speech mostly directed at the small Muslim communities there. Muslims are reminded to follow the advice contained in the Qur’an and hadith regarding this speech while seeking means to be involved in making their communities a better place to live for all people.

References

Ali, A. Y. 2010. The meaning of the glorious Qur’an. Istanbul: ASIR Media.

Bill of Rights. 2010. In The Charters of Freedom. Retrieved May 30, 2010, from http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html.

Dharmapala, D. McAdams, R. H. 2001. Words that kill? Economic Perspectives on Hate Speech and Hate Crimes. U Illinois Law Economics Research Paper No. LE02-004. Retrieved from http://ideas.repec.org/p/uct/uconnp/2003-05.html.

Elgot, J. (2013, June 26). Pamela geller and robert spencer banned from the UK by home office, due to speak at EDL Woolwich rally. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2013/06/26/pamela-geller-banned_n_3503307.html

Hate speech. 2010. In Webster’s New World Dictionary. Retrieved May 30, 2010, from http://www.yourdictionary.com/law/hate-speech.

Ishaq, M. 1967. A. Guillaume (Translator.) The Life of Muhammad. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press.

Kathir, I. 2013. Quran tafsir Ibn Kathir. Retrieved from http://www.qtafsir.com/.

Kelshaw, T. 2006. Communication as political participation. In Shepherd, G.L. et.al. (Eds.), Communication as…perspectives on theory (pp. 155 – 163). Thousand Oaks, California, Sage Publications Inc.

Manjoo, F. (2008). True enough: Learning to live in a post-fact society. Hoboken, New Jersey, John Wiley Sons Inc.

MLFA funds appeal of ziyad yaghi thought-crime conviction. (2013, April 30). Retrieved from

http://www.mlfa.org/mlfa-funds-appeal-ziyad-yaghi-thought-crime-conviction

Nawawi, A. Z. (2013). 40 Hadith Nawawi. Retrieved from http://sunnah.com/nawawi40.

Unal, Ali. 2006. The Qur’an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English, NJ: Tughra Books.

‘We could have another Timothy McVeigh’: U.S. authorities warned against anti-Islamic terrorism after Norway shooter ‘inspired’ by Robert Spencer and Unabomber. (2011, July 27). Daily Mail. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2018976/Norway-shooting-Anders-Behring-Breivik-inspired-Robert-Spencer-Unabomber.html.

Educators have identified some skills that are necessary for students to succeed in their lives – these are called 21st century skills (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2008). In the age of innovation and information, certain skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, communication, innovation, and technological proficiency are vital for succeeding in the new workforce, yet many countries have not yet utilized their resources to teach and assess these skills. It is believed that if countries fully understood the link between students developing these skills and the future of their economies, these countries would invest and develop ways to foster the aforementioned skills in their students.

Due to this, educational researchers have proposed that it is an economic and social imperative for everybody to work towards ensuring the next generation will be eQuipped with 21st century skills (Triling – Fadel, 2009; National Research Council, 2010). In this article, I will discuss some of the 21st century skills, their importance, and whether these skills are enough for today’s students to succeed in the workforce and be happy in their social lives.

21st century skills

Due to increased globalization and access to technology, new skills are needed to succeed in the workforce. Educators, government officials, and business people were asked about what these 21st century skills” entailed. I’m going to address some of their most common answers.

Jerald (2009) justified and explained what skills our students need in this age – and why they need them. He believes we need a generation with newer skills due to changes in automation, globalization, workplace, demographics, and personal risk and responsibility. Computer technology in manufacturing has led to the automation of many jobs that humans once performed better, faster, and cheaper than machines. Technological and political changes as well as competitive forces have caused economies to be globalized. Together, these factors have changed how businesses operate. There is less hierarchy and supervision, and greater autonomy and personal responsibility for workers. Also, the global economy and ever-changing technology create a mobile population; thus, the population demographics of many countries are changing. As a result, individual risk and responsibility have increased. The skills defined as imperative for the 21st century have some commonalities, and they include reading literacy, mathematical literacy, scientific literacy, communication and collaboration, critical thinking and problem solving, and creativity (Jerald, 2009; Pacific Policy Research Center, 2010). I want to look at each of these skills in detail.

Reading literacy: Reading literacy is more about reading to learn rather than learning to read (Jerald, 2009). It is expected that employees are able to decipher many kinds of documents to carry out all kinds of tasks. This task may change from getting a driver’s license to voting in an election to learning how to run new eQuipment. There are a number of national and international assessments that examine teenage and adult literacy. For example, the PISA reading literacy assessment measures students with reading charts, graphs, tables, maps, diagrams, forms, information sheets, advertisements, political flyers, vouchers, and myriad different certificates. Research supports the importance of strong literacy. Adults with stronger literacy skills are more likely to be employed, paid higher, and to have better jobs. Therefore, both individual and organizational success is highly dependent upon a high level of literacy.

Mathematical literacy: Mathematical literacy is sometimes called Quantitative literacy or numeracy.” This implies something other than what students do in a classroom, like answering a multiple-choice Question or solving a test Question. Jerald (2009) says it’s possible that even highly educated people cannot be successful in understanding real life Quantitative information, such as understanding credit card offers or comparing the cost per ounce of food.

Lynn Steen, a professor of mathematics at St Olaf Collage, points out that the roles played by numbers and data in contemporary society are virtually endless” (in Jerald, 2009, p.39). Professor Steen summarizes why mathematics literacy is so important by saying:

Virtually every major public issue-from health care to social security, from international economics to welfare reform-depends on data, projections, inferences, and the kind of systematic thinking that is at the heart of Quantitative literacy (In Jerald, 2009, p.39).

Scientific literacy: Science is known as one of the least favorite or most difficult subjects for most students, but experts say that all adults need to understand and apply science in daily life. There are several types of knowledge necessary for scientific literacy. The first is to be familiar with important scientific topics. OECD’s PISA science literacy assessment measures 15 year old students’ knowledge of physical systems, living systems, earth and space, and technology. The second necessary knowledge is how science works and how to apply scientific methods such as observation and testing. The third piece of necessary knowledge is an understanding of how science and technology impact our society and physical world, for good or ill. Therefore, scientific literacy is one of the critical skills that people have to possess in the 21st century.

Financial literacy: This skill is particularly important for each and every citizen to make healthy economic decisions. Educational research points out that there are considerable weaknesses in financial literacy among students and adults in the United States. For instance, the Jump$tart Coalition’s 2002 biennial financial literacy test results showed that American high school seniors answered only 50 percent of the Questions correctly. Likewise, the Institute of Certified Financial Planners conducted a survey and found that making individual financial decisions is one of the major problems for participants.

Communication and collaboration: Learning is a social activity that happens either in a formal school setting or other environments. Communication and collaboration skills entail students’ ability to communicate clearly by using oral, written, and non-verbal means, and to collaborate effectively and responsibly with the people around them (Pacific Policy Research Center, 2010). The world is shrinking and becoming like a small village thanks to the Internet and new technologies. This creates new communication challenges. Although education has reQuired good communication skills, including speech, writing, and reading, the increasing diversity of the global economy demands a much more complicated and advanced set of skills for communication and collaboration (Trilling – Fadel, 2009). For example, it is expected that students and workers are able to listen effectively to superiors to decipher deeper meanings within the speaker’s speech and attitudes. An effective communicator shouldn’t just be able to listen well, but should be able to speak with diverse groups about different topics – and oftentimes in different languages. For collaboration skills, each individual has to demonstrate the ability to work productively and respectfully with diverse groups. Being flexible and helpful, and making necessary compromises are essential components of effective collaboration skills. Researchers suggest that using active learning methods, including project-based learning, problem-based learning, and game-based learning may help students develop the aforementioned skills.

Critical thinking and problem solving: Employers value critical thinking and problem solving skills the most (Jerald, 2009) because research indicates that workplace tasks demand employees doing things without having to be told or directed to do so (Levy – Mrunane, 2007). For instance, almost 60 percent of companies rate critical thinking and problem solving as very important skills which they expect high school graduates to possess. Unfortunately, 70 percent of employers report that students are mostly lacking in these areas. Mark Maddox, of Unilever Foods North America, explains why critical thinking and problem solving skills are so important and necessary in the workplace, saying, For our production and crafts staff, the hourly workers, we need self-directed people who either have problem-solving skills or can easily be trained to think on their feet and find creative solutions to some very tough, challenging problems” (In Jerald, 2009, p. 51). His company has such high expectations because they no longer employ supervisors who take control or explain things. Students or employees with such skills are good not only for the workplace, but also for their participation in solving local, national, and global problems that pose threats to everybody.

Creativity and innovation: The new Skills Commission (2007) did extensive research on the workforce and global economic indicators; they concluded that in addition to all the important above-mentioned skills, the U.S. needs a crucial new skill that will maintain its competitiveness in the global economy – a skill called creativity and innovation. Creativity is an essential skill that incorporates communication, problem solving, risk taking, curiosity, tolerance of ambiguity, and Questioning (Conference Board, 2008). The type of creativity adults need in today’s workplace is the one that enables workers to solve problems not encountered before. It also helps them cope with ill-structured tasks or problems that have no single right solution – or even any good solution.

Global awareness: This theme emphasizes the importance of working collaboratively with diverse people from different cultures, lifestyles, religions, ideologies, and backgrounds; this work must be done with an attitude of mutual respect. Also, promoting the study of other languages is very meaningful and necessary for understanding different nations and cultures. Doing this will enable students to feel closer to global issues and diverse learning communities; thus, they will create a new world where everybody respects each other, accepts others in their positions, and seeks ways to solve problems rather than fighting and killing innocent people and destroying valuable land.

Conclusion

I believe that these are all important skills for an individual’s success in life and countries’ success in the global economy. But today, it is not only the economy that reQuires a different set of skills. Rapidly changing technology and the internet have changed both personal and international affairs, from relationships to trade. The only meaningful way to make each and every country’s future bright and promising is to develop a generation of citizens who are aware of their responsibilities to preserve and strengthen diversity and democracy. This will ensure our world is a better place. Thus, we want our schools, regardless of culture and location, to prepare students eQuipped with the aforementioned skills to face a changing world.

Sahin, PhD, is a Research Scientist at Aggie STEM.

References

• Jerald, C. D. (2009). Defining a 21st century education. Retrieved from http://www.cfsd16.org/public/_century/pdf/Defininga21stCenturyEducation_Jerald_2009.pdf
• Levy, F. – Murnane, R. J. (2007). How computerized work and globalization shape human skill demands. In Suarez-Orozco, M. M. (Ed.), Learning in the global era: International perspectives on globalization and education (pp. 158-176). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
• Nelson, C. (2005). Fethullah Gulen: A vision of transcendent education. Retrieved from http://fethullahgulenconference.org/houston/read.php?p=fethullah-gulen-vision-transcendent-education
• National Center on Education and the Economy. (2007). Tough choices or tough times: The report of the New Commission on the Skills of the American workforce. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. (p. 19)
• National Research Council. (2010). Exploring the intersection of science education and 21st century skills: A workshop summary. Margaret Hilton, Rapporteur. Board on Science Education, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
• NCREL – Metiri Group. (2003). enGauge 21st century skills: literacy in the digital age.Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2008). 21st century skills, education – competitiveness: A resource and policy guide. Retrieved from http://www.pkwy.k12.mo.us/projectParkway/File/21st_century_skills_education_and_competitiveness_guide.pdf
• Pacific Policy Research Center. (2010). 21st century skills for students and teachers. Retrieved from http://www.ksbe.edu/spi/PDFS/21%20century%20skills%20full.pdf
• Trilling, B. – Fadel, C. (2009). Q – A on 21st century skills. Retrieved from http://21stcenturyskillsbook.com/blog/Q-a/

There are already 1.5 billion smartphone users and a total of 5 billion mobile phones in the world. Smartphone companies are announcing new phone models with improved capabilities every year. These are smarter and better phones with new sensors, powerful chips, and new capabilities. Newspapers and technology blogs often start discussing rumors about an upcoming smartphone several months before its launch.

Over the past few years, we have seen many futuristic prototypes and designs. Consumers request better and smarter phones that can handle more and more tasks with every new model. Although the phone companies are surprising us with new smartphones every year, we are far from seeing some of the technologies presented in prototypes. What do you expect to see in smartphones in the next 5 to 10 years? Let’s talk about some of the technologies that will end up in a smartphone in the near future.

One of the critical components in a smartphone is the battery. While most smartphones only support being charged from a wall plug, some of them are supporting inductive wireless charging out of the box. Although it is not a standard feature for most smartphones, wireless charging can be enabled using third-party cases and charging pads. Current wireless charging systems still require the smartphone to be placed on a pad for charging. A bigger step in powering smartphones will be touchless wireless charging. A new startup company, Ossia [1], recently unveiled the world’s first commercially viable touchless remote wireless power system. Imagine you are walking into your house or office, and the smartphone in your pocket is starting to charge via receiving electric waves through the air.

With wired or wireless charging, the battery technology of smartphones remained largely unchanged for years. A large percentage of smartphone bodies are occupied by lithium-ion batteries. With the developments of new power efficient displays and computing chips, smartphones are now using less and less power. This allows manufacturers to use smaller batteries with the same usage time. Battery technologies are not efficient enough to power smartphones more than a couple of days with average daily usage. People often carry extra batteries and chargers when travelling or spending time outside. Solar charging can help with some of these challenges by enabling smartphones to recharge under sunlight. Researchers are also exploring other materials to replace lithium-ion (e.g. graphene) in batteries to provide extra power for the ever-growing size of smartphone displays.

Smartphone displays are getting bigger and better with ultra-high screen resolutions that are sometimes even stronger than the human eye. Some manufacturers are already working on 4K ultra HD displays (3840 pixels wide by 2160 pixels tall). With the screen sizes getting larger, the distinction between a smartphone and tablet is becoming less clear. Some smartphones are even called phablet, a new category between smartphones and tablets, by newspapers and tech blogs.

A bigger jump in display technology will be through the use of flexible screens. There are already prototypes of 5-inch flexible displays or 50 inch curved televisions from several companies. One benefit of flexible displays would be fitting a tablet size screen on a small smartphone body. Users will be able to slide or unfold the display of a typical size (e.g. 4-inch) smartphone, and convert it to an 8-inch tablet. Companies are still looking for a good use case for flexible displays in daily life. Some applications of the smartphones with flexible displays make them closer to wearable devices. Some of them have appeared as watches or bracelets.

Another development in display technology is transparency. There are already prototypes of transparent displays in various sizes and forms. Transparency is important for heads-up displays and some models where seeing the background is necessary. This technology will allow displays on glasses, contact lenses, windows, and windshields. An obvious application of the transparent displays in cars is a GPS navigation system on the windshield [2]. This will open a full immersive experience by showing directions directly positioned on the road, virtual signs on the sidewalks, and even augmented information about companies and addresses directly on the walls of the buildings. Imagine seeing a large virtual menu or information panel with available seats, business hours, and prices on the wall of a restaurant. While the transparent displays are already available in various prototypes, the main challenge is achieving transparency in electronics and other components in a smartphone.

Even with flexible displays, you may not be able to carry and fold a 50-inch display into typical smartphone size. A major shift from increasing the display size will come via the use of pico-projectors. A smartphone, with a decent display size (e.g. 5 inch) for everyday use, can be turned into a full size (e.g. 50-inch) media consumption system with an integrated pico-projector. Although there are prototypes of pico-projectors embedded into smartphones, there are still many technical limitations in projection size, brightness, battery life, and cost of components.

While larger displays provide a better experience for users, the consumable content is mostly 2-dimensional. Even though there are games and movies designed and recorded in 3-dimensional environments, they still cannot provide a true 3D experience. All of this 3D content is projected onto a 2D screen in smartphones. There are prototypes giving the 3D effect by providing 2 separate images to both eyes by using a stereoscopy or parallax barrier. These technologies have limitations in field of view, viewing angle, interactivity, and distance of viewer. Researchers can create a pseudo 3D experience via head tracking, using camera or sensors to provide a glass-free experience. This allows users to see a different perspective of the scene on the phone by looking from different angles. The technology is still in its early steps with limited applications and hardware support for the full immersive experience and interaction.

The keyboard is main point of interaction in smartphones. One of the major changes in smartphones was eliminating the physical keyboard on the phone. Now most of the front face of the phone is covered with the display. Multi touch displays provide on-screen keyboard for text input. While they are similar in size, on-screen keyboards allow customization for different languages, use cases, and applications. On-screen keyboards try to imitate the haptic feedback through vibrations, but still cover almost half of the screen during typing. There are prototypes with air-inflatable buttons in real 3D forms using a transparent layer on the screen to provide realistic haptic feedback. The size of the keyboard is the main limitation for smartphones. A new prototype eliminates even the on-screen keyboard using laser projection. A small device projects a full size virtual keyboard on a flat surface like table using lasers, and tracks finger movements for recognizing key inputs. This allows both customization and experience of a full size keyboard, while making the screen fully available for other functions on the phone.

While the main input point for the phone is through virtual or on screen keyboards, a smartphone actually gets many inputs from outside through sensors. The full potential of these phones can only be achieved through new technological sensors in the phone. GPS and compass sensors allow navigation and direction capabilities, and replace the need for a GPS device for most users. Many smartphones are now listed as the most used camera devices on photography websites, and are getting closer to the quality of a DSLR camera with new image sensors. Proximity sensors understand the distance between device and user, and allow the device to turn off the display during phone calls to reduce battery usage. Accelerometer and gyro sensors provide new inputs for gaming and user interaction. Barometer, temperature, humidity, gesture, fingerprint, and heart rate sensors are becoming part of many smartphones. Researchers are already experimenting with ultrasound [3] and x-ray scanners [4] for smartphones, and we are getting one step closer to the Star Trek tricorder, a general-purpose science fiction health diagnosis device.

The future of smartphones is almost unlimited. We have already seen novel technologies introduced for smartphones as prototypes and concept designs. We can easily extend the list with intelligent assistants, nano-coating for waterproofing and self-cleaning, seamless integration of voice controls and augmented reality, environmental and medical sensors, and 3D and holographic displays. I can’t wait to see some of these technologies integrated into smartphones in the near future.

While smartphones revolutionized the way we communicate and how we carry out many of our daily tasks, at the same time they are challenging our privacy, safety, behavioral codes, social life, and the use of public space. The problems and discussions will not end here, and they are growing with the introduction of new sensors and capabilities. Increasing awareness through education about the security and privacy risks that smartphones present is the first step for protecting users from future problems. Parents and educators have a critical role for raising responsible generations, and they can start with becoming a good role model [5] on how they use their smartphones…

Acknowledgment: This article is produced at Mergeous [6], an online article and project development service for authors and publishers dedicated to the advancement of technologies in the merging realms of science and spiritual thought.

References

1. Darrell Etherington. 2013. “Cota By Ossia Aims To Drive A Wireless Power Revolution And Change How We Think About Charging,” September.
2. Jared Newman. 2013. “GPS on Your Windshield: Garmin Brings Navigation HUDs to Regular Old Cars,” Time Magazine, July.
3. “Ultrasound scan and health check using your smartphone,” BBC News, December 2013.
4. James Plafke. 2013. “Tiny terahertz chips can give smartphones X-ray vision, tricorder-like functionality,” ExtremeTech, July.
5. Larry Magid. 2012. “Smartphone Guide for Parents of Tweens and Teens,” SafeKids.com, August 2012.
6. Mergeous, Online article and project development service, mergeous.com.

There are lots of interesting examples of how plants communicate with insects. For instance, in self-defense against insects eating its leaves, a plant emits a volatile chemical that signals other insects, who are predators of those insects eating the plant. A byproduct of such insect communication may allow plants to signal danger to other extremely close, downwind plants. Professor of Entomology, Richard Karban and other researchers from the University of California showed that a cut sagebrush “told” nearby, downwind wild tobacco plants about its injury, and the tobacco plants apparently responded to protect themselves from damage. Over three seasons, researchers clipped leaves of sagebrush plants to mimic insects eating their leaves. The cut sagebrush released volatile chemicals (methyl jasmonate), which the wind carried to nearby downwind plants. The tobacco plants apparently sensed the chemicals-at least the tobacco plants increased production of a defensive agent-that caused their leaves to taste bad to insects. These downwind tobacco plants experienced less than half the leaf damage from grasshoppers and cutworms than control plants (Anon.). In one case study an acacia tree responded to browsing, or being beaten with a stick, by increasing the levels of tannin in its leaves within minutes. Amazingly, the tannin levels then rise in neighboring trees, and, due to its bitter taste, repel the browsers before they can do any further damage (Jacob 2001; Anon.).

What’s more is that plants can also talk to mammals. A study done by Professor Steven Johnson and his research team from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, demonstrated how ground-dwelling mammal pollinators are attracted by a rare parasitic plant’s unique “perfume.” This specific floral aroma is comprised of over 30 compounds, especially ketones, fatty-acid derivatives, mono- and sesquiterpenoids. The three most abundant scent chemicals were 1-hexen-3-one, 3-hexanone, and ethyl butyrate. When the impact of these chemicals was tested on mice, it turned out that mice, like humans, find 3-hexanone to have a pleasant smell. The molecule is routinely used in artificial flavoring to produce a sweet fruity grape-like flavor. In addition, 3-hexanone has also been found in some bat-pollinated flowers, so it may be a general mammal attractant. Remarkably, scent cues are particularly important to plants pollinated by small ground-dwelling mammals because these animals are usually around at night when visual cues are less effective (Johnson et al. 2011; Anon.).

In addition to pests, plants have to deal with numerous microbial pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and oomycetes, and viruses in the natural environment. A proper response to pathogens can lead to resistance mechanisms that enable plants to survive. Plants can recognize potential pathogens by detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). This recognition activates a defense mechanism. A well-organized communication between the pathogen-invaded plant tissues and non-invaded ones is essential for the timely manifestation of defense mechanisms that limit the systemic spread of pathogens (Shah 2009). Salicylic acid, an important mobile signal, is transported from infected tissue to the rest of the plant body. It activates the systemic acquired resistance, which is a “whole-plant” resistance response that occurs following an earlier localized exposure to a pathogen. Plants not only communicate within themselves about a microbial invasion, they also talk to one another. For example, Tobacco plants warn each other against tobacco mosaic virus attack by releasing methyl salicylate, which is then converted to the protective salicylic acid in uninfected plants (Jacob 2001).

In contrast to harmful pathogenic interactions, there are also symbiotic, advantageous interactions between some microorganisms and plants. Establishment of such a beneficial symbiosis (which literally means “living together” in Greek) is complex. For successful infections, a molecular dialogue between partners is essential (Vadassery and Oelmüller 2009). Among these kinds of interactions, legume-Rhizobium symbiosis is of particular importance in agriculture, because by forming the symbiosis, atmospheric nitrogen can be used to sustain the growth of legume crops, such as soybean, pea, and bean, which occupy 12% to 15% of the land that can be used for growing crops throughout the world (Sugiyama, Shitan, and Yazaki 2007). Rhizobia are soil bacteria that fix nitrogen (diazotrophs) after becoming established inside root nodules of legumes such as alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, soy, and peanut.

Rhizobia require a plant host, since they cannot independently fix nitrogen (Anon.). Plant roots secrete signaling molecules (e.g. flavonoids) to attract Rhizobia. When Rhizobia sense these chemicals, they colonize around root tissues of the host legume plant. So, the rhizobial infection in legumes is an invasion by invitation (Murray 2011). The attached rhizobia secrete Nod factors, which are perceived by the plant. This initiates a series of events that leads to the formation of nodule, where Rhizobia fix nitrogen. Thus, Rhizobia make legume independent of soil nitrogen and the legume supplies nutrients to the bacteria. In addition, the legume plant supplies one critical component of nitrogenase, which is the key enzyme for fixing nitrogen. It all happens because the plant can talk to the bacteria.

The plant has many interests in being colonized by mycorrhizal fungi. Apart from providing nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, the fungi protect plants from diseases, parasites, and other stresses. Plants even grow as much as 40% more when colonized. In laboratory experiments, carrots that were colonized grew 20 times more than the carrots that were not! In fact, they are such close “friends” that the fungus cannot live without a plant, and between 80-90% of all plants on earth are somehow associated with mycorrhizal fungi. The origin of this incredible friendship is communication (Montréal 2012).

As a result, plants can talk to microorganisms, pests, and mammals, but do they communicate with people? Are they intelligent creatures who can communicate with us? In 1848, Dr. Gustav Theodor Fechner, a German professor, suggested that plants are capable of emotions and that one could promote healthy growth with talk, attention, and affection. An Indian scientist, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, conducted experiments on plants in 1900. Bose found that plants grew more quickly amidst pleasant music and more slowly amidst loud noise or harsh sounds (Sir Patrick Geddes and Geddes 1920).

Moreover, according to Royal Horticultural Society, talking to plants helps them grow, especially if the one talking to the plant is a woman. Even though there are lots of divisive experiments done with plants to understand if they can talk to human beings, there is no serious finding about this subject yet. Even if, plant biologists do not currently know how to talk to plants, they strive to comprehend how plants communicate with other organisms in order to use this new and exciting language for improving the resistance of plants against pests or pathogens. Instead of using chemical pesticides, genetically engineered plant defense and communication pathways in crops are a preferred avenue.

Communication of plants with other organisms is such a complex problem. Plants can have a network with so many different creatures. They pass on information to each other or to other organisms that speak other languages. How did they obtain these amazing communication skills? Even the most advanced creatures, human beings, experience problems in communication, how can plants have robust communication systems in a heterogeneous environment?

The next time you hear a strange rustling among your garden plants, maintain distance. They might be having an argument. Plants also talk and they respond to attacks like we do. So, be careful and do not hurt plants as they might even curse or scream to you (Anon.).

Safiye Arslan is a research fellow in the area of molecular biology in Nevada.

References

• Adler, Frederick R. 2011. Plant signalling: the opportunities and dangers of chemical communication. Biology Letters. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3061173tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Anon. Do plants talk? What are the chances it’s a boy? – USATODAY.com. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/aprilholladay/2006-07-24-plant-talk-baby-boys_x.htm.
• Anon. jacobson’s organ and the remarkable nature of smell. http://books.google.com/books/about/Jacobson_s_Organ_and_the_Remarkable_Natu.html?id=liKKQgAACAAJ.
• Anon. BBC – Earth News – “Perfumed” parasitic plant lures in pollinating mammals. http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9376000/9376474.stm.
• Anon. What is Rhizobia. http://www.bionewsonline.com/y/what_is_rhizobia.htm.
• Anon. Biotechnology: Plantlinguistic: – “Plants Communicate With Each Other.” http://bioinformations4all.blogspot.com/2009/08/plantlinguistic-plants-communicate-with.html.
• Jacob, Tim. 2001. “The science and myths of smell.” EMBO Reports 2 (10): 880. http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v2/n10/full/embor301.html.
• Johnson, Steven D, Priscilla M Burgoyne, Lawrence D Harder, Stefan Dötterl, and Proc R Soc. 2011. “Mammal pollinators lured by the scent of a parasitic plant Subject collections Mammal pollinators lured by the scent of a parasitic plant.” Society 278 (January): 2303-10. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2175. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3119003&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Montréal, Jardin botanique de. 2012. “Chatting with a plant’s best friend – Science +” (June 3). http://www.aucoeurdelarbre.ca/en/thematics-texts/thematics-texts-details.php?id=8.
• Murray, Jeremy D. 2011. “Invasion by invitation: rhizobial infection in legumes.” Molecular plantmicrobe interactions MPMI 24 (6): 631-639. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21542766.
• Shah, Jyoti. 2009. “Plants under attack: systemic signals in defence.” Current Opinion in Plant Biology 12 (4): 459-464. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19608451.
• Sir Patrick Geddes, and Sir Patrick Geddes. 1920. The life and work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose. Longmans, Green. http://books.google.com/books?id=EPtCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA97&q=”continuous”#v=twopage.
• Sugiyama, Akifumi, Nobukazu Shitan, and Kazufumi Yazaki. 2007. “Involvement of a soybean ATP-binding cassette-type transporter in the secretion of genistein, a signal flavonoid in legume-Rhizobium symbiosis.” Plant physiology 144 (4) (August): 2000-8. doi:10.1104/pp.107.096727. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1949875&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Vadassery, Jyothilakshmi, and Ralf Oelmüller. 2009. “Calcium signaling in pathogenic and beneficial plant microbe interactions: what can we learn from the interaction between Piriformospora indica and Arabidopsis thaliana.” Plant signaling & behavior 4 (11) (November): 1024-7. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2819509&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.

Multiple factors shape thought, but communication is especially heavy-handed. Communication not only restructures the contents of the mind,; it re-configures the brain’s very neurological patterns (Rotman 2008: 51-52). Brian Rotman explains four ways people communicate selfhood: self-pointing, a spoken “I,” an alphabetically written “I,” and “self-enunciation within contemporary media” (Rotman 2008: xxxiii). The written “I” is the only disembodied method, but this separation subliminally trickles beneath conscious awareness. Writing has been a major component of communicating theological concepts because writing has been the easiest form of mass communication for centuries. Theologians 1,000 years ago probably did not ponder the disembodiment of writing any more than landing spaceships on the moon. Television – which mediates communication through bodies – was not on their radar. But contemporary theologians have options. Gunther Kress is clear that, “The former constellation of medium of book and mode of writing is giving way… to the new constellation of medium of screen and mode of image” (Kress 2003: 9). These moving constellations have forced a fundamental shift in the way social brains engage thought. Theology that fails to take this into account will find itself hopelessly outmoded and no longer equipped to engage the study of God in fresh situations.

This article addresses the cognitive and neurological effects stemming from shifts in “culturally mediated systems of external memory” (Rotman 52) – such as writing and images – and how theological communication could expand in response. Writing reinforces left-brain, systematic, and linear thought (Armstrong 1995: 115). Images, on the other hand, encourage more right-brain, intuitive, and spatial reasoning. It would be simplistic to hold that writing is only mediated through the right hemisphere and images only through the left, but communicative modes create lateral biases. Theological minds emerge, – not only from the “linear, logical, detail-oriented left hemisphere”, – but from embodied, whole brains. The first section of this paper shows writing’s left-brain bias. The second section turns a corner by examining emotion as altered body states and how this leads to a right-brain bias. Visual mediums are the most direct way to communicate right-brain thoughts, so the last step is to show how visual mediums could add a holistic, embodied element to theology.

WRITING AND A DISEMBODIED, LEFT-BRAIN BIAS

Writing forces neurons to march in line with time (Kress 2003: 2). The left hemisphere attributes meaning to words and strings those words together to form sentences, paragraphs, and full discourses (Hogue 2003: 87). In a sentence, one… word… follows… another, so the brain follows a preset “reading path” (Kress 2003: 3). A dog bit Karen means something entirely different than Karen bit a dog. Reading paths necessitate choices about which words make the most sense in which temporal order (Kress 2003: 3), so writing creates “the subliminal appeal of reducing wholes to constituent parts” (Jahandarie 1999: 57-58). It entrenches linear (temporal) neurological patterns through the repetitive, reductive decision-making (Jahandarie 1999: 54).

This leads to what could be called: alphabetic reasoning. Daniel Siegel explains that the left hemisphere is responsible for “more slowly acting, linear, sequentially active, temporal (time-dependent) processes. Verbal meanings of words… are a primary mode of processing for the left side” (Siegel 2001: 179). The left-brain deals in “monosemantic ‘packets’… which are then processed in a slower, linear mode” (Siegel 179). Writing strengthens linear thought patterns in the left hemisphere. Siegel holds that, “Repeated activation of specific neuronal pathways reinforces the strength of connections between groups of neurons” (p. 194), so neurons fire in similar patterns in the future (p. 24). The brain functions like a malleable muscle, but writing only exercises the left-brain. The brain is sculpted like a bodybuilder who only lifts with one arm. That arm ripples, but the other atrophies. Plastic makes perfect.

The “linear, logical,” and “linguistically-based” left-hemisphere (p. 161) evaluates the contents of written words through syllogistic reasoning (p. 197), prejudicing the brain to evaluate their contents through the brain’s semantic operator. The semantic operator deals with “propositional representations – symbols of external or internal facts that can be… assessed as ‘true’ or ‘false’” (p. 35 [emphasis mine]). In alphabetic reasoning, ideas are filtered into categories of: right or wrong, – fact or fiction. Then, alphabetic reasoning reinforces the brain’s quest for causation through sequencing. Reading paths communicate meaning through cause-effect relationships, so the ensuing left-brain thought patterns in the semantic operator create a syllogistic lens. Wholes are eliminated in the effort to snap details into linear, cause-effect relationships. Meaning is confined to these necessary but limited ways of processing information.

THEOLOGY AND LEFT-BRAIN BIAS

As writing has become increasingly more accessible in punctuated bursts over the past few millennia, theologians have become more and more linear and syllogistic in thought. But neurons fire in strikingly complex and highly plastic patterns (Bennett and Hacker 2008: 137). Linear rules for systematic theology are only engrained through repetition. The dark side of alphabetic reasoning is that it can produce theologians who tend to exercise linearity while alternative methods atrophy. Recall that the semantic operator can only qualify concepts as right or wrong. Linear patterns do not leave cognitive space for multiple details to be processed simultaneously. In the study of God, this cognitive capacity is absolutely necessary.

So far, I have examined several important consequences of alphabetic writing: it is inherently linear; in committing to using particular words in particular sequences it automatically eliminates other options; it coerces thought into cause-effect analysis, and it externalizes, or disembodies, thought. Of these consequences, the disembodied nature of theological writing is the most problematic.

EMOTION AS ALTERED BODY STATES

Emotions are physiological changes in a person’s body. These are mediated through combinations of gestures, postures, and behaviors (Damasio 2003: 63). External images – or stimuli – are mediated to the brain through the senses, and internal body and brain states refract the external world (Damasio 195). Marshall McLuhan writes, “The use of any medium or extension of hu/man/ity alters the patterns of interdependence among people, as it alters the ratios among our senses” (Jahandarie 51). The higher cognitive processes involved in developing theological concepts are pushed and pulled by the body’s constant emoting (Siegel 143).

The signals passing in and out of bodies generate emotion, so change signals can make emotions contagious (Siegel 143, 50). Siegel explains that, “Complex neural/bodily aspects of emotional processes are not easily translated into words. Nonverbal expressions, including those of the face, tone of voice and gestures, can transfer information about internal states more fully to the outside world than words can do” (Siegel 150). When it comes to altering the emotions correlated with belief – belief that can override higher cognitive functions – bodily gesture trumps writing.

Because this emotional processing is primarily non-conscious, people do not qualify intuition as true or false by sequencing details into rational arguments. For example, anger is typified by “dilated pupils, widened orbital area, raised eyebrows, furrowed brow, and pursed lips” (Siegel 128). The brain absorbs all of these signals at once when someone unexpectedly sees this:

Through non-conscious processing, faces can change emotions and minds in a flash.

Intuition of other people’s emotions occurs within the Mirror Neuron System (MNS). This system draws most heavily from facial expressions (Siegel 290), and it tells the viewer’s brain to respond to the viewed face in kind (Siegel 129). The MNS non-consciously indicates: whatever is happening in that person is also happening in me. This is why people constantly imitate the “motor acts, postures, and gaze of their co-citizens” (Kanwisher and Duncan 2004: 463-64). When people talk, their body language loops without their awareness as emotions harmonize. Yawning becomes contagious. When the MNS causes altered body states and facial expressions, people influence each other’s emotional-cognitive looping, and thought itself is steered.

There is scientific evidence that the entire body is engaged in understanding and remembering. James McGaugh demonstrated that the Vagus nerve – which connects the brain stem to the stomach – directly unites visceral and emotional experience with mental processing. McGaugh presented subjects with two stories containing similar amounts of data. One story had high emotional content and the other had low emotional content. People with functioning Vagus nerves recalled more data from the stories with high emotional content than from the stories with low emotional content. People with damaged Vagus nerves had identical recall from both stories. This suggests that certain types of thought are crippled by the absence of full-bodied emotion. Siegel explains that, “conceptual representations are nonverbal. They form the fundamental building blocks of our thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and aspects of our explicit memories” (Damasio 167). Written theological method is often left wanting embodied communication to close the cognitive loop.

EMBODIED COMMUNICATION AND RIGHT-BRAIN BIAS

The body’s indicators of emotion – somatic markers¬ – interface with the right hemisphere more than the left (Damasio 144, 82). The right-brain simultaneously correlates multiple details rather than sequencing them in cause-effect relationships. Siegel describes how the right-brain deals with nonverbal communications through “fast-acting, parallel (simultaneously active), holistic processes” (Damasio 179). This means that the right-brain is the default processor of metaphor and paradox. Imagistic representations in the mind do not force choice, categorization, or analysis. They exist simultaneously without being truncated by “top-down” processing as emotions ebb and flow (Siegel 165).

Kress calls this type of right-brain embodied thought “spatial reasoning,” and he places it in opposition to the “temporal reasoning” sublimated by alphabetic thought (Kress 45). Spatial reasoning portrays multiple details simultaneously, so spatial reasoning is correlational rather than sequential. This opens up possibilities for theologians by beginning with building blocks of thought before they are sequenced into categories of justified and true, fact or fiction.

The right-brain is functionally nonverbal, so its contents have to be externalized in “non-word-based ways, such as drawing a picture or pointing to a pictorial set of options” (Siegel 327). Alternative mediums, such as video and visual art, could generate entirely new forms of theological thought.

MEDIA’S ROLE IN SPATIAL REASONING

Video and visual art are viable possibilities for developing a right-brain, spatial reasoning into theological method. Jahandarie poetically explains, “Electric media are extensions of our central nervous systems and thus put us in touch with the totality of experience” (Jahandarie 99). Jahandarie overstates his case; – for example, video does not communicate through odors, for example, – but his intended meaning is helpful. New technologies make it possible to create right-brain mass communication. The MNS is 80-85% as effective at influencing emotion through video as it is in person (Kanwisher and Duncan 469), so gestures captured on video have a startlingly high ability to steer the emotional side of the cognitive loop. Emotions can be altered and details can be expressed simultaneously if theologians were to use a wider set of cognitive and communicative tools.

Rotman explains that people listen, “not to speech sounds as such… but to the movements of the body causing them; we focus on what happens between the sounds, to the dynamics of their preparatory phases, pauses, holds, accelerations, fallings away, and completions” (Rotman 23). Through the MNS, we get hunches, – not only about what another person is thinking, – but how the person is thinking and feeling. The dynamics of gesture in film add an intuitive, interpretive element to its communicative ability. In split-brain studies, the left-brain cannot even register facial expressions or emotional states (Rotman 151). While the left-brain might be incredible at reading and writing books, it is inept at spatial reasoning. Siegel writes that the left-brain’s “monosemantic ‘packets’” operate through neurological patterns and processes “quite distinct from the analogic representations seen, for example, in an artist’s painting or in a photograph,” so “the right hemisphere more fully ‘sees the world for what it is,’ whereas the left hemisphere must reduce the world much more into mentally defined, often socially constructed chunks of information” (Rotman 179). The right-brain’s holism and simultaneity could be invaluable to theologians, but it is too often dampened by the limitations of past technologies.

WHEN THEOLOGY IS EMBODIED

Siegel mentions the “theory of nonlinear dynamics of complex systems” in regard to personhood (Siegel 7). The firing of every synapse in every thought exponentially complexifies what it means to be human. Perhaps God is not only linear, either. Images are not filtered through the linear critiques applied to writing because they function differently in the brain. This does not make imagistic, spatial reasoning irrational. It makes spatial reasoning non-rational, and theologians desperately need non-rational ways to discuss a nonlinear God. Spatial mediums are not able to comprehensively encapsulate God’s personhood any more than writing, but they could generate new perspectives to better triangulate theological depth in conjunction with it.

In the syllogistic line that runs from rational to irrational, the concept of a trinity is inherently problematic. The semantic operator only deals with logical, sequential coherence, so the multiple, simultaneously existing details involved in conceptualizing the trinity do not get cognitive space. In this case, it might be advantageous to take a right-brain, imagistic approach to theology.

Depictions allow for multiple details to coexist without sequence. Images can be worth far more than 1,000 words. Imagistic reasoning allows space for entire persons to subject themselves to concepts. The “events and actions” lost in writing’s “principles and concepts” could be filled out through images (Jahandarie 17). Instead of only understanding theology in terms of right and wrong, the theologian could also trust a Vagus nerve when it communicates that an image or gesture is good or bad. The details could remain simultaneous in the right-brain without being sorted, and persons could experience theologies to a fuller degree in addition to critically evaluating them.

CONCLUSION

As neurological patterns become more spatial and less linear, theologians have the opportunity to construct new theological paradigms by diversifying their communicative tools. Creating theology through imagistic mediums would be bounded by its own “epistemological commitments,” (Kress 57) though. Critical thought is a crucial element in theological conversations, for example. This suggests that – when used in isolation – either alphabetic or imagistic methods are reductionistic. Theology has to be alphabetic, linear, and critical to be constructive, but it also needs to be imagistic, embodied, and holistic to avoid reductionistic sequencing of nonlinear concepts. The multiple natures of cognition cannot be mixed or separated. Language and experience, left-brain and right-brain thinking, knowledge and belief, are locked into cognitive loops (Eichenbaum and Bodkin 179), and it is impossible to have a one-sided loop.

The advent of new mediums makes the creation of an embodied theological method – complete with shifting neurological patterns – a mandatory opportunity. The next step is to synthesize multimodal theologies with alphabetic reasoning. A critically holistic methodology would emerge as gestalt. Full-blown theological paradigms could materialize if both hemispheres were used in conjunction. However progressive, however gestalt, and however critically holistic theological method becomes, it can never be comprehensive or complete. Theologians must do theology at all times. When necessary, they should use words.

Jonathan Camery-Hoggatt is a freelance writer in Seattle. He has MA in divinity from Princeton Theological Seminary.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Armstrong, David F., William C. Stokoe, and Sherman Wilcox. Gesture and the Nature of Language. Cambridge ; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
• Barth, Karl, Geoffrey William Bromiley, and Thomas F. Torrance. “Barth’s Church Dogmatics (14 Volumes).” In Logos Bible Software series 3. [Bellingham, WA]: Logos Bible Software ; Libronix Corp., 2008.
• Bennett, M. R., and P. M. S. Hacker. History of Cognitive Neuroscience. Chichester, U.K. ; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
• Bradt, Kevin M. Story as a Way of Knowing. Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward, 1997.
• Bultmann, Rudolf Karl. Theology of the New Testament. 2 vols. New York,: Scribner, 1951.
• Camery-Hoggatt, Jerry. Reading the Good Book Well : A Guide to Biblical Interpretation. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2007.
• Cone, James H. God of the Oppressed. Rev. ed. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997.
• Damasio, Antonio R. Looking for Spinoza : Joy, Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain. 1st ed. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2003.
• ———. The Feeling of What Happens : Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. 1st ed. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999.
• ———. Thinking About Belief. Edited by Daniel L. Schacter and Elaine Scarry, Memory, Brain, and Belief. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000.
• Deacon, Terrence William. The Symbolic Species : The Co-Evolution of Language and the Brain. 1st ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1997.
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According to the British writer Raymond Williams, culture is one of the two or three most complicated words in English. It has many definitions but here is the crux to remember: Culture is the way of life of a given society. Our culture is what we are as a group; it is learnt from birth and is passed down from one generation to another.¹

Culture is to the person as water is to the fish. It influences the way we perceive the world, tells us how to behave, and tells scholars how to think about the causes of behavior. It even shapes the moods and opinions of public about what to eat, what to wear, what to think is right or wrong, and much more. However, people are generally unaware of their cultural conditioning and do not realize that the way they recognize the world is not necessarily same as the way other groups do.²

An array of traditions, norms and values observed in a society raise its cultural character which distinguish societies from one another. These cultural variations influence the course of communications, may cause (the escalation of) conflict when it leads to miscommunication or misinterpretation, and can be problematic in cross-cultural encounters when one acts as if differences did not exist.³ The deeper one interacts with a different cultural group, the more he/she understands its the norms and priorities. This awareness of the ways cultures operate in communication and conflict will yield to the ability to respond effectively to these differences and prevent misunderstandings in intercultural settings.

One can list many dimensions or their sublevels that cause variations both between and within cultures. Below, we will discuss some major aspects along which cultures vary. Although it seems that there are no direct linkages between each topic, it is interesting to see how they actually relate to one another.

Senses of Self:

From the outside, a tree grown in California would probably look just like a tree grown in Japan. However, the growth of each tree is largely dependent on the soil that roots of the trees have to interact with in order to grow. The strength of the roots is also dependent on the environment the tree is exposed to, from sunshine to thunderstorms. Imagine the values of a particular culture represented as the roots of a tree. These roots (values) are the source of strength needed by the tree to survive in the surrounding environment (society). Of course, we don’t really see the roots, but we are constantly exposed to the tree nevertheless. The type of fertilizer and water fed to the tree contributes significantly to the growth of it. In addition, you can not transplant a tree into other soil unless you prepare the roots for the new soil.

The roots of each tree may have a different form, much like the cultures they represent. The Japanese roots are twisted together because they may have rockier soil and need the combined strength of the roots to support the tree during rough weather. The American roots, however, are individual, separate, straight, and deep, responding to their soil condition. ⁴

Societies that value individual uniqueness and self-determination are referred to as individualistic cultures in which people make up their own mind and show initiative independently. In this way of life, people deem themselves as the masters of their lives which they think they can control by themselves. On the contrary, cultures in which people identify themselves with groups are categorized as collectivistic societies. These societies consider many external parameters outside one’s control that affect the course of their lives, and there is more emphasis on the role of destiny in daily life. Many of the Asian cultures are collectivist, while Anglo cultures tend to be individualist.

A “self-determining” individual tries to preserve his/her image and interests by taking a competitive stance in interpersonal encounters. However, for those in collectivistic cultures, direct confrontation may reflect poorly on the group or disturb overall harmony; then open criticisms of others are generally avoided. When there is conflict, a third party is utilized for resolution. Since no direct confrontation takes place, potential damage to the relationships is minimized.

The value placed on individual freedom in individualist societies leads to the idea that everybody is equal regardless of age, social status, or authority, which calls for a tendency to be informal when addressing one another. In the US, for instance, superiors and subordinates often interact socially as equals, and an outsider typically cannot tell them apart. However, collectivistic societies place more value on seniority and hierarchy and, therefore, are more formal. They also put more emphasis on the role of power/status: Is the boss, a) always right because he is the boss, or b) only when he gets it right?

Someone devoted to freewill and someone with a more philosophical orientation may face miscommunication. The first would expect immediate action and responsibility and, failing to see it, may conclude that the latter is lagging, hindering, or dishonest. The second person would expect respect for the natural order of things and, failing to see it, may conclude that the former is pushy or impolite.

Communication styles:

Japanese can find Westerners to be offensively blunt. Westerners can find Japanese to be secretive, devious and bafflingly unforthcoming with information. French can feel that Germans insult their intelligence by explaining the obvious, while Germans can feel that French managers provide no direction. ⁵

In some cultures, people presume ample commonality of understanding and attitude in their counterparts hence they feel that it is unnecessary to be “over-explicit”; information is communicated in indirect ways embedded in the existing context or internalized in the person per se. Whereas in other cultures, information is part of, and conveyed through, the verbal content of the communication; things are made explicit, and there is considerable dependence on what is actually said. The first types of cultures are known as high-context, and the latter low-context respectively. Due to the significance of social information networks, collectivistic cultures tend to be high context.

Since the focus is the message itself rather than the context, low context cultures are open to communication errors when they assume more shared knowledge than there actually is. This direct approach may help to avoid communication errors when used properly (in a good timing and context). However, communicators may fail to “feel the emotional state” of the other party, or may hurt feelings while trying to be “direct.”

Though, low context cultures expect thorough explanations, high context cultures take them as redundant discussions on details, and even somewhat hesitate to make mistakes with too much talk. These cultures are more cautious about the potential implications of the message delivered. Silence and other indirect/non-confrontational methods are frequently applied and patience is promoted for the sake of overall harmony. On one side, silence is viewed as a communication breakdown, whereas on the other it is utilized as an actual communication component at times.

Perception of time:

I was once told that one of the South American groups in the U.S. used to send to different invitations for the same occasion. One was truly showing the ceremony time, yet the other was for an hour before the actual kickoff. The first was for the American friends and the latter one was for their own community to offset possible delays.

Time is beyond what a clock reads: “There are two blessings in which most people are in great loss: Good health and free time.” ⁶ In addition to being a major blessing, it is one of the most central differences that separate cultures and cultural ways of doing things.

In the West, time has a present focus moving toward the future at an acknowledged swiftness. Events are explained via specific causes, and there is an appropriate time and place for everything. This notion of time is actually a product of the Industrial Revolution which requires certain tasks to be achieved at a predetermined hour. Concentration is on one event at a time, schedules and deadlines take priority, and interruptions are not very welcome, which ultimately seals people off from one another, as limited time allows some people in and leaves some others out.

In Western cultures, time is considered as a limited reserve which is continually being used up. It’s like having a bathtub full of water that is running down the drain, and can never be replaced. It has to be used as it runs down the drain or it is wasted.⁵ Time is perceived quantitatively; it is measured and almost tangible. Many expressions such as Boucicault’s following words highlight its importance and urge its awareness in these societies: “Men talk of killing time, while time quietly kills them.” “Time is money” is a household expression, and people often talk about “saving,” “spending,” “wasting,” “finding,” or “losing” time. Time orders life and priorities: “I don’t have time to do that.” Since time is prioritized, so is accomplishing a task as quickly as possible; thus taking risks are expected to bring the future closer.

As time is limited, punctuality becomes a desirable quality and wasting someone’s time is regarded as an insult. Lest communication takes more time, individual-oriented cultures promote direct and competitive communication, whereas group-oriented cultures prefer indirect and harmonious approaches to communicate and avoid direct confrontation. Individualistic cultures may view this communication avoidance as passive, unwilling, or even ignorant. On the other hand, collectivistic cultures may view the direct approach to communication as being rude.

In the East, time is circular, spiral, even repetitive, and has unlimited continuity; in old agricultural societies which depend on the months/seasons of the year, it renews itself annually (traditional Chinese calendar has a period of 12 years). Other unrelated events or mystical reasons may be used to explain a given event, “as time is viewed an unfolding of stories already written, or a play in which much of the set is invisible.” ³ This idea of time also goes along with fate and destiny, and is connected to other people as well as periods of history. People may handle many things at once in this approach. A manager’s office in such a culture typically has an open door, a ringing phone and a meeting all going on at the same time. Within all these intermingling events, punctuality is nice, but not essential.

In Eastern cultures, time is more plentiful and people tend to be more patient. It is quite acceptable to make people wait all day, and then tell them to come back later. Time-abundant cultures tend to rely on trust to do business, whereas time-limited cultures don’t have time to develop trust and have other mechanisms to substitute trust (such as judiciary mechanisms).⁵ This time pressure may also account for segmented relationships in Anglo cultures, while time-abundant societies tend to establish lifetime relationships. Furthermore, societies that have a more flexible sense of time are more comfortable with uncertainties and accommodate changes in verbal plans, whereas time-limited cultures prefer everything to be expressed in written details and abide by these binding plans.

In one viewpoint, past and future are both present in this stretching time that loops back and forth. In the other, time starts with the very current instant and extends into the future. In a negotiation setting of parties with these two different notions of time, one of the parties may take time to provide extensive information regarding their stories and their relationships to the issue; weaving themes, feelings, ideas, and experiences together as they remember the past and project the future. When it is the other party’s chance to speak, they may promptly project flow charts showing processes for decision-making and speak about their intentions for entering the negotiation process right away. Neither side would feel satisfied with this meeting, but everyone would feel that they were not “on the same page.” ³

Therefore, as people from different cultural backgrounds work together, they should ask questions about their values and needs, and how these may affect their progress. Both cultures would be comfortable with meeting face to face in a mediation setting to frankly discuss differences of any sort.

Figure 1, serves as a summary of the dimensions we have mentioned so far. While the generalizations listed do not apply uniformly to all cultures, they will help convey a pattern:

Figure 1. Comparison of various cultural dimensions

Most North European and North American cultures fall into Group A.

Most Latin American, Asian, South European, and some African cultures overall fall into Group B.

Each of the variables discussed here shows only a glimpse of various dimensions across cultures, which do not apply to all individuals within a culture. One should not generalize by ignoring individual differences; e.g., “he is like that because he is Asian – all Asians are nonverbal.” An individual’s behavior may well vary depending on the situation, individual personality, mood, etc. as well. Cultural differences discussed here are general guidelines and there will always be exceptions. Anyone is unique in a sense and must be approached accordingly. It is important to remember this uniqueness at times of negotiations or unease, and not rush to make decisions before clearly understanding the situation. Keep in mind that different cultures see the world through diverse filtering lenses; there may not be a disagreement but just a different interpretation of what is going on.

As a result of globalization, the world is becoming smaller and people of various cultures are able to communicate freely. Ideas and perspectives can span across cultures through different forms of media like the television, the newspapers and the Internet; thus, cultures are blending more and more every day, which makes dialogue and mutual understanding essential. Only by learning about, respecting, and celebrating these differences, we can build mutuality and co-operative relationships, rather than breeding enmities.

Osman Senkaya has a Master’s Degree in Nonprofit Leadership.

Notes

¹ http://www.celt.iastate.edu/international/culture-extras/CultureResources.pdf

² Kim, Min-Sun. 2002. Non-Western Perspectives on Human Communication: Implications for Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, Cal.: Sage Publications.

³ LeBaron, Michelle. “Cross-Cultural Communication.” http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/cross-cultural_communication

⁴ Elashmawi, Farid, and Philip R. Harris. 1993. Multicultural Management: New Skills for Global Success. 3rd ed.: Gulf Publishing Company.

⁵ “Differences in Cultures.” http://www.analytictech.com/mb021/cultural.htm

⁶ Sahih Bukhari: Vol. 8, Book 76, Number 421.

⁷ Foster, Dean A. 1992. Bargaining Across Borders: How to negotiate business successfully anywhere in the world: McGraw-Hill.