Brown and red algae are salt water organisms. These plants grow on rocky shores or in oceans with a rocky bottom. In quiet areas free of excessive waves they can live for up to 15 years. These can be utilized for the special polysaccharides in their bodies. That’s why they are commercially significant. For example, alginic acid and alginates obtained from brown algae can be used in many fields, from the food industry to the medical field, from cosmetics to paper and textiles. An algae species (Macrocystis Pyrifera) that can be found both in North and South America, New Zealand, Australia, and off the African coast is the primary source for the world’s production of alginic acid and alginate. In 2009, 26500 tons of alginate was produced, primarily by the countries of Scotland, Norway, China, and the USA.

Alginic acid is a macro molecule synthesized from mannuronic and gluronic acid molecules. Because of its hydrophilic property, the Na and K salts of alginic acid are used in providing homogeneity to frozen food during defrosting, preventing food decay related to instant temperature spikes, increasing viscosity, preparing jelly like deserts, and stabilizing fruit juices and ice cream. For similar reasons, Alginates are utilized in paper quality enhancement, and the advanced application of ink in glues and in pressed textile products, where they improve the flow of dye. Alginates are also used in cosmetic products, in production of waterproof or fireproof textiles, and in some synthetic dyes because they improve viscosity..

One of the most important uses of alginates is in the medical field. Many people suffer from stomach burn and acid reflux disease. In these treating these symptoms, the percentage of a prescribed medicine containing alginic acid content is 100 %, because in the case of acid reflux, alginic acid contains a preventive property, and antacids. This antacid neutralizes stomach acid. Alginic acid, however, reacts with saliva and Na Bicarbonate ion to produce foam in the upper stomach. In the case of a reflux, this foam barrier prevents the escape of acidic stomach content into esophagus.

According to a study conducted in England in 2010 about obesity treatments, alginic acid added natural fiber and was found to reduce lipid intake 75% in the intestines.

The absorption and removal of drugs in the stomach and intestines plays an important role in ensuring drugs act as intended. For instance a blood clog in a pulmonary vein can be transported to the lungs and may have fatal consequences (a pulmonary emboli). In order to prevent that, low molecular weight, heparin containing, drugs are used. The polymeric alginate beads in these drugs have been found to improve drug efficiency up to 80-90 %. In this kind of controlled release of drugs and enzymes, the use of polymeric alginate additives provides high efficiency.

A new kind of antimicrobial textile that does not stick to wounds is made from the silver coated fibers of an Alginate-carboxymethyl cellulose mixture. This fabric not only provides protection against infections but also, with its non-stick property, prevents traumas; and its high hydrophillic feature allows open wounds to heal faster.

Everything in the universe is beautiful, either directly, by itself, or indirectly, by its consequences. Algae, which many of us dislike, is in fact a great work of art as it is a source of food, a decoration of the seas, and is used to cure various diseases.

While discussions on the education of creation in schools continue, generations grow up with lack of knowledge about the Creator and understanding of His Actions. The current education system in high schools and colleges are giving knowledge about the universe, nature, earth, and life but courses are not directed to understand the Actions of the Creator. How and where can people learn about their Creator? Although there are various means such as the internet, religious groups, and journals, it is not always feasible and enough to understand directly the Creator’s Actions without a good understanding of sciences. Fortunately, every science continuously mentions God with their unique language and speaks of the Creator, but we will need a point of view, windows to see beyond our sight and knowledge, just like we need a microscope to see microorganisms or a telescope to discover depths of the universe. With some attention, everyone can understand what sciences reflect from God’s Actions. That’s why we should listen to what sciences tell us in their own language.

Imagine there is a simulation program to analyze a car crash. In this program, let us say you enter different parameters such as velocity, weight, angle of hit, general structure of the car, hardness of the body, and weather information like wind velocity and its direction and so on. After you click on the OK button in this imaginary simulation program, you almost get the same results with real physical crash tests. This obviously shows us a skillful software programmer and his great knowledge in mathematics and physical events. Noticeably, nature is composed of millions and millions of parameters determining final result just like this simulation program. For instance, when you throw a stone to a lake or into water, first of all it falls down with a velocity and then you see a wave of water expanding to its surrounding from the center affected by that velocity. The velocity of this stone at a certain time and place and wave formation on the surface of water can be explained with some physical laws described with mathematical equations. Whoever put these rules for the physical events also created the universe in a perfect mathematical order. From these and the knowledge we get from computer sciences, physics, and mathematics, we can open windows to understand the ruler of the universe as Glorious Creator.

We are at the time of great advancements in gene technology and huge increase in knowledge about molecular biology; even individual structures of biological molecules are known and many more discovered about cellular mechanisms. The more we learn, the more we face complexity and organization in the tiniest compartments of cell. Cell is no longer a small room filled with a gel-like structure in our minds, it is a massive factory that contains all required machinery and it is automatic, well balanced, and continuously renewed. Things are in constant motion; uptake follows release of substances and signal from outside results in a response produced inside. With increase in understanding of how living things are working and necessity to answer how these things originated caused discussions in scientific research. Some scientists like to talk only at scientific platforms or on so-called testable scientific subjects, but this does not change the reality. We wonder about the beginning and we wish to live forever. We are finite but dream of infinity. How can we think of eternal life if we were a product of something that is not eternal?

Imagine there is a high-tech, but small self-working factory producing highways and trucks to carry items, fuel engines for the energy that can be used in many different processes and containing solar energy collectors. There are great photocopy machines for the production of a new factory, feedback systems to control and repair any problems as well. Without any concern, control of all these events and thousands of machines, engines, highways in such a small sized factory without any problem involves a perfect engineer, scientist, architect, and chemist. Similarly, believe it or not, the cell is an excellent composition of around one million molecules, thousands of machines, and energy producing engines. There are highways, trucks, feedback systems and more in an arranged and fine control in such a small size. Mitochondria, for instance, is one of the most essential cellular organelle and produces ATP molecules as carrier of energy obtained from organic molecules for energy requiring cellular processes. In addition, cellular requirements vary by time and vesicles carry required molecules as cargo on molecular motors using microtubule pathways to different places. Those and many other examples we learn from biological sciences point to the Glorious Creator of the Earth.

When you consider a cell coming into existence by causes other than the hands of a Creator with numerous levels of regulation, coordination of subcellular compartments like organelles, information storage in DNA, and use of this information required for their specific function, it means molecules come together under the effect of natural causes and form an artistic cellular structure in a wise-manner. Actually, this reminds us of a very famous experiment by Stanley Miller to make amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, to demonstrate that life on earth has originated by natural causes and chance. Miller, in his experiment, took molecules which were supposed to represent the major components of the early Earth’s atmosphere and put them into a closed system. He used methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2), and water (H2O) in his experiment and ran a continuous electric current to stimulate lightning storms and to drive these unfavorable reactions. He found that three amino acids have been synthesized in these conditions. Later, it was found that this composition was different from the early Earth’s atmosphere and arguments raised to his experiment due to continuous energy input not possible in nature. However, this was exciting at that time and some used headlines like “Miller created life.” On the other hand, what Miller had managed to synthesize was only a few inanimate lifeless molecules.

People who do not believe in God also do not believe in creation. That’s why they tend to conclude that “nothing is created out of nothing, and nothing goes to nothing; there is only composition and decomposition.” But, the All-Powerful One has two ways of creating. The first way is through origination and invention and the second way is through composition and through art. He creates from out of nothing together with everything necessary for, again, nothing. In the second way of creating, He forms beings from materials of universe in order to show his delicate wisdom, perfection, and the manifestations of His Names. “O people! be careful of (your duty to) your Lord, Who created you from a single being and created its mate of the same (kind) and spread from these two, many men and women…” (Quran 4:1)

When we think about the lessons learnt from these examples and natural sciences with their special focus areas, we realize that every science somehow declare the Glorious Creator of this universe. However, there may not be an opportunity in school to discuss and go deep into the understanding of the Actions of the Creator. With the window of what sciences open to us about God, we can uncover the hidden truths.

Ali Fethi Toprak is a PhD candidate at Southwestern Medical Center, Texas University, Dallas.

Mucus is a viscoelastic gel-like material. It has been used to describe the coating and/or lining layers of vertebrates (e.g. fish, mammals) and invertebrates (e.g. coelomates, molluscs) (Rose, 1992). As noted earlier, in mammals the term mucus is restricted to the material covering the epithelial surfaces and providing an interface between the external environment and the epithelial layers. In vertebrates, this interface provides lubrication, maintenance of tissue hydration, and cytoprotection against proteases – a group of enzymes that break down the bonds amoung aminoacids – pH extremes, chemical irritants, and biological agents. Whereas invertebrate mucus has additional biological functions, like navigation, locomotion, and structural support (Denny, 1989). In the human both, the importance of these biological functions may vary depending on the location of the mucus: for example, in the respiratory tract, to clear the airways of inhaled particles: in the eyes, to prevent corneal surfaces from drying: in the reproductive tract, to protect the uterine cavity and control the survival and penetrability of the spermatozoa. However, there is one important function common to all systems, namely the maintenance of the mucosal water balance.

The composition of mucus

It is important to know something about the biological composition of mucus. In humans, this viscoelastic gel usually contains more than 90% water, 0.5-5% high molecular weight glycoproteins, termed mucins, and also a large number of other components such as electrolytes, lipids, plasma proteins and nucleic acids. Mucins are extremely large and heavily glycosylated molecules that consist primarily of a non-globular, thread-like polypeptide backbone and 0-linked oligosaccharide side chains. Within the mucin producing cells the molecules are found, without water, within large membrane-bound granules that fill the upper part of the cell. It appears likely that the mucins are the major determinants of mucus behaviour, and non-mucin constituents such as DNA, lipids and proteins are, when present, likely to influence the properties of the gel (Carlstedt, 1988). However, acidic mucopolisaccharides and glycoproteins are the major macro- molecular components of mucus in other animals, such as marine snail mucus (Rose, 1992).

In general, the gel forming mucin macromolecules have an oligomeric structure and are assembled from subunits via disulphide bonds. They can be fragmented into subunits by reduction of these disulphide bonds (Thornton. 1995). On the basis of their sensitivity to proteases it is believed that mucins typically contain two different types of domains that are highly glycosylated regions (rich in serine and threonin) and ‘naked’ hydrophobic regions that have lower substitution with carbohydrates. Where when and how does such a complex substance get synthesized, assembled and secreted? And what can happen if the process goes wrong or gets out of balance?

In the gastrointestinal tract

One of the common places where mucus has many vital functions is the gastrointestinal tract. The main site of production of intestinal mucin is the goblet (mucous) cell. However; there is a small amount of mucus production in columnar cells (intestinal epithelial cell). Mucus secretion is probably under both neural and hormonal control. However, little is known about exocytosis in which the membrane of the granules fuses with the apical plasma membrane, thereby releasing its contents.

In this tract, mucus forms a protective layer between the epithelial surface and the luminal compartment, and has been indicated in the mechanical protection of the gastrointestinal epithelial cells from bile acids, pH extremes, digestive enzymes, biological agents such as bacteria, virus and parasites, and mechanical damage. Also, in the stomach, mucus provides a mixing and diffusion harrier which protects the stomach wall from the damaging effects of the secreted hydrochloric acid which plays a big part in the digestion of our food. Bicarbonate ions are secreted into the unstirred mucus layer to help neutralize the acid and limit its harmful effects (Flemstrom, 1987). We are unaware of this function of mucus generally; however, when someone has a stomach or duodenal ulcer, or any types of gastritis, they have to take some anti- acidic drugs and so become aware of their neutralizing mucus blanket.

We know little about the involvement of gastrointestinal mucus in disease. It is suggested that there is a selective loss of a ‘specific’ mucin subpopulation in ulcerative colitis which is an inflammatory intestinal disease (Podoisky & Isselbacher, 1984). Many recent studies indicate that mucins secreted by colorectal carcinoma are immunologically and biochemically different from those in normal colon and adenomatous colon in which there is epithelial benign tumour and/or tumours in the colorectum (Gendler eta1., 1990; lass et al., 1994). Moreover, it has been shown that some components of mucus can be employed as a marker for colonic carcinoma and pre-cancerous conditions (Guang & Abdulkalam. 1995).

In the respiratory tract

Another common place for mucus is the respiratory tract, where mucus is produced by submucosal glands and by goblet cells interspersed among the ciliated respiratory epithelial cells. The cilia are like tiny hairs and are very numerous on epithelial cells of the upper respiratory tract. There maybe 250 or more cilia on the surface of a ciliated epithelial cell, arranged in regular rows. The ciliated epithelial cells, together with a thin mucus layer, constitute the mucociliary transport system designed to clear the airways from foreign particles such as dust, pollen, bacteria or other harmful particles. When we inhale these harmful particles into the lungs, a local stimulation of mucus secretion is evoked. The mucus blanket surrounds the particle and is moved by the cilia which beat in a rhythmical, wave-like manner into the trachea and from there it is swallowed to the gastrointestinal tract. In this propelling the gel towards the pharynx (the upper part of the trachea), the tips of the cilia interact with the mucus layer so that the energy can be passed from the cilia to the mucus blanket. If something goes wrong with the ciliated epithelium or the epithelium is depleted of mucus, this transport may not necessarily occur.

Although in healthy individuals goblet (mucous) cells represent on average 1/10 of ciliated cells, in a chronically obstructed airway (when diseases such as bronchitis, asthma, bronchorrhea and cystic fibrosis are present) the number of the goblet cells and of the submucosal glands increases markedly. In these particular diseases, hyperplasia of goblet cells, hypertrophy of submucosal glands and the hypersecretion of mucus are the prominent features of the pathological process. The most common inherited disease where mucus is very important is cystic fibrosis. This disease appears in about 1 in 2000 people born in Europe and America, although 1 in 20 people carry the defective gene. In this case mucus is stickier than normal and so the abnormally sticky mucus cannot be easily removed from the lungs. Instead of acting as the means for removing bacteria, the mucus becomes a breeding medium for them and the complications of the resulting infection ultimately lead to early death. 

In the reproductive tract

Besides the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, mucus is very important also in the reproductive tract. The cervical canal, the entrance to the upper reproductive tract, is filled with mucus whose biological functions are to protect the genital tract from infection and to control the survival and penetrability of the spermatozoa (male germ cell). The amount and physical properties of mucus vary during the ovulatory cycle. At ovulation, when the woman produces ova from her ovary, there is an increased hydration of mucus which results in a watery secretion with high spermatozoal penetrability and low viscoelasticity (Wolf et al., 1978). In contrast, during the luteal phase, the second part of the menstrual cycle, the mucus is scant, contains less water and provides an effective barrier to the spermatozoa (Carlstedt et al., 1988). During pregnancy a large mucus plug blocks the cervical canal in order to protect the uterine cavity including the baby from any external effects. If the composition of the mucus changes during the early stages of the pregnancy, this mucus plug may become defective and the pregnancy may result in abortion or premature birth. It has been shown that high levels of cell-surface MUC1 (a mucin gene product) inhibit both cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion that is important in human embryo implantation and this occurs in the mid-secretory phase of the menstrual cycle (Aplin & Hey, 1995). Moreover, the changing of mucus composition may be an important factor in infertility, because it controls the survival and penetrability of the spermatozoa. Also, there is the same significant alteration in the biochemical characteristics of the mucus in endometrial carcinoma.

Alterations in mucus composition

As mentioned earlier, there are some notable alterations in the biochemical characteristics of mucins in many diseases. For example, in chronic obstructive respiratory disease excess mucus is present in airways. In cancer, one frequently finds abnormal carbohydrate structures on mucins that can serve as surrogate markers for tumour progression. Also, mucin peptide epitopes that are normally covered with carbohydrates become uncovered and can serve as markers. Since membrane mucins can function as anti-cell adhesion molecules, and their over expression in cancer may facilitate tumour dissemination and therefore metastases. However, there is still a lot of work to be done to understand biosynthesis, secretion and functions of the mucus, especially mucins, in healthy people or in diseased conditions. How is it that mucus can change in response to environmental influences, bacterial attack, or hormonal balance? What is the relationship between mucus and the progression of cancer or such kind of life-threatening diseases? It is clear that mucus is susceptible to almost infinite and rapid modification. When we understand how this capability is employed and controlled, we may be one step nearer to controlling sonic life-threatening diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, cancer, or some abnormal conditions, like infertility and miscarriage.

As a conclusion we can say that mucus may appear a sticky, tiresome, messy nuisance hut it is obvious that a life without mucus would he extremely uncomfortable. It is a gift of the Creator to all living beings, and a miracle, many of whose wonderful mysteries remain to he discovered. 

References

• Aplin J.D. & HEY NA. (1995) ‘MUCl, Endometrium and Embryo Implantation’, Bioch, Soc. Trans., 23, pp. 826-31.
• Carlstedt I. (1988) Mucus Gylcoproteins: Structure and Macromolecular Properties, Lund University Press, Lund,
• Denny M.W, (1989) ‘Intervertebrate mucus secretions: functional alternatives to vertebrate paradigms’. Symp. Soc. Exp. hal. 43, p. 337.
• Flemstrom (3. (1987) Physiology of Gastrointestinal Tract, Raven Press, New York, pp. 1011-29.
• Gendler S.J., Lancaster C., Taylor-Papadimitriou J., Duhig T., Peat N., Burchell ,J.. Pemberton L., El-Nasir I .., Wilson D. (1990) ‘Molecular
• cloning and expression of human tumour-associated polymorphic epithelial mucin’. .J Biol. Chem. 265, pp. 15286-93.
• Guang Y.Y. & Abdulkalam MS. (1995) ‘A new monoclonal antibody, CMU1O, as a marker for colonic carcinoma and precancerous conditions’. Arch, Pathol. Lab. Med., 114, Mayc pp. 454-60.
• Jass JR., Robertson A.M. (1994) ‘Colorectal mucin histochemistry in health and disease: a critical review’, Pathol. Int,. 44, pp.487-504.
• Podolsky D. & Isselbacher K.J. (1984) Gastroenterology, 87, pp.99 1-8. Rose MC. (1992) ‘Mucins: structure, function, and role in pulmonary diseases’. The Am. Physiol. Soc., pp. L413-L429.
• ThorntonD.J., Howard M., Devine P.L.,. Sheehan J.K. (1995) ‘Methods for separation and deglycosylation of mucin subunits’. Analytic Biochemistry. 227, pp.162-7.
• Wolf DR Blasco L., Khan M.A., Litt M. (1978) , Fertil. Steril. 30, pp.163-9

There is a natural healing power in honey of great benefit to man. This is affirmed in verses 68-9 of sura al-Nahl in the Qur’an: And your Lord inspired the bee: ‘Build your homes in the mountans and in the trees and in the (hives) made by mankihd’ Then (He taught the bee) to feed on every kind of fruit (of the earth) and to follow the ways of your Lord made smooth. There comes from inside their bellies a drink of diverse colours in which is healing for mankind. Surely in this is a sign for those people who reflect (al-Nahl, 16.68-9)

It is extraordinary that the curative properties of honey are documented in the world’s oldest medical literature. The Sumerians, and Egyptian physicians around 2000 BC, used honey to treat internal and external wounds, ulcers, diseases of the eyes, lungs, skin and, in particular, diseases of the stomach and intestines. The Chinese, the Indians, the Greeks and the Romans also recorded similar practices in their traditions. Hippocrates, the so-called ‘father’ of modern medicine (460-377 BC) also used honey to treat a variety of diseases. Honey was also highly regarded as a tonic to preserve youth and prolong healthy life–one Chinese Emperor used it as a drug to obtain immortality. The great Muslim physician, Ibn Sina (980-1037) wrote dozens of prescriptions containing honey in his world-famous medical textbook ‘The Canon of Medicine’. He is reported to have included among the benefits of honey that it makes you feel happy; that it refreshes you; that it assists digestion and gets rid of wind; that it helps when you have a cold; that it increases appetite; that it improves and sharpens memory; that it eases the tongue (the faculty of speech); and that it preserves youthfulness.

THE ANTIBACTERIAL ‘SYSTEM’ IN HONEY

In 1937 H. Dold et al. reported that honey has antibacterial activity and called the active agent an ‘inhibine’. Ever since, a number of scientist have tried in vain to discover the identity of this ‘inhibine’. In 1963 J.W. White et al. suggested that the ‘inbibine’ is the hydrogen peroxide produced by the honey’s glucose-oxidase system. However, results obtained by the author and by other scientists such as O.B.O’L. James et al. in 1972 and S.S. Radwan et al. in 1984 do not agree with the attribution of the ‘inhibine’ to the hydrogen peroxide produced. This author’s researches in the laboratory have shown that the antibacterial activity of honey is owed not to a single factor but to a complex ‘system’ of factors, of which there are at list three:

1- The high sugar concentration (76 g/1OO ml)

2- The acidity (pH=3.6-4.2)

3- The organic antibacterial compounds present in honey

It was observed that undiluted honey clearly exhibits antibacterial activity. The bacterial cells dry out because of the osmotic effect of the high sugar content in the solution and bacterial growth is retarded in the acidic environment which honey provides. In diluted form neither the sugar in the honey nor the acidity in it has an inhibitive effect on bacteria. Is it then the organic compounds which are responsible for inhibiting bacterial growth? It was also observed that most of the common pathogenic bacteria which infect human beings are killed in honey. Honey therefore acts as a bactericide. The researches established that the ‘inhibine’ is not a single agent but a subtle combination of intricately related factors quite unique in their antibacterial action. Further research is necessary, and is currently in progress, to identify the chemical nature of the organic antibacterial factors in honey.

THE BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HONEY

The biochemical composition of honey is relevant to its curative properties. Beside the existence of the antibacterial ‘system’, honey is known to contain not less than 181 different compounds. These can be classified as follows:

– Simple and complex sugars

– Organic acids

– Minerals and trace elements (resembling blood composition)

– Vitamins (both water and fat soluble)

– Amino-acids (both essentials and non-essentials)

– Proteins (mainly enzymes)

– Lipids (simple, complex and wax)

– Plant flavours and colouring materials

– Hydrocarbons

– Hormones

– Pollens

– Microorganisms (yeast)

The list above shows just how complex the composition of honey is. It is then less of a wonder that honey contains some combination of elements which have proven so effective in the treatment of wounds and ulcers. Honey not only keeps ruptured cells sterile but also provides all the necessary micronutrients which are the building materials need to assist the cells’ full recovery. Although these micronutrients are present in only small quantities, they are available in the most easily assimilated, soluble forms. In addition, the high energy required for the healing processes to occur is provided by the simple sugars, fructose and glucose, in honey.

CLINICAL USE OF HONEY

To date the scientific and clinical evidences for the miracle of honey are numerous. Doctors and surgeons have used honey in their medical practice and even openly recommended its use. Among recent examples the use of honey for:

Treatment of serious gunshot wounds by Prof. S.A. Simirnov in 1948;

Treatment of breakdown surgical wounds by Dr. D. Cavanagh et al. in 1970;

Treatment of ulcers, surface wounds, cuts and abrasions by Dr. R. Blomfield in 1973;

Treatment of bacterial gastro enteritis (diarrhea) by Dr. I.E. Haffejee and Prof. A. Moosa in 1985;

Treatment of a wide range of serious long-standing wounds and ulcers by Dr. S.E.E. Efem in 1988;

Treatment of infected wounds in vulvectomy, infected perineum, infected abdominal wall wounds and breakdown of abdominal wall scar by Dr. R.J.F. Mclnerney in 1990.

In each of these cases honey was praised for its effectiveness as compared to ‘modern-conventional’ treatment. Honey was observed to kill bacteria at the site of wounds, to debride (clean up) wounds, rapidly replacing sloughs (dead cells) and so enabling granulation (scar) tissues to form. Honey also permitted epithelialization (i.e. growth of healthy cells) and the absorption of oedema (swellings) from around the ulcer margins. Honey reduced further infection, the risk of offensively smelly (seriously infected) wounds and so reduced need for skin graft treatments.

CONCLUSION

The verses of the Our’an which affirm the healing properties of honey affirm for us the mercy of Allah, Creator and Sustainer of the Worlds. It is also by this mercy that we study and research what He has created and made intelligible to us, including this miracle of honey. It is easy then to conclude our work, as Muslim scholars and scientists always used to begin their work, by praising Allah, and by saluting the Prophet Muhammad, upon him be peace, who left us this advice: Whoever licks honey three mornings in a month is saved from serious illnesses. 

REFERENCES

• IOYRICH, N. (1977) Bees and People, Mir Publishers. Moscow.
• CRANE, E. (1978) Honey: A Comprehensive Review Heinemann, London.
• WHITE. J.W., Mary. J.R.. Subers. H. and Schepartz, A. I. (1963) ‘The identification of inhibine, the antibacterial factor in honey as hydrogen peroxide and it s origin in a honey glucose-oxidase system’, Biochem. et Biophys. acta, 73. pp.57-70.
• JAMES. O.B. O’L, Segree. W and Ventura. A.K. (1972) ‘Some antibacterial properties of Jamaican honey’ West Indies Medical Journal, 21(7), pp.7-17.
• RADWAN. S.S.. El-Essawy, A. A. and Sarhan, M.M. (1984) ‘Experimental evidence for the occurrence in honey of specific substances active against micro-organisms’ Zbl. Mikrobiol.. 139. pp.249-55.
• KAMARUDDIN. M.Y., Sivanaesan,L and Hamid, A.H.A. (1989) ‘The existence of antibacterial factors in Malaysian Apis cerana honey’, Proceedings of the 14th. Malaysian Biochemical Society Conference pp.l8l-5
• JAVANAGH. D., Beazler, C. and Ostapowicz, F. (1970) ‘Radical operation for carcinoma of the vulva: a new approach for wound healing’ Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth, 77, pp 1037-40.
• BLOMFIELD, R. (1973) ‘Honey for decubitus ulcers’ Journal of American Medical Association 224, p-905.
• HAFFEJII, I.E. and Moosa, A. (1985) ‘Honey in a treatment infantile gastroenferitis’ British Medical Journal, 290, pp.1866-7.
• EFEM. S.E. (1988) ‘Clinical observations on the wound healing properties of honey’ British Journal of Surgery, 75, pp.679-81.
• MACINERNEY. R.C.F. (1990) ‘Honey: a remedy rediscovered’, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 83, p.127.
• KAMARUDDIN, M.Y (1987-91) ‘Biochemical and Pharmacological study on Malaysian Apis cerena honey’, Beekeeping: The Malaysian Beekeeping Research and Development Team – IDRC. 1987-91 Report.