Humans take up residence in all kinds of environments ranging from sprawling metropolises to some of the most remote corners of the globe that are largely devoid of our modern luxuries. Oftentimes though, we emigrate to other societies for a variety of reasons; curiosity, financial profit, for the sake of adventure, service, to spread one’s beliefs, or to learn about others. Richard Nelson, a white man that taught in one of Los Angeles’ toughest African American schools, is one of those people that left his home behind to learn more about himself and overcome his subconscious prejudices. His article “My White Experience in the Black Community” is an emotional and gripping memoir that can help all of us open our hearts to others.

In worst case scenarios, people flee from their homes to avoid persecution, enmity, exclusion, or even ethnic cleansing. Many Turks have had to flee their home country of Turkey, often via illegal and unsafe practices, with the hope of escaping a brutal dictatorship that no one wanted them to call Turkey their home. Zain Hussain recounts his emotional and life changing encounter with Turkish refugees on his volunteer trip to Greece.

Some of Earth’s most beautiful islands and oceans are home for other creatures, such as Pacific Golden Plovers and Loggerhead Sea Turtles. Despite lacking free will or methodology, they utilize a variety of complex systems to consistently find their way home even if it means travelling hundreds of miles across giant swaths of lands or water. These natural phenomena are astounding and still perplex scientists to this day.

Even the most microscopic creatures find homes for themselves, whether in our bodies or in the bodies of other animals. One such creature, though we would definitely consider it not welcome in our systems, is the trypanosome, a lethal parasite that is a scourge across much of Africa. Such parasites travel through a variety of hosts including worms, eggs, snails, birds, and flies to eventually end up within our bloodstreams.

His exalted name, “Light,” touches the darkness
and everywhere is filled with light.
The letters written from a brilliant world
are revealed to the hearts;
Then the Divine command,
“Read in the name of your Lord!”
descends and becomes our intentions.

We look around the Earth and believe that we start to sail into the dark upon reaching the depths of the skies, the land, and the oceans. But if we look with care, we may notice that the inhabitants of those places often inform us of the beauties they are created with.

The depths of the oceans, especially, are where what we see leave us amazed. From microscopic bacteria to giant squids, and from tiny lighted jellyfish to spiny skin, many creatures, from ascidians to some sharks and stingrays, turn on their lights, literally, illuminating the darkness of the deep sea. This biological light-producing process in the body of some animals is called bioluminescence. It is astounding that these creatures can emit biological light with no change in their body temperature. Normally, light is formed by emitting heat. This basic principle applies to some of the most common sources of light that we know of, such as campfires and electrical lightbulbs.

A mechanism that produces light without heat has been created in some insects living under the sea as well as those on land. The basis of biological light production is generally the oxidation of luciferin, i.e. its conversion to oxyluciferin. The enzyme necessary for this chemical reaction to occur is luciferase.

Most living creatures that can produce bioluminescence live in deep, dark areas of the world’s various seas and oceans. Some of the inhabitants of these depths emit strong blue (secondarily green) light at an average wavelength of 475 nm. An interesting note is that underwater life forms are often created with sensitivity to the wavelengths of blue-green lights mentioned above. In rare cases, there are also sea creatures that emit light in the yellow-red wavelength range.

Animals with the ability to emit light are also usually given excellent control mechanisms so that they can use their equipment as a weapon. They can turn their lights on and off in a flash and can utilize complex chemical and neurological mechanisms that provide functions such as adjusting the intensity, color, and direction of the light. Creatures that produce light underwater sometimes do not need to use the light in order to see where they are going. Instead, they tend to use these marvelous gifts in a variety of strategic ways. Some will try to attract the attention of their prey; others will attempt to ward off predators and aggressors; still others will use their lights to indicate that they are ready for reproduction. It is even possible for some creatures to utilize several of these functions at the same time.

Let us now examine some specific species and how they employ bioluminescence.

Light vomiting shrimp

One of the most interesting examples of bioluminescence in animals is the light-emitting deep-sea shrimp Acanthephyra purpurea. This shrimp will actually vomit light from its mouth as a last-ditch effort to deter predators. The intent is to disorient, confuse, and even temporarily blind other creatures, similar to the effect of a flashbang grenade, so that the shrimp can retreat into the dark. As a result of their research on the shrimps, marine biologist Edith Widder states that the chemical substances sprayed are not blue when they are in the body and that the blue light production occurs when the luciferin substance in the sprayed liquid comes into contact with the oxygen in water.

Loosejaw fish

There are at least 42 recorded families of bony fish that have bioluminescent properties. One of them is the Photostomias guernei, or the “loosejaw fish”. This fish has a remarkable organ that emits light on the sides of its eyes. These lights, which resemble the headlight lamps of our cars, are not constantly lit, in order to avoid waste. When hunting, the fish illuminates the way ahead with the light it produces, and it can turn these lights off when they are no longer needed. A wonderful feature of this organ is that, just like headlights, a highly reflective layer is created behind the main center of the light. The reason that the fish is able to turn the light off may be because its black velvety body is contrasted by the light color of the organ and would thus attract much unwanted attention.

Deep sea hatchetfish

Bioluminescent systems were also given to creatures in order to act as a means of camouflage. They work phenomenally for both hunting and survival in situations where blending in with the environment is paramount for catching prey or evading predators. In the depths of the underwater world, the silhouette of an animal bathing in light is an easily recognizable target. One of the best examples of this phenomenon is the deep-sea hatchetfish. The fish has been created with its eyes on top of its body and its mouth facing upwards, making it easier to hunt. It also emits bioluminescence from its abdomen to provide camouflage against more aggressive, larger fish that swim lower than itself. The color of the light emitted makes it difficult to recognize the fish from below as it perfectly matches the color intensity of the environment. In the meantime, if the sunlight that hits the sea is interrupted in any way, the fish will turn off its lights and the camouflage will continue.

Black dragonfish

Diversity in the light organs of the scaleless black dragonfish (Melanostomias bartonbeani)

This species of black dragonfish (Melanostomias bartonbeani) takes advantage of luminescence in a number of ways. An illuminated area next to the eyes is used to find prey and send signals to its mates. The black dragonfish’s chin also has an illuminated extension that dangles in the waves as bait for naive prey. In addition, a set of small organs of light arranged along its abdomen play a role in concealing its silhouette. Furthermore, light-emitting pocket-like structures surrounded by a gelatinous capsule embedded in the skin are used as alarm systems. The bioluminescent systems within this creature are immensely complex and beautiful, and when observed in detail reveal the dazzling splendor of the world that we live in.

Fish with 3 different types of illumination

The Northern Stoplight Loosejaw (Malacosteus niger) has three different types of light organs, the complex use of which cannot be possible without top engineering skills. The wide, drop-shaped, illuminated organ under its eyes emits a red light at a wavelength of 702 nm as if it knows the laws of optics under the sea. This red light is not visible to most deep-sea creatures, for it is quickly absorbed in water. Yet, with this red light this fish is able to have vision in a close proximity while remaining largely undetected. This is similar to infrared binoculars soldiers use for night vision without giving away their position. The loosejaw is thus a dangerous hunter that has an edge over its prey. There also exists a blue light-emitting oval section, behind the organ, that emits red light and is usually larger in males. A third light organ is round and smaller and is located between the eyes and the red-light organ.

Angler fish

The angler fish is one of the most iconic fish of the deep ocean due to its famous rod and bioluminescence. The angler fish does not actually produce its light on its own: the light is credited to bioluminescent symbiotic bacteria that inhabit the end of the rod on their forehead. This illuminated part, which resembles a worm-like bait, is very attractive to small fish. These fish are thus lured to the angler expecting a quick snack, but instead the angler swallows them whole with its massive mouth. While doing their task of helping the angler hunt small fish, the bacteria maintain a symbiotic relationship with the fish and also find an environment in which to proliferate. In this way, they form a good example of cooperation and solidarity. One may wonder: how can such a mutual agreement come into fruition between a fish and some bacteria which are deprived of a nervous system, mind, and consciousness?

One of the reasons that marine biologists are interested in light-emitting bacteria is the wide-lit regions called the “Milky Seas.” These can be observed in satellite images of Earth. Recently, satellites helped detect a bioluminescent area of roughly 5,946 sq. mi in the Indian Ocean; scientists wondered if some bioluminescent bacteria or Dinoflagellate-type flame-colored algae may be the cause of the phenomenon.

Alarming jellyfish

The luminescence of some marine life serves as an alarm or distress siren. A remarkable example of this is the Atolla jellyfish (Atolla wyvillei), an elegant inhabitant of deep waters. This jellyfish produces blue lights that are spread in circles in the water when it is attacked. Thanks to these lights, it tries to draw the attention of larger and stronger animals than the initial attacker in order to escape from harm’s way.

As can be observed in some species that we are familiar with, such as fireflies, the bioluminescence feature that is full of wisdom granted to some living beings is a thought-provoking biological miracle which does not only make us ponder where they got these abilities from but also reveals how so many intricate patterns are found in nature.

References

• Steven H.D. Haddock, Mark A. Moline and James F. Case. 2010. Bioluminescence in the Sea, Article in Annual Review of Marine Science, DOI:10.1146/annurev-marine-120308-081028 Source: PubMed.
• Edith A. Widder. 2001. Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, Fort Pierce, Florida, Marine Bioluminescence, Bioscience Explained, vol 1, no 1, pp. 1-9.
• Edith A. Widder. 2010. “Bioluminescence in the Ocean: Origins of Biological, Chemical, and Ecological Diversity,” Science, vol. 328, pp. 704-708.
• www.wired.com/2012/01/glow-little-spewing-shrimp-glow/ March 28, 2018.
• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacosteus_niger / April 1, 2018.
• Harold, A. 2015. Malacosteus niger. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015: e.T190149A21909439. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T190149A21909439.en.
• https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/190149/21909439

The question of the possibility of absolute justice is vast and needs to be explored from various angles. However, space constraints dictate that we subject this topic to no more than a general overview. Focusing on the absolute nature of justice in Nursian thought may help to sharpen our understanding of existing theories of justice at the very least; it may even force us to rethink our prejudices and give us greater understanding of the concept of justice itself.

Given the limitations of space, I aim to focus on the question of injustice in the creation of different environments for the testing of different people. In other words, is God just when he creates Leo Nikolayevich in Siberia and Rashid in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, in the same age at the same time, and holds them responsible for their actions? Say if one is born from Muslim father and mother into the Islamic environment whereas the other might have never heard of Islam and been in touch with the aforementioned environment? We can do vice-versa and apply the same theory for Christianity and other religions. Can such a God be just in any sense of justice? To this end, I will deal chiefly with the issue of absolute justice as it pertains to the issue of free will. I believe the theories that I put forward could be applicable irrespective of faith and religious differences. Of course, the issue of salvation is an even bigger issue and it is out of the subject at hand here.

Before we continue, I would like to emphasize that our focus is neither meta-ethical, nor epistemic. I am not concerned here with the question of the ontological basis of justice, nor with how we can know what is just.

Justice functions in different spheres. While seemingly obvious, this is an important point because how the absolute nature of justice is perceived may differ according to the particular sphere in which justice functions. This perception differs in accordance with whether we are talking about God’s absolute justice towards His creatures, the absolute justice reflected in human beings, or about the relative justice of man towards his fellow beings and other creatures that he shares the universe with. As Nursi states, the purpose of human existence is to manifest God’s Names and exhibit their marvels before the eyes of creatures. In this paper, we take justice as the reflection of the Divine name of Just (al-Adl) as it appears to us in free-will-related justice and we will try to understand how this is reflected in Nursi’s writings.

It is important to take into account Nursi’s terminology, in particular his categorization of the Divine names and attributes into the Glorious (Jalali), the Amiable (Jamali), and the Absolute (Kamali). Under the umbrella of the first, there is the name Compassionate (Rahman), which Nursi connects particularly to this world, where it manifests itself in its most perfect form as distributive justice; under the umbrella of the latter, there is the name Merciful (Rahim), which Nursi connects primarily to the hereafter, where it manifests itself in its most perfect form as retributive justice. Under the umbrella of the third category, there is the name Just (Adl), which Nursi connects to both worlds, where it manifests itself in its most perfect form as absolute justice.

First, I shall present an outline of my conclusions regarding free-will-related justice; we shall then see what these conclusions teach us about the unjust appearance of different environments designed for competition (imtihan). Justice is one of the key concepts in Nursi’s discourse. He states that the fundamental aims of the Quran are fourfold: divine unity (tawhid), prophethood (nubuwwa), the resurrection of the dead (hashr), and justice (adala).

Before I go any further, I would once again like to express my gratitude to the Smilansky’s article on which most of the following of this article is based. It has given me great inspiration and ideas. I have simply adapted some of his examples and arguments and applied my arguments and conclusions of the Nursian approach to them.

Mimar Sinan example

Let’s look at an example given by Similansky and adapt it here. Imagine two men who wish to be a great architect like Mimar Sinan (d. 1588), the famous chief architect of the Ottomans. One of them is from a small provincial town While he has had both the time and training to develop his architectural talents, they have never been more than mediocre. The other man is from a well-known rich family. He has, on the other hand, acquired all the great skills and qualities to turn out to be a great architect. In fact with a rich family and great chain of ancestry, he seems to have all the qualities to become famous, if not more.

These men go to Istanbul and are confronted with the wonderful arts of Mimar Sinan and are overcome with envy and a sense of injustice. The classical argument might be that there is a sense in which the differences between these men and Sinan seem unfair and unjust. Neither men are responsible for this difference, nor have they consented to it: it is an arbitrary, brute fact, not following from any ethical decision-making process. Our men feel unfortunate and the state they are in is hardly their fault, so how can we say that it is not unfair and unjust? They have not created beautiful buildings and monuments like Sinan and thus do not deserve the latter’s acclaim; therefore, may one not argue that our man does deserve to be as famous as Sinan?

There seem to be a number of options open to us in our evaluation of this issue in the classical philosophical approaches to justice. Firstly, we can discount the whole matter as not one of justice, since no human agency is responsible for the man’s comparative lack of talent or fame. According to this option, injustice occurs only when one agent has wronged another and – the issue of Divine decree apart – no one has wronged our men. So, this position blames the Divine for this seemingly unjust situation.

Another way of understanding this would be to say that the situation is neither just, nor unjust. It is not just that our men lack the fame of Sinan (they do not deserve not to; it is sheer luck, after all), but neither is it an injustice. There is simply a “limbo.”

Similarly much can happen to people that is not a result of their free choice and, hence, is not within their control and cannot be just in terms of the core conception. People who become severely ill through no fault of their own, are laid off after years of work in a massive company work-force reductions, or lose close relatives in car accidents are only a few among many possible examples.

Bediuzzaman’s cup example

Nursi offers a different solution here: God has designed life and anything related to it with a precise and just measure. As an analogy, let’s think that every individual is given a special cup, and he/she is asked to fill it. That everyone’s cups come in different sizes signifies that everyone’s test is different. It’s possible one has a small Turkish tea cup and the other has a British coffee cup and the other has an American extra large size coke cup. The test is designed with varying components, like coming from different families, in different countries, with different backgrounds and means. However, all these do not make the test or competition for salvation unjust. Since, the sizes of cups are specially designed for every individual, so that one’s effort to fill his cup would not differ from another’s effort to fill his/her different sized cup.

From the point of view of absolute justice, everyone will be tested according to their particularly designed circumstance, with some fundamental choices being same – like that of submission. Nobody, one way or another, chooses to be born either in an Islamic environment or, say, in an Inuit environment. Therefore, there is no inequality and injustice. When Nursi uses Sadi Taftazani’s definition of “iman” – or belief – he quotes, “belief is a light revealed into someone’s heart after that person’s – be it he or she – use of free will.” Wherever or whatever one was born into, depending on the size of their cups, one has to make a conscious choice of submission and use their free will, like in the story of Hay Bin Yakzan, who was on an island isolated from everything. Questioning starts from the outer world in nature; whereas in the case of a Sufi, let’s say Abd al Qadir Gilani, questioning starts from the inner world. They both need to question and act, contest and challenge, in accordance with their predesigned, mysterious competition, but eventually they will be held responsible in accordance with their cup sizes and use of free will.

Nursi believes that that all virtues and perfections are products of coming into existence and that the basis of all rebellion, calamities, and defects are of non-existence. As a result, existence is pure good, while non-existence is pure evil:

Existence is entirely good, for it generates every beauty and perfection; non-existence [which absorbs every good like black holes] is purely evil, for all sin and misfortune originate in it. Given this, whatever contains a hint of non-existence contains an element of evil. So, life, the most brilliant light of existence, becomes stronger as it is confronted with different circumstances. It is purified and perfected through contradictory events and happenings, and produces the desired results by assuming different qualities. Thus it testifies to the impresses of Names of the Giver of life. It is because of this subtle reality that living creatures pass through many states and experience pains, tribulations and hardship, through which the lights of existence are continuously renewed in their lives, and the darkness of non-existence draws distant and their lives are purified. In quality and as conditions, idleness, inertia, and monotony are aspects of nonexistence. Monotony reduces even the greatest pleasure to nothing.

[S]ince life displays the impresses of God’s All-Beautiful Names, everything occurring in it is beautiful. Consider this: A very rich and infinitely skilled clothes designer uses an ordinary model to display his works of art in return for wages. He requires the model to dress in a jeweled and artistically fashioned garment that illustrates his work’s art and his invaluable wealth. He continues to modify the garment while the model wears it. Does the model have any right to say: “Your orders to bow and stand up are causing me trouble. Your cutting and shortening of this garment, which makes me more beautiful, spoils my beauty.” Can the model accuse the designer of treating him unkindly and unfairly?

Similarly, in order to display the impresses of His All-Beautiful Names, the Maker of Majesty, the peerless All-Originating, alters within numerous circumstances the garment of existence He clothes on living creatures, bejeweled with senses, reason, intellect, and heart. Circumstances that appear to be calamitous and painful are actually rays of Divine Mercy within gleams of Wisdom and contain subtle beauties. They show the acts and impresses of the Divine All-Beautiful Names. (Twenty-Sixth Word, p. 490-1)

It is in this regard he even goes further and Nursi discuses, from the point of view of Divine Justice or adalet-i mahza, that one cannot harm his own self and body; they have been bestowed on you by God. He also goes even further to explain that you cannot abuse or misuse animals, plants, or anything else that maintains life; we neither own, nor control them. We can only use and control as little as is necessary to maintain our lives. Furthermore, we will be held responsible and questioned about the things and animals we use, abuse or misuse.

Conclusion

We see that in classical philosophical terms, things could be both just and unjust. However, in reality, nothing can be both just and unjust. It is simply that things which appear unjust to us are in reality just from the point of view of Divine decree and Justice. Philosophically, it is quite acceptable that something can be both just and unjust. However, the implications of this for our explication of the Nursian perspective are that as a believer, of course, Nursi would deny that some things can be both just and unjust: it is as meaningless as saying that something can be both black and white at the same time. However, working from Nursi’s cup analogy, we can talk about apparent or relative justice/injustice, which can exist at the same time as absolute justice. In actual fact, whatever happens is, ultimately, a manifestation of pure or absolute justice, although — and particularly in the retributive sense — it often appears as the opposite.

References

1. Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2010. The Words, NJ: Tughra Books.

You need to read “The Very Lonely Firefly,” a story book delighting children of all ages by Eric Carle (1) to get the answer. In the mean time, you can read this article to have better insight into the enchanting world of the firefly. Are they just a pleasure to our eyes, during their short lives in the summer, or do they live on in children’s books?

Fireflies, or lightning bugs, belong to the Lampyridae family. There are thousands of firefly species all over the world and none of them are actually flies. Then what are they? Well, they are beetles, who get the names “firefly” and “lightning bug” because of the flashes of light emanating from their bodies, a process called bioluminescence (2). This “cold light” does not heat up or burn its producer through infrared or ultraviolet frequencies, and is formed by the action of an enzyme called luciferase in the lower abdomen of the firefly. It may be yellow, green, or pale red, with wavelengths from 510 to 670 nanometers. The enzyme luciferase acts on the luciferin, in the presence of magnesium ions, ATP, and oxygen to produce light (3). According to Vieira et al., 2012, in the Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology, the firefly’s luciferase is the most important and studied bioluminescence system in scientific research(4). The firefly luciferase was cloned and isolated for the purpose of constructing bioassay systems in the late 1980s (5). Since then, due to very interesting characteristics, this system has been used in numerous biomedical, pharmaceutical and bioanalytical applications (4).

In biomedical research, the ability to visualize a biological process is very important because it offers the most direct method to support or disprove any scientific claim (6). Therefore, firefly luciferase is very desirable as a reporter in this area. Typically, the luciferase gene is cloned with a DNA sequence of interest into cells and then the cells are assayed by measuring its bioluminescence. Fusing a protein with luciferase is like putting a reflective vest on a cyclist in the dark to be able to watch him. Because the firefly luciferase lights up, it helps screening for chemical biology and drug discovery applications in academia and the pharmaceutical industry (5). For example, the firefly luciferase gene was used as a reporter to screen tumor-specific promoters in lung cancer (7). Another example showing how beneficial the firefly is for scientific research is a rapid in vivo (Latin for within the living) assessment of drug efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is the causative agent of most cases of tuberculosis, using an improved firefly luciferase (8). In this study, Andreu et al., 2013, used a Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain carrying a red-shifted derivative of the firefly luciferase gene to infect mice, and they monitored disease progression in living animals by bioluminescence imaging before and after treatment with a frontline anti-tuberculosis drug. Furthermore, firefly luciferase was used in a research about anti-malaria drugs, an illness which affects about 5% of the world’s population and brings a death toll of 0.5–2.5 million each year (9).

Firefly luciferase is not only used in biomedical research, but also in molecular plant biology. In the early ’90s, plant scientists were already able to show the bioluminescence of a promoter fragment fused to the firefly luciferase gene and its regulation by phytochrome (a pigment that plants use to detect light) and the circadian clock (a roughly 24 hour cycle in the physiological processes of living beings) (10) in plants. Some examples for the great usage of this system among many others include a firefly luciferase complementation assay that was used to reveal the interacting partners of Open Stomata 1 protein, which is critical for plant drought responses in Brassica oleracea (cabbage) (11) and the characterization of the promoter region of an important gene encoding a copper chaperone for the copper/zinc superoxide dismutase that is involved in oxidative stress protection of the potato plant (12).

Scientists have found many ways to use the firefly light, but what is the function of it for its real owner? Marc Branham, an assistant professor in the department of entomology and nematology at the University of Florida, explains. “Fireflies seem to flash light for a variety of reasons. The larvae produce short glows and are primarily active at night, even though many species are subterranean (underground) or semi-aquatic. Fireflies produce defensive steroids in their bodies that make them unpalatable to predators. Larvae use their glows as warning displays to communicate their distastefulness. As adults, many fireflies have flash patterns distinctive to their species and use them to identify other members of their species as well as to discriminate between members of the opposite sex. Several studies have shown that female fireflies choose mates depending upon specific male flash pattern characteristics. Higher male flash rates, as well as increased flash intensity, have been shown to be more attractive to females in two different firefly species (13).”

Are there other creatures like fireflies producing light? “Besides fireflies, many other organisms, especially marine creatures, use bioluminescence for sexual selection, attracting prey and as a means of camouflage, and it has been estimated that about 90 percent of deep-sea animals are bioluminescent, according to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography,” says Remy Melina, a staff writer for “Life’s Little Mysteries.”(14)

A firefly’s glow is a theme of summer nights, romantic poems, and childhood adventures and books. However, when you enjoy a firework show done by fireflies next time, please look at them more carefully by thinking that they have more than that to offer humanity, including thrilling scientific inventions done with just a single protein from them. Who knows what else they have waiting to be discovered by us? How amazing it is that, like everything else created on earth, a firefly is also a very precious art piece decorated with intricate features, and even though it is very tiny, its service to humanity is, in many ways, enormous.

References

http://www.barnesandnoble.com/sample/read/9780399227745
National Wildlife Federation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefly
Vieira J, Pinto da Silva L, Esteves da Silva JC (2012) Advances in the knowledge of light emission by firefly luciferin and oxyluciferin. J Photochem Photobiol B. 117:33-9.
Thorne N, Inglese J, Auld DS (2010) Illuminating insights into firefly luciferase and other bioluminescent reporters used in chemical biology. Chem Biol. 17(6):646-57>
Brogan J, Li F, Li W, He Z, Huang Q, Li CY (2012) Imaging molecular pathways: reporter genes Radiat Res. 177(4):508-13.
Xu R, Guo LJ, Xin J, Li WM, Gao Y, Zheng YX, Guo YH, Lin YJ, Xie YH, Wu YQ, Xu RA (2013) Luciferase assay to screen tumour-specific promoters in lung cancer.Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 14(11):6557-62.
Andreu N, Zelmer A, Sampson SL, Ikeh M, Bancroft GJ, Schaible UE, Wiles S, Robertson BD (2013) Rapid in vivo assessment of drug efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis using an improved firefly luciferase. J Antimicrob Chemother. 68(9):2118-27.
Che P, Cui L, Kutsch O, Cui L, Li Q (2012) Validating a firefly luciferase-based high-throughput screening assay for antimalarial drug discovery. Assay Drug Dev Technol. 10(1):61-8.
Millar AJ, Short SR, Chua NH, Kay SA (1992) A novel circadian phenotype based on firefly luciferase expression in transgenic plants. Plant Cell.4(9):1075-87.
Wang M, Yuan F, Hao H, Zhang Y, Zhao H, Guo A, Hu J, Zhou X, Xie CG (2013) BolOST1, an ortholog of Open Stomata 1 with alternative splicing products in Brassica oleracea, positively modulates drought responses in plants. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 442(3-4):214-20.
Trindade LM, Horvath BM, Bergervoet MJ, Visser RG (2003) Isolation of a gene encoding a copper chaperone for the copper/zinc superoxide dismutase and characterization of its promoter in potato. Plant Physiol. 133(2):618-29.
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-and-why-do-fireflies/
http://www.livescience.com/32677-what-makes-fireflies-light-up.html

The answer was interesting and had deep meanings, but still left questions in my mind. The creatures were told: a new species will be created and arrive soon, and each member of this species will be equivalent and worthy of a whole species.

Those who asked the question were silent, suggesting they were satisfied with the answer. But I wondered how a single member of a species can be worth an entire species – and whether destroying a whole species for a new one can really be just.

Here, it was obvious to me that the new species that would be created is humans, and those condemned were the species who went extinct in ancient times, before humanity appeared on earth. This dream vaguely reminded me something that I read in the “Risale-i Nur Collection” by Bediuzzaman Said Nursi.

Bediuzzaman remarkably states that, “A human being is equivalent to a species of other creatures” (Zuhra – 4th point, Isharat al-I’jaz, and Mathnawi al-Nuriya). This line hadn’t really struck me until I had the dream about older creatures questioning this wisdom.

In this dream, those creatures were dinosaurs. I was not scared; they weren’t threatening with their question. They were fighting for their rights and trying to understand the glorious plan, and beyond.

It seemed to me a lovely coincidence that I had a visit to Washington coming up soon and had a chance to visit the National Museum of Natural History, where you can see well preserved remnants of various dinosaurs.

All of the dinosaurs went extinct long before the first human showed up. Dinos first walked on earth over 200 million years ago and dominated the earth until 66 million years ago. Their dominion on earth ended with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction. According to fossil records, there were more than 1000 dinosaur species. Dinosaurs had different habits of eating, as some were herbivorous (plant-eating) and others were carnivorous (meat-eating), including fish-eaters and insectivores, and omnivores (including both animals and plants in their diets). We should be thankful that we never knew many of the carnivores like T-Rex, which measured up to 12m (40ft)! It’s obvious that we could not live on earth if T-Rex were still running around. For our arrival, their departure was necessary.

There is no doubt that the human species is very valuable from various aspects, but what puts each person on the same level with another species?

One of humanity’s great merits is our collective understanding. This collective consciousness can be more fully realized through the glasses of faith in God. With the window of faith, humans not only comprehend His speech, but are better attuned to their fellow living beings – and maybe even non-living creatures. Humans are like one who is that all-inclusive and hears all other things. Hence, we can grasp proofs of the most beautiful names of the Creator from the speeches of all creatures.

The light of such understanding in humans leads to an expansion and improvement in our soul. This makes our value high, our sight universal, and our ability to achieve to perfection limitless. On the other hand, many other species are limited in many aspects by their nature, sights, and capacity of perfection. According to religious texts, though humans and other species are valued differently on earth, the divide grows larger in the hereafter. While every human being is re-created with their names, features, matter, and manner, other species return back to the soil.

When you visit nature museum next time, try to listen what the fossils of extinct species tell you about their complaint. They were created for a purpose; they have finished their job and gone. They have done a fantastic job and flourished, while leaving us many petrol reservoirs. Though countless species have gone extinct, more than 1.6 million other species are still living on earth. Death is not an end; nowadays, they are trying to reach out to us and tell us their secrets. We’re expected to become the best fruit of this universe.

This dream made me think about how the ways that Allah could teach us is not limited to what we do when we are awake. Would you ever think that ancient extinct species would also need the lights of the everlasting speech of the All-Wise and All-Powerful, as explained by why a man could be equivalent and worthy of a species of another creature by Bediuzzaman?

Another lesson is that as we live in an oil dependent-century, we are counting on reservoirs that formed millions years ago by the remnants of ancient living beings; but just as we depend on them, ancient extinct species are also counting on us and expecting us to contemplate our purpose for being here, and to show that we’re worthy of being the most glorious fruit in the universe. As the All-wise make things with infinite wisdom, he sends oil to people of this century to help in technology and he also sends further mercy in the form of knowledgeable scholars to answer our questions.

A planet that revolves around another star outside our solar system is called an Exoplanet or Extra solar planet. Ongoing studies involving this field are carried out via simultaneous ground and space based missions and observations. Scientists are searching a small portion of the Milky Way galaxy, approximately 3000 light years away, by using ground and space telescopes, along with various other astronomic methods (1). Despite all this technology, the observation area is too big when compared to the size of the object of interest.

It has been calculated that the Milky Way, a disc shaped galaxy, consists of 200 billion stars spread over a diameter of nearly 100,000 light years and a thickness of 1000 light years. When we consider the amount of stars in a single galaxy, and the fact that there are between a hundred billion and one trillion galaxies in the universe, the number of possible exoplanets is likely much larger than those we currently know of.

Classification of exoplanets

Exoplanets are classified according to their physical, chemical, and other characteristics, along with their diameter and mass: Jupiter like; greater than Jupiter; Earth like; greater than Earth

Classifications according to surface and atmospheric temperatures are as follows: Hotter than Jupiter; colder than Neptune; colder than Jupiter; small blue dots or twin Earths.

The presences of free-floating planets which have lost their parent stars because of different formation processes or other factors have also been discovered.

One of the common features of the exoplanets currently discovered is their short distance to the star they revolve around, which is usually less than half the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The known exoplanets are also defined by their faster revolutions in much shorter periods. Therefore, larger planets that are closer to their stars can be observed easily. When these planets are passing in front of their stars, a decrease in the brightness of the star is detected via spectrometers (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Passing of a planet in front of a star and a spectrum of this event.

Radial velocity, one of the methods used to discover exoplanets, relies on the observations of a star’s kinetic fluctuations. The proximity and size of a revolving planet leads to slight changes in location and velocity of a host star. As a result of this, the star gets closer to earth and then becomes more distant, which is observed as the Doppler shift of spectral line color waves. 75 % of all known planets have been discovered using this method (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Doppler shift – radial velocity

Earth-like planets or habitable places

In an official NASA report in December 2011, the discovery of an Earth-like planet was announced for the first time. This planet, named Kepler 22b, is 600 light years away and remains the most similar one to Earth among the known heavenly bodies. The distance of Kepler 22b to its star shows a high possibility for the presence of a habitable zone.

So what does this mean?

Earth is such a special home for us humans that everything here has been assigned to serve us with delicate calculations. Factors such as the Earth’s mass, gravity, distance to the Sun, rotational and revolution velocity, chemistry, thickness of the atmosphere, magnetic shield, hydrosphere/land ratio, ecological balances, and average temperature are all perfect for biological life.

Earth revolves in such a region and position that a majority of the planetary water is in a liquid state and is not ice or vapor.Thedistance of the habitable zone to our Sun is between 135,000,000 – 225,000,000 km. Earth revolves at a 150,000,000 km distance to the Sun. The value of a habitable zone for each planet depends on the diameter, mass, heat and radiation strength of the host star. In other words, aside from the similarity of an exoplanet to Earth, a classification of its host star with in terms of size and age is also important.

Kepler 22b owns the title as the first planet to match the criteria above with its following features:

• Has a radius 2.4 times bigger than Earth
• Revolution time is 290 days (365 for Earth)
• 15% closer to its star compared to the Earth-Sun distance
• The size and surface temperature of Kepler 22b’s host star is very similar to that of the Sun’s
• The surface temperature of the planet is 22 C
• The size of the habitable zone for Kepler 22bis 133,500,000 – 240,000,000 km (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Comparison of the solar systems of Kepler 22b and Earth.

Aside from these similarities, it is noteworthy to report the problems that scientists encountered regarding Kepler 22b:

• The unknown presence of water on the surface
• No information on the gaseous contents of the atmosphere.
• The gravitational force is 2.5 times greater than on Earth.
• Rocks constitute the surface instead of soil.

The hardest part is that Kepler 22bremains 600 light years away from us. This means it would take us 11 billions years to get there with today’s fastest spacecrafts. Who knows when we will be able to decrease this time with the advent of superior technology.

What do religious scholar say about life in outer space?

Among His manifest signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and that He has dispersed in both of them living creatures. And He has full power to gather them together when He wills. (Ash-Shura 42:29)

While interpreting the Qur’anic verse above, Fethullah Gülen notes the following:

“Since the earliest times, this verse has been taken as a proof for the view that there are living creatures, whether resembling human beings or not, in the places other than the earth. This view may be true. The second part of the verse, ‘He has full power to gather them together when He wills,’ has been understood that these creatures and human beings will possibly come together either in this world or in that of the other creatures. … there may be earth-like globes in the heaven where creatures resembling earthly ones live.” (Gülen 2012, 272-273)

“Perhaps people will not be able to reach those places individually or as a whole generation, but this can be achieved by mankind as a species. In other words, when the Divine Will manifests itself in that direction, humans here can encounter those other life forms.” (Gülen 2007, 232)

This commentary reflects what Bediuzzaman Said Nursi had said decades ago:

“The earth, although much smaller than other heavenly bodies, is so densely inhabited by living creatures that even its grossest and most rotten parts are full of living things, such as micro-organisms. This shows that those infinite firmaments, with their numerous stars and constellations, are inhabited by conscious, living beings …” (Nursi 2010, 530-531) 29th Word, First Aim, First Fundamental)

Nebiyev is a professor of physics in Azerbaijan.

References

• http://kepler.nasa.gov/
• http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitable_zone
• Gülen, M. Fethullah. 2007. Kendi iklimimiz, Istanbul, Nil Yayinlari.
• Gülen. M. Fethullah. 2012. Reflections on the Qur’an: Commentaries on Selected Verses, NJ: Tughra Books.
• Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2010. The Words, (29th Word) NJ: The Light, Inc.
• Chris Kitchin Exoplanets: Finding, Exploring, and Understanding Alien Worlds- (www.springer.com/series/6960)-2012
• Mercy, G., P. Butler et al. 2005. “Observed Properties of Exoplanets: Masses, Orbits, and Metallicitie”.. Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, Vol. 158, No. 24-42.

(Al-Hajj 22:73)

In some verses of the Qur’an, mosquitoes and other small creatures are mentioned; when these verses were revealed to Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, some unbelievers sarcastically responded, saying: “This does not seem like the word of God.” They mocked these verses as they thought that God Almighty would not give examples of such “trivial and non-significant” animals in His Book. Later, Almighty God revealed another verse related to these responses:

God does not disdain to strike any parable – (that of) something like a gnat or something greater or lower than it. Those who have already believed know that it is the truth from their Lord. As to those whose unbelief has long been established in their hearts, they say, “What does God mean by such a parable?” Thereby He leads many astray, and thereby He guides many. He thereby leads none astray save the transgressors. (Al-Baqara 2:26)

During the revelation of the Qur’an, biological and physical sciences were not adequate to explain and shed light onto some of the sublime verses regarding these small creatures. However, in this century we have witnessed astounding advances in science and now we are better able to understand the extraordinary structure of such creatures. Once again, we are amazed at the accuracy, precision and eloquence of the Qur’an, which illuminated not only the Age of Ignorance, but also the modern world. Even though for believers the harmony of the universe testifies to the existence of the All-Knowing One without a need for understanding the details of physics or biology, for non-believers masses of learning or years of scientific education may have led them astray. In this article, even though the Qur’anic verses mentioned above speak of flies in general, our focus will be given in particular to the biological aspects of mosquitoes.

Mosquitoes are two-winged flies that belong to the family Culicidae. In nature there are approximately 3,500 species of mosquitoes. They have a pair of scaled wings, a pair of halteres,1 a slender body, and long legs. Their length varies, but is rarely greater than 16 mm (approximately 0,6 inches), and they can weigh up to 2,5 mg. A mosquito can fly for 1 to 4 hours continuously at up to 1 mile/h, traveling up to 6 miles in a night.2 Most species are nocturnal or crepuscular (dawn or dusk) feeders. During the heat of the day most mosquitoes rest in a cool place and wait for evening.

It is widely thought that mosquitoes are insects that live on blood. On the contrary, this is not true, because not all mosquitoes suck blood; only female mosquitoes do. Mentioning the mosquito in the feminine form in the Qur’an can be considered to be one of its miracles, not only because the female mosquitoes are more powerful and complex than the males, but also because they transmit and spread diseases. The male mosquitoes appear only in breeding seasons and they feed only on plant juices.

Females do not require blood for their own survival, but they do need supplemental substances (like protein and iron) found in blood to develop eggs. Prior to and during blood feeding, they inject saliva into the bodies of their source(s) of blood. Female mosquitoes hunt their blood host by detecting carbon dioxide (CO2) and 1-Octen-3-ol from a distance. Circulating blood in animals and humans radiates body heat. Thanks to the sophisticated heat sensors installed in their body, mosquitoes follow body heat and exhaled gases and fly to their target. From an unbiased point of view, that who led to the creation of carbon dioxide and 1-Octen-3-ol must have led to the creation of the sensors of female mosquitoes, allowing them to sense these chemicals. That who created the eggs of mosquito must have been aware of the needs of these eggs. This process alone proves the extensiveness of mercy, knowledge, wisdom and encompassment of a Conscious Sustainer Who is operating behind all these processes.

When mosquitoes land on their prey they search for a thin place on the skin where a great deal of blood is passing. In order for the mosquito to obtain blood it must circumvent the physiological responses of the prey. The mosquito sprays the place from where it is to suck blood with a type of local anesthetic. When blood flows from a cut, with the help of enzymes the blood quickly coagulates. The mosquito uses an elusive mechanism to effectively block the clotting of blood with their saliva, which contains a complex mixture of secreted proteins. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that facilitate in sugar feeding as well as antimicrobial agents that control bacterial growth in the sugar. Mosquito saliva contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins.3 Although there has been great progress in determining these molecules and their role in bloodfeeding, scientists are still unable to ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in mosquito saliva.

In general, there are four distinct stages in the life cycle of the mosquito: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The adult is a flying insect, while the larvae and pupae are aquatic and live only in fresh water. All mosquito species lay their eggs on fresh water or on a moist surface. These eggs will not hatch until covered by rising water caused by rainfall, melting snow in the spring, or other such phenomena. The larvae of all mosquitoes live in water and have four developmental periods. In this stage, the larva actively feeds on organic material in the water. The larvae of most species have a breathing tube and come to the surface of the water to get oxygen. The durations of this stage depends on the species and the water temperature. The mosquito pupa is very active and lives in water. The pupa has a comma-shaped body with two visible separate regions. The tail of the comma is the developing abdomen of the mosquito. The abdomen is composed of nine segments. Between each abdominal segment are flexible areas that allow the pupa to swim. Active movement is unusual for most insect species during the pupal stage; however, mosquitoes will dive under water when the surface is disturbed or there is a disruption in light penetrating the water. The pupa has two large “paddles” on the eighth segment of the abdomen that propel it through the water as the abdomen flexes up and down. When the abdominal movement stops, the pupa floats back to the top of the water. A float hair, found on the first segment of the abdomen, helps the pupa to stabilize on the water’s surface. The pupal stage lasts for a few days and this is the stage when all the larval tissues change into adult tissues. The adult mosquito is capable of flying long distances. Males and females mate during the first 3 to 5 days after they have emerged from the pupal stage. Females mate only once. Males generally live for only a week and their primary function is reproduction.

The entire body of the adult mosquito is covered by an exoskeleton layer which provides the body with strength and support. The body of an adult mosquito has three regions, the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head contains the eyes, antennae, palpi,4 and mouthparts of the mosquito. Mosquitoes have compound eyes. This means their eyes are made up of numerous facets. Each facet is capable of forming a separate image. Therefore, the multi-imaging eye allows the mosquito to see movement over a large area, helping it to react quickly. The antennae are important sensory organs for the adult mosquito. They house a very significant sensory structure called the Johnston organ that helps to transmit movements of the antennae to the brain. The antennae differ according the sex of a mosquito. Males have many hairs on their antennae, making them look fury, while females have very few hairs. The mosquito has two sets of wings, the fore wings and the hind wings. The fore wings are used to propel the mosquito through the air, while the hind wings are highly modified structures that help to balance the mosquito during flight. Mosquitoes do not have lungs; rather, they receive oxygen through holes on their skins. These holes open and close according to the amount of oxygen the insect needs to function. Oxygen exchange takes place by diffusion. The mosquito has a needle, a hollow in the upper lip, which has a special cover used while sucking the blood from the skin of prey. The skin is not pierced by this needle, as thought, but by the upper mandible which look like a knife, and the lower mandible which has teeth leaning inward, that works and moves as a saw. The hollow lower lip has a lubricant that gathers the parts of the mouth as one organ. The skin of the prey is pierced by the upper mandible, which works as a knife, and in piercing the needle is inserted until it reaches a vein, and then the mosquito starts to suck blood. This process clearly indicates that mosquitoes have the necessary equipment to survive and sustain life in an amazing manner.

However, mosquitoes tend to carry various disease that spread viruses and parasites; they do not succumb to these diseases themselves. The principal mosquito-borne diseases are viral diseases, like yellow fever, dengue fever and malaria. Mosquitoes are thought to transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico and much of Asia, with millions resulting in deaths. At least 2 million people annually die of these diseases. The first Qur’anic verse mentioned above is also quite striking in terms of the disease spreading aspect of these insects. A powerless animal can snatch away the health of person who could be regarded as powerful; however, both of them are weak against the will of the One who created them.

Dr. Ibrahim Yildiz is a research associate at University of Miami Chemistry Department.

Notes

1. Halteres are small knobbed structures found as a pair in some two-winged insects.

2. Kaufmann C, Briegel H (June 2004). J. Vector Ecol. 29 (1): 140–53.

3. Valenzuela JG, Pham VM, Garfield MK, Francischetti IM, Ribeiro JM (2002). Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 32 (9): 1101–22.

4. Palpi, plural of palpus, are jointed sense organs attached to the mouth of insects.

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2008/issue-64-july-august-2008/radar-evading-moths/ Tue, 01 Jul 2008 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2008/issue-64-july-august-2008/radar-evading-moths/ Members of the animal kingdom are equipped with amazing features. Every species has a particular gift for communication, feeding, or defense. They communicate through various means, such as smell, vibration, sound, light, and heat. For example, fireflies use light for communication and ants use different smells, whereas crickets or grasshoppers use sound. Certain insects which have no separate organs to produce sound just flap their wings or vibrate certain parts of their body to communicate. Receiving these messages is no less important than sending them, since the capacity to perceive the sound waves in the environment is an important aspect of defense against enemies. Insects use sensor hairs that are distributed over different parts of their body to receive sounds produced by their fellow insects or other animals. These organelles are made up of a hair and sensor cell, and they are usually located in groups. The vibrations detected in the environment are transmitted to the relevant neurons. Afterwards, a responsive signal is produced according to the sound received. In addition to these hairs, certain insects have been equipped with a pair of more complex (tympanal) hearing organs. The frequency of the sounds they can receive depends on the environmental conditions and the species of the insect. For example, crickets can hear within a frequency range that is very close to that of human ear (100-15,000 Hz), and grasshoppers can hear sounds of far higher frequencies (100-100,000 Hz).

There is no similarity between the systems through which insects produce or receive sounds. Furthermore, even the frequencies of the sounds they produce or hear may not be the same. The wisdom behind this might be that the receptors of some insects are devised in a way that will enable them to detect sounds produced by their enemies. Moths can be given as a typical example of this. They can detect sounds between 1,000-140,000 Hz. Their sensitivity is best between frequencies of 20,000-40,000 Hz, but interestingly, most moths do not have any organs to produce sounds at these frequencies. In other words, moths do not seem to use their tympanal organs in order to communicate with one another. Discovering the real function of the tympanal organ of the moths has taken researchers quite a long time.

The mysterious relation

Every being in nature is created to assume a role in the ecological balance and no creature has been equipped with a useless organ. Researchers have discovered that the tympanal organ plays an important role in defense. Moths spend the day resting in corners and only become active after sunset. Researchers have come to the conclusion that they are not searching for food, since the nutrition they need is stored in their bodies during the larva stage. Thanks to this blessing, moths do not spend their short life span in search of food. The aim of their night flights is reproduction.

The essential duty of moths is to find the plants where they will lay their eggs and on which their larvae will feed. As slow moving animals, it is almost impossible for the moth larvae to go and find their own food. As all creatures are provided in accordance with their need, these helpless larvae are born on their food. Another amazing fact about their nutrition is that the moth larvae eat their own protein-rich eggshells before eating leaves. Research has shown that those larvae which eat their eggshells are more resistant to environmental conditions.

As the moths try to continue their species by laying their eggs in the darkness, some other creatures try to continue their own existence by feeding on the moths. Bats eat insects and are also active at night. As is well known, bats fly comfortably in the dark thanks to the radar system they have been equipped with. This innate system is perfectly devised to enable bats to pinpoint a tiny insect flying through the darkness, and moths are a prey that is easily spotted by bats. The astonishing fact is that the moths’ sensitivity to the sound waves is perfect for picking up the sounds emitted by bats. The moths are able not only to detect the bats, but also to judge their distance from the frequency of the waves. If the distance is greater than 30 meters, the moth leaves the area immediately. If the bat is closer however, the moth takes a zigzag course or tries to avoid danger by plunging down and staying still.

The balance here is so perfect that while bats are skilled enough hunters to obtain provision, the moths are good defenders and are able to continue their existence. Both species fulfill their roles in balance with creation. Some bats are able to catch some moths, but there is no excess on either side. Nothing is left to blind chance in nature; not only did the Creator equip the bat with a perfect radar system, He did not leave the moth helpless but granted them perfect receptors to rescue themselves from bats. If it were not for the Power that established the mysterious balances in the universe, how would a bat find its way through the darkness and how would moths be protected from extinction?

Every different type of moth which forms another ring in the chain of food in nature lays its eggs on different plants. If moths did not feed on certain fast-growing plants and if their growth is not kept under control, these plants would invade the space of other plants and wipe them out. The moths and other creatures that feed on plants ensure that no one plant is allowed to upset the balance of the chain of nutrition. Similarly, the perfect balance established between bats and moths prove that nothing in this universe is left on its own. When confronted by the perfect order in nature, one cannot help but think about the verse:

You do not see any fault or incongruity in the creation of the All-Merciful. Look yet again: can you see any rifts?

Then look again and yet again, (and however often you do so, with whatever instruments to aid your looking) your sight will fall back to you dazzled (by the splendor of God’s creation), and awed and weakened (being unable to discern any flaw to support any excuse for claiming that there could be any sharing in the dominion of the universe). (Mulk 67:3)

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2005/issue-49-january-march-2005/love-the-reason-for-the-creation-of-the-universe/ Sat, 01 Jan 2005 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2005/issue-49-january-march-2005/love-the-reason-for-the-creation-of-the-universe/ Said Nursi frames his treatise of the Twenty-Fourth Word in his collection of words on a well known Qur’anic verse that discusses God’s beautiful names. God, there is no god but He; His are the Most Beautiful Names (20:8). Using the metaphor of a tree with branches, Nursi divides his interpretation of this verse into five branches. In this article the fifth branch, love and worship, will be focused on and some other writings of Nursi will be referred to while exploring the theme of love.

The fifth branch is that of love and fear, worship and imitation of the Prophet. The addressee is first Nursi’s own soul, and secondly “his friend who loves the worldly life.” In the first statement, Nursi wants to direct the love of humans to Almighty God, who deserves the utmost love.

“Love is the universe’s raison d’tre, the bond between all things, the light and life of existence. Since we are the most comprehensive fruit of existence, a love so overflowing that it can invade the universe has been included in that fruit’s heart (its seed or core). One who deserves such an infinite love can only be one with infinite perfection”;¹ this is God.

According to Nursi, human nature has been endowed with two tools: love and fear. Both of these senses inevitably will be directed to the Creator or the created. Fear of the created or blind love of the created are both dreadful calamities according to Nursi; because people become afraid of people and created things that do not show mercy toward them. As for a love of creatures, Nursi explains that many of them do not understand love and do not acknowledge us. One may love a beautiful panorama, but the panorama does not acknowledge a person; one may love the stars of night, but the stars do not acknowledge a person. Many of these beloveds leave us without ever saying goodbye, like our youth or wealth-either they leave us, or we leave them.

According to Nursi, ninety-nine percent of lovers complain about their beloved. The reason for this is that the inner heart is a mirror of God, the Self-Sufficient Who needs no one and Whom everyone else needs. And the heart can only be satisfied with His love. After mentioning this, he makes his point as follows: “So turn your fear and love toward such a One so that your fear will be a pleasant humility and your love a happiness free of humiliation.”

For Nursi, to fear God means to take refuge in his mercy. Fear is a motivator that throws a person on God’s mercy just as a child, when threatened, takes refuge in the arms of their mother. “. . . maternal care and compassion for all living beings is only a ray from His Compassion.” If fear of God is so joyful, then how does the love of God compare? There is great joyfulness in the love of God. For Nursi, even the love of creatures is joyful since it is for His sake. “Only when you can assign that love to its rightful owner can you love, for His sake and as mirrors to Him, all things without pain or trouble. Such love must not be assigned directly to existence for the sake of existence itself. Otherwise, while being a most pleasurable Divine grace, this love will become a most painful ailment.”

According to Nursi, the human soul is prone to love itself above everyone and everything else. In fact, it should not do so; the soul does not deserve such a love, as it is not the source of the beauty of the universe. “Your intense self-love is nothing but your innate love for His ‘Essence’, which you unconsciously carry in yourself and wrongly appropriate for your self. Tear apart the ‘I’ in yourself and show the ‘He’.” Underneath your ego you will find God. “All the love you divide among other beings is nothing but the love implanted in your being for Him.”

For Nursi, the whole beauty of paradise, with all varieties of beauty, is the result of such a love from Him. “However, the universe cannot compensate for even one particular manifestation of His love. Given this, listen and obey the following eternal decree, which the Eternal, Beloved One made His beloved (Prophet Muhammad) declare: If you really love God, follow me [so] that God may love you (3:31).”

Although early Islamic mystics totally rejected love for the world, Nursi found a new way of interpreting the concept of love toward the world. He says, “The world has three faces.” The first two faces of the world are admirable and desirable. The first states that the world is a place where God’s names are reflected. The world is a place where a believer can contemplate them. The world is a fair for the exhibition of God’s names. From this perspective, the world is desirable. One has to think in order to understand God in this world.

The second state of the world, according to Nursi, can be understood by the analogy that the world is a field for the afterlife. This face is also desirable, since individuals must sow in order to reap for the afterlife. Without this world, there would be no results for actions in the afterlife. There would be no place to sow, and thus no fruit. By making such distinctions, Nursi gave a new interpretation of love toward the worldly life.

The third face of the world is the one that the Sufism avoids. This face, Nursi said, is the world as a place of entertainment for those who indulge in worldly desires. This is the face which all Sufis reject. By generalization, it is understood that all parts of the world were not desirable, and thus people generally chose to leave the world. People should not connect their hearts to this world. “It is necessary to abandon the world heartily, not physically.” People have to abandon the world from the heart, not the limbs. Individuals should not abandon their studies or other aspects that are necessary in this world for this life.

One said, “I love my life, I love my youth, I love spring, I love this world, I love all beautiful things. How can I leave all of these things for God?” Nursi says, in answer to this question, “However involuntary loving is, you can direct it to a certain object. For example, by convincing yourself that something beloved is ugly, or an obstacle to or only a mirror for an object worthy of true love, this feeling of love can be diverted to the true object of love.” Nursi thus says, “I do not tell you not to love what you have enumerated, but I tell you to love them in the name of God, and in the name of the love of God. Love the beautiful fruit as a bounty from God, the Merciful and Compassionate One. When you love this, you love the Merciful and the Giver of the Bounties, al-Mun’im. This love is a collective thankfulness. To love these things is good. Love your mother and father, because they helped you when you were young. When you love them in the name of God, your love for them, in fact, is love for God. When your parents are old, you love them more; thus one loves for the sake of God. Love your children in the name of God, as they are gifts from God. Be patient if they die, and do not be without hope; you should say that they were a gift from my Lord to me, and they were His creatures. . . He took them to a better place. If I had one share in them, He had a thousand shares.” It is thus important to submit to the will of God. Nursi says, “Life is the most beautiful bounty that God has given you. When you love your life, you should know that this life is a gift from God, and you love it in the name of God. Loving your spouse is a gift, and your love should not be based on apparent beauty, because when they are old, that beauty will not last. Love should not be based on physical beauty, but on spiritual beauty, or ethical beauty. This beauty continues to the end of life. The criterion of your love for them for the sake of God is that when they lose their physical beauty, they will need you more, and you will continue in your love for them.”

In this way, the world is a reflection of God, and by loving the world, one will be led to loving God. Nursi concludes this concept with the following statement, “Love the world and what is in it, with mana-i harfi;² that is to love it not for itself, but for God, and to say how beautifully it has been created, not how beautiful it is. Do not put the love of anything in the depths of your heart, because the innermost heart is the mirror of God, and it belongs to Him.” Nursi ends with this prayer, “O Lord, bestow upon us your love, and the love of things that make us close to you.”

Nursi also speaks of ubudiyya, or worship of God. According to him, when people pray they do not pray for future rewards, because as humans we have been given our reward. “Oh my soul, worship is not the beginning of future bounties; it is the result of previous ones. Yes, we have already received our wages. Accordingly, we are asked to worship and serve.”

Nursi says that our individual existence is a bounty, and being a human is another bounty-existence is pure goodness compared to non-existence. Food is also a bounty from God prepared for the needs of our stomach. The created world is another bounty which is adored through our eyes and ears. After mentioning this, Nursi says, “Oh my soul, you have already received this wage. You are asked to fulfill worship, which is joyful and easy for the body. Despite that, you are lazy. Even if you perform some kind of worship, you ask for something more, as if the previous bounties were not enough. And you even complain, asking why your prayer has not been accepted. Yes, your duty is not to complain, but to continue praying. Almighty God gives you Paradise and eternal bliss merely as a result of His Grace and Mercy. You constantly take refuge in His Mercy and Grace. Trust in Him and listen to His divine command. ‘Say, Oh Muhammad, let them be happy for what God has given them through His Grace and Mercy. That is better than what they have collected’” (10:58).

Nursi goes on to say that the one person’s worship is not enough to repay the bounties of God. Nursi quotes a saying of the Prophet, “the intention of a believer is higher than their action,” which means that, by performing an action, an individual may have a limited amount of worship, but by making an intention one can have a limitless amount of worship. When a person says in their daily prayers “O Lord, to you alone we worship and to you alone we ask for help,” they introduce the worship of all creatures to God. This makes the amount of worship limitless and makes them the representative of all creatures speaking and presenting their worship to God. Nursi refers to this statement, saying “O Lord, we glorify you with the glorification of all your creatures.”

Nursi finishes this section by restating the importance of love for God and not for the universe. He says, “If a human is deceived by indulging in the world of multiplicity through the love of the world and is drowned, they will most certainly suffer unlimited loss. They will execute themselves collectively. If humans raise their heads and listen to the language of the Qur’an through the ears of the heart and direct themselves to unity, they then can ascend the ladder of worship, approaching the throne of perfection and then can become an eternal human.”

Nursi believes that there are two paths in front of all individuals. On one path they can use this capacity of love for transient things and, in the end, will certainly lose. On the other path, they will be aware of their importance and their unlimited capacity of love and goodness and, being a candidate of eternal bliss, they will successfully, through their trust in God, gain it.

Finally, Nursi refers to Prophet Abraham’s story, as narrated in the Qur’an. In order to make his people see the truth, when he sees a star he says: “This is my lord (according to your claims).” When the star sets (fades), he says “I do not love those that set.” When he sees the Moon, he says “This is my lord (according to your claims).” When he finds it fading, it becomes obvious that it cannot be his lord. When he sees the Sun, he says “This is my lord; this is larger.” When it sets, he says “O, my people, I am innocent of what you associate (with God).” The Qur’an speaks of his famous statement, “I do not love those that set” (6:76). Nursi says, referring to this story, “O my soul, since the truth is this, and since you are from the nation of Abraham, peace be upon him, be like Abraham and say that I do not love those that set and turn your face to the eternal Beloved.”

Footnotes 

1. The quotes in this article are taken from the Turkish Sozler by Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (Nesil Yayinlari, Istanbul: 1996) v. I, pp. 156-60; 292-93. For the English translation of the book see The Words, Nursi, S., Kaynak, Izmir:1997
2. Nursi refers to a grammatical rule in the Arabic lan- guage which indicates that a letter by itself has no meaning. In order to have a meaning it has to rely on something else. 

]]> https://fountainmagazine.com/all-issues/2004/issue-48-october-december-2004/prayer-an-inexhaustible-treasure-for-the-human-spirit-a-nursi-reader/ Fri, 01 Oct 2004 00:00:00 +0000 http://107.21.79.195/all-issues/2004/issue-48-october-december-2004/prayer-an-inexhaustible-treasure-for-the-human-spirit-a-nursi-reader/ There are two Arabic words that describe the nature of prayer. The word “salat” describes prayer through words and performance, such as bowing and prostrating. The word “dua” describes prayer through words, such as asking God to fulfill one’s needs.

Nursi frames his view on prayer by making use of the following verse from the Qur’an, which shows the paramount importance of prayer.

Say (O Muhammad, unto the unbelievers): My Lord would not care for you were it not for your prayer. (Furqan 25:77)

In the Islamic tradition, prayer is considered the most significant and mysterious means of relationship between humans and the Creator. Nursi considers prayer as the spirit of servanthood. Accordingly, all creatures in their own tongues pray to God, both consciously and unconsciously. Humans, angels, and the jinn (invisible creatures that are parallel to humans) all pray to God. Nursi divides prayer, basically, into four types.

The first type of prayer is a prayer through the language of capacity. This is the prayer of all kinds of seeds and grains. They pray to the Lord through the language of their capability by saying the following:

O Lord, grow us to express the beauty of Your names in a detailed manner. Change our small reality to the reality of a big tree.

Another aspect of this first type of prayer is through the relationship between cause and effect. Causes come together to bring about the result or the effect, and this is considered a prayer. The interconnectedness of the two forms a prayer. Causes, by their collective language, ask the Most Powerful Lord for the result. For example, water, air, earth, and fire come together through their collective language and ask the Lord to make a certain seed a tree or a plant. The cooperation of causes to create a result is a prayer. Because the result is so wonderfully organized and prepared, there cannot be the effect of unconscious causes in reality.

The second type of prayer is through the language of natural need. This is the prayer of all living creatures who receive their needs and their wishes in an unexpected way at an appropriate time, with no delay or interruption. According to the Islamic tradition, one of the ninety-nine names of God is the Most Compassionate. Creatures are unable to provide their needs if it is not provided by the Most Compassionate Creator. Therefore, utmost necessity is their prayer to the Lord. That means this is a mercy from the Lord as a result of this prayer. All living creatures are included in this category. For example, a fish in the dark of the sea will receive its sustenance. A bird receives its sustenance in an appropriate way. Humans receive their sustenance at an appropriate time and in an appropriate way. And all receive the most expensive one in the cheapest way. For example, humans breathe air, which is the most important thing, for free. The universe is prepared and given to humans according to their needs. There is an amazing relationship between the capacity of the human eye and sunlight. This is a prayer through the language of the natural needs of creatures. Therefore, Nursi says, “There is a constant prayer rising to the court of the Divine from the entire universe.”

third type of prayer is through the language of desperation. Every living creature in the time of extreme anxiety needs a safe haven. Through a desperate prayer, this refuge becomes its unknown protector and as a result “it faces toward the Most Merciful.”

The fourth type of prayer is the prayer of humans. It is divided into two parts. The first part is through the language of human efforts for their utmost needs. All efforts of scientists for the benefit of humanity are considered to be prayers and, therefore, are rewarded by God. For example, the scientific discoveries and technological advances of all times are a direct result of this collective prayer of scientists.

The second part is the common prayer that we know. This also has two types, according to Nursi’s understanding. The first type is called prayer through action. The second type is prayer through words. Both are necessary for achievement. For example, to farm, to sow seeds, is a prayer to God to receive a plentiful harvest. This is a prayer through action. Therefore, the person who farms does not expect his sustenance from the soil, but he thinks that the soil is a door to the mercy of the Creator. Through farming, people knock at this door to request their sustenance from the Lord. In Islam, the prayer through action is very significant and is often misunderstood. Prayer through words, if related to an action, has to accompany the prayer through action as well. If a student prays to the Lord and asks for a good grade instead of working and studying hard, this is fruitless. Instead, the student must work hard, study, and pray to the Lord for a good result. Therefore, whatever action is necessary for a good result must be used in conjunction with a prayer through words.

Prayer through words is the most common prayer amongst people. The Qur’an, the Holy Book of Islam, teaches Muslims how to supplicate and communicate with God by showing examples of this type of prayer. Believers use this type of prayer to turn to the Eternal, Merciful, and Compassionate God. The Qur’an describes such believers and their attribute of the essential element of humility in the following verse:

Call on your Lord humbly and secretly; surely He does not love those who exceed the limits… call on Him fearing and hoping; surely the mercy of God is nigh to those who do good. (A’raf 7:55-56)

Another Qur’anic verse suggests that God is close, and He accepts the prayer of His servants:

(O Muhammad) when My servants ask you concerning Me, then surely I am very near; I answer the prayer of the suppliant when he calls on Me, so they should answer My call and believe in Me that they may walk in the right way. (Baqara 2:186)

The Qur’an suggests that every prayer is answered. Therefore, no one returns empty-handed from His court, because in Islamic perspective, when people pray, they ask the One who can meet all of their needs, just as they would complain to a doctor who can heal all illnesses. When people pray to God, their mind, intelligence, and senses must be in a receptive state, in a state that they know surely that their prayer is heard.

Nursi brings to mind that in addition to being sincere while praying, believers should search for favored moments and seconds during which prayer is accepted. For example, the Holy Month of Ramadan and the Holy Days and Nights are important times for prayer. The Qur’an speaks of some Holy Days and Nights. One of them is called the Night of Power (Qadr), in which the Holy Qur’an was revealed. Another example is Friday, which is considered a Holy Day. Believers are expected to make full use of these moments. These are the times when divine blessings pour forth.

The Qur’anic way of prayer is to glorify God first, as it is presented in the first chapter of the Qur’an, “Praise be to the Lord of the Universe.” In the middle of the chapter, the suppliant asks their Lord for guidance to the right path.

Nursi advises that the prophetic and the Qur’anic formats of prayer are the closest to acceptance. In the second chapter, the Qur’an teaches humans what to ask from God. It says, “Our Lord, grant us good in this world and good in the hereafter” (Baqara 2:201). The second chapter also shows people how to pray when they face difficult conditions. “Our Lord, pour down upon us patience. Make our steps firm . . . .” The chapter ends with the following prayer:

Our Lord, do not punish us if we forget or make a mistake. Our Lord, do not lay on us a burden as You did on those before us. Our Lord, do not impose upon us that which we have not the strength to bear. Pardon us, forgive us and have mercy upon us. You are our protector. Give us victory over the unbelieving people.

The third chapter of the Qur’an reminds believers of a very significant prayer:

Our Lord, do not let our hearts deviate now after You have guided us. Grant us mercy from Your presence, for You are the granter of bounties without measure.

After a few verses, the chapter mentions the prayers of the pious:

“Our Lord, we have indeed believed. Forgive us our sins and save us from the agony of the Fire.

These verses draw our attention to the prayer of Jesus’ apostles:

Our Lord, we believe in what You have revealed, and we follow the Messenger. So write us down with those who bear witness. (Al Imran 3:53)

Toward the end of this chapter, there is a wish for a good end:

Our Lord, lo we have heard a cry calling unto faith. “Believe in your Lord.” So we believed. Our Lord, therefore, forgive our sins. Blot out all our evil deeds, and make us die the death of the righteous. (Al Imran 3:193)

The Qur’an essentially suggests that prayer and humble supplications lead to salvation in this life and also in the afterlife. Therefore, the Prophet of Islam, whose life was in total compliance with the Qur’anic ideal, is known as the Sultan of Prayer. He would open hands, turn to his Lord, overflow with thanks and glorification, bow and double himself up in prayer, and constantly pray to God. He did this throughout his life. He woke up every morning and performed his daily prayers, including prescribed and voluntary prayers. He would stay in God’s presence at night and spend most of his night in prayer. He would continue his prayer even while eating, going to bed, traveling, returning from a campaign, confronting an enemy, experiencing worldly or heavenly disasters, witnessing miraculous events, and suffering from illnesses or troubles. There are specific books dedicated to the Prophet’s prayers, which give more details about all of his supplications. For every occasion, the prophet used to say a special prayer. These prayers began to be used by Muslims and have continued throughout the history of Islam.

Nursi answers a question about the acceptance of prayer. The question is as follows: “We have prayed many times, but it seems like it is not accepted. Does this conflict with the general idea of the Qur’an, which suggests that every prayer is answered?” Answering this question, Nursi says the following: “To answer the prayer and to accept the prayer as we wish are different. God answers all prayers, but sometimes, He gives what He wants, not what we want. This is like someone who asks a doctor to look at them, and the doctor asks them what they want. They ask to be given medicine that tastes good, but the doctor, who knows the nature of their illness, sometimes does not give them what they want. What he gives them is something better for them than what they want, although it may not be as tasty.” 1

According to Islamic belief, all prayers are answered by God. Muslim theologians give this example: A person prays to God to give him a son, but God does not give him a son, He gives him a daughter like Mary, the Mother of Jesus. This does not mean that his prayer has not been answered; it has just been answered in a better way because a regular son cannot be compared to Mary.

According to Nursi, Muslims have to be conscious that prayer is a sign of servanthood. It has to be done, not for the sake of result, but for the sake of prayer. For example, in the time of drought, Muslims are expected to pray to God for rain because it is the time of prayer, just as the sunset is the time for the sunset prayer. Even when God’s cosmic work has already been astronomically predicted, in the form of lunar and solar eclipses, Muslims are expected to pray because it is the time of prayer. This prayer is not for a resolution, but instead they pray to God, who has shown His Majesty through such cosmic events. Natural disasters and calamities are also times for prayer. If these calamities are lifted through their prayer, this is wonderful, but if they are not lifted, Muslims are expected to continue prayer because the time of prayer has not yet passed.

In conclusion, Islam accepts that humans are weak and poor before God, and they need constant prayer to fulfill their achievements and to meet their needs. Nursi states that prayer is an inexhaustible treasure for the human spirit whose needs are not limited. Through prayer, humans, being the supervisors over all creatures in this universe, represent both their prayers and the prayers of all other creatures to the Creator. All believers collectively say, as it is indicated in the Qur’an, “You, O Lord, alone we ask for help.” Through prayer, the human spirit feels that there is someone that can hear its wishes, solve all problems, and meet all needs, which gives it utmost strength.

Footnote

1. Nursi, S., The Words, Kaynak A.S., Izmir, 1997 Twenty-third Word, pp. 412-415

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