Masses who have developed with different thoughts and objectives that are in conflict, and who have been deprived of positive cultivation, they form a society wherein passion, animosity, and hatred run rampant. Such a society promises nothing in the way of goodness and decency.

The harmony in this resplendent book of the universe continues with the mutual support of all things, living and non-living, and their coming together to form a cohesive whole. Every kind of destruction and devastation transpires due to the collision of opposing currents. Such destruction is proportionate to the intensity of the clash.

Human societies are united under the same feelings, thoughts, and visions. They reach spiritual perfection with the same edification and all have a promising future.

As for those masses who have developed with different thoughts and objectives that are in conflict, and who have been deprived of positive cultivation, they form a society wherein passion, animosity, and hatred run rampant. Such a society promises nothing in the way of goodness and decency. In such a tumultuous society, the odds of an individual finding his or her true purpose and attaining serenity are unlikely – and perhaps even impossible. This is especially true when that society’s chief institutions are at the epicenter of the upheaval. When this happens, the society has become completely disordered. As a result, chaos and confusion reign.

However, the regularity of human societies, as with the order and harmony in the universe, is necessary and indispensible, both so that humanity can conform to nature’s universal harmony and so that humans do not contradict their own innate disposition. Every movement that does not adhere to the general symphony present in the book of the universe is a debacle, and the populace that falls prey to this erroneous movement is very unfortunate.

As such, in a population where successive oppressions and counter aggressions in the name of reprisal form a vicious cycle, the turmoil and mayhem resulting from disputes, uncertainties, and above all, deficiencies of the heart and soul, will engulf its surroundings like a terrifying tornado. In the ensuing terror, none will have the security to consider and examine the events or the reasons behind them. And of course, in the meantime, with collisions taking place one after another, the nation-tree will be shaken over and over again; homes will be intermittently destroyed, and individuals left stupefied. If only those rushing to society’s rescue in the sphere of belief and thought possessed a sense of order, faith in renewal, the power of persuasion, and sincerity and earnestness. Alas! Not in the least!

Virtually none of them has embarked upon this task with a clear worldview, an initial plan and system, or any anxiety over their destiny. Perhaps, with respect to the majority, even those who first sensed and recoiled in the face of such danger, especially the sensitive and exceptionally spiteful, were so unrefined in spirit that they said “yes” to every kind of tyranny, attack, and domination for the sake of satiating their carnal selves…

How sad it is that in this struggle, which defies all reason and comprehension – or more precisely, in this uproar – those most wronged and perpetually subjected to tumult have been the innocent multitudes. These naive masses, united by their centuries old cultural and historical values, have been unable to determine quite where they have come from and where they are going. They have been dragged into error after error, unaware of whose account they were acting. They have been corrupted and afflicted even more as their intellectuals have been denying their past and all they ought to take pride in, who could have otherwise served as a beacon of light and direction. When, eventually, the seeds scattered on our soil with countless ill intentions sprang up and developed, all segments of society formed into “enemy-camps” ready for conflict.

The masses have become such an ill-fated and uninhibited horde-who excuse everything as permissible, obliterate in one stroke all that is sacred, and ridicule all their values-that an individual falling into their clutches is but a vagrant, not bound by any limitations. And, as such, the national spirit worn away for centuries by internal erosion, and paralyzed in these ill-omened hands, has become completely bedridden.

If only the behavior of those wanting to protect their spirit in the face of such destructive movements were heartfelt, valiant, compassionate, and constructive… Alas! They too, could not establish the expected balance and provide the people with a sense of security…

On the contrary, by responding to excessiveness with excessiveness, they sacrificed myriad magnificent, righteous, and beneficial things. In this chaos, truth was slaughtered innumerable times; on top of that, those who slaughtered it did so for another presumed truth. How many times the masses were fooled and the multitudes were set against each other with wrong being shown as right and right being shown as wrong! Time and time again, after the battles erupting between enemy camps exhausted both groups, rifts had already formed that were difficult to heal.

Indeed, in this collective chaos, however harmful and destructive this ravenous “miscreant-spirit” has been, those naive immature spirits unable to rest their defense on a sensible system and who return “hate” for hate and “anger” for anger, have been just as detrimental. And thus, on one side are those miserable creatures who have rejected all their human values, have denied their past and their source of pride, and through an ever-increasing estrangement, have completely altered their nature-those irreverent, unloving, rootless, disbelieving slaves of their desires. And on the other side, up against these wretched creatures, are only those simpletons, deprived of the fighting spirit and ideal, who respond with anger, coercion, and brute force… For years on end, people grappled with the waves emerging from these opposing currents, resisted all these eddies, were assaulted again and again, and were repeatedly abandoned to hopelessness…

At this time, we await a community of devotees, who will “neutralize” these damaging currents. They will be respectful of the truth, hold the sake and pleasure of God over everything else, possess reason and conscience, have enlightened minds, radiant hearts, and souls that take flight in the realms high above. They will be reverent towards all the universal values we inherited from our forebears, to traditions and customs, to art and culture, and to morality and sound upbringing. This cadre would not overturn the spiritual roots and historical values that have held us on our feet for centuries. On the contrary, they would revive these in the face of changing world conditions; and, viewing each of these as a part of the national structure, would take complete ownership of them.

At a time when our sense of identity faces annihilation, this group of blessed ones-the possessors of this “sense of sacred suffering” who take upon themselves the task of its rescue-will applaud goodness and neutralize evil. They will do so by thwarting the internal decay and discord that has gnawed away at society for years on end, by ensuring a road for peace, and by removing the archaic methods, damaging fanaticisms, and monopolist designs used by both groups and which have crippled our society.

Today, when society’s ailments have reached their peak, when real enmity and our enemies have clearly emerged, and when the dialogue we have with the world to which we are connected gains strength with every passing day, we are exceedingly hopeful for humankind and hold the belief that we will rise once again.

Concepts like the number zero, negative numbers, complex numbers, matrices, and spatial geometry are inventions of mathematicians which were studied earlier and presented especially for the use of physicists. When mathematicians theorized the “Group Theory,” they were reported to have said, “Finally we have developed something that physicists cannot use.” However, this theory, which stemmed from intangible algebra, was found to be useful in investigating the symmetry of physical systems and had serious applications in particle physics.

If there were no mathematical advances, would physics and other sciences have developed as far as they have? What does it mean that sciences are found in such an interrelated state, and thus support each other?

The perfect relationship between physics and mathematics, as in the expression of many physical laws via simple mathematical equations, is truly amazing. The laws that describe the physical world – from equations expressing the laws of motion (like X=V.t, V=a.t, F=m.a h= (gt2)/2), to basic electrical equations (like V=I.R, P=I.V, E=V/d), going all the way to the equations that define gravitational forces and the expansion of the universe (like F=G.m1.m2/d2, V=H.d) – can easily be expressed through mathematics. Furthermore, this simplicity and plainness in creation of the universe fascinates many scientists. Einstein expressed this fascination when he said, “The most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that it is comprehensible.”

One of the most important relations between mathematics and physics is that the independent study of intangible works of mathematics unexpectedly became one of the best tools to describe the physical world. Numbers, for example, are one of the greatest inventions of humanity. Humans have used them to quantify their properties. For thousands of years, people used numbers, but then the concept of negative numbers developed for seemingly no reason. For centuries, negative numbers were seen as nonsense. Of course there is not a square with a negative side length, a circle with a negative value area, or a classroom with negative number of students. However, negative numbers were found to be applicable in many areas of physics; they are now accepted as being as real as positive numbers. For instance, it is almost impossible to graph position-time, speed-time, acceleration-time, and the momentum-speed relation of objects without negative numbers.

Ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas (plane sections of cones cut in different shapes) were studied by Apollonius (BC 262-200), who was a contemporary of Archimedes. Interestingly these shapes were one day used by Kepler and Newton to describe the orbits of heavenly bodies like planets. Three dimensional pentagonal and hexagonal patterns, like those on the surface of a soccer ball, were also investigated by Archimedes. This shape has been found to be in exact configuration of a special carbon molecule composed of 60 atoms.

Likewise, the number zero, which was introduced by Muhammad bin Ahmad, in 967, led to many innovations in mathematics, as well as physics. Did al-Khwarizmi (780-850) know, when he found and utilized 1st and 2nd degree equations, that he was working on something mathematicians and physicists could one day never do without?

Imaginary numbers, as proposed against the main principles of arithmetic, also provides a very good example for this topic. We cannot think of a number whose square is negative in normal conditions. In other words, when a number is multiplied with itself, the resulting number is always a positive number. But mathematicians thought of a number that is negative when squared and continued various studies accordingly. Again, these studies have proven to be an important tool, especially in understanding electrical circuits by physicists.

Let’s finish our examples with ones from modern physics. Riemann (1826) was a mathematician who studied spatial geometry and proposed the concept of space curves. Mathematical equations designed by Riemann, pertaining to spatial geometry, were used by Einstein in 1908 to describe and formulate the concept of general relativity. Einstein also used Minkowski’s four dimensional geo-spatial continuum when developing his theory of general relativity.

There are many more examples. The famous Russian mathematician Friedman established a mathematical model that allows the expansion of the universe by improving Einstein’s model of universal geometry. This model was also later confirmed by the physicist De Sitter in discovering universal expansion and by Hubble in formulating the expansion. In addition, well before the discovery of quantum mechanics, Davit Hilbert proposed the complex vector space with a very different mathematical purpose known as “Hilbert Space.” This concept of space with an infinite number of dimensions is today used by quantum mechanics.

Sometimes physical realities can be foreseen via these invented equations. For example, Dirac proposed the existence of a particle known as the positron (or as we call it, the twin of the electron; it just differs by the charge) through his mathematical equation that he wrote in 1928. Four years later this particle was discovered by Carl D. Anderson, as predicted. To name, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), a famous physicist and mathematician, predicted the presence and speed of electromagnetic waves mathematically via his own equations. Later, these waves were detected by Hertz (1886) through experiments. Again, Maxwell calculated the speed of electromagnetic waves via his equations, and by revealing that it was equal to the speed of light, it was understood that light was also a type of electromagnetic wave. Nowadays, the particle called the “graviton,” which is supposed to be in charge of gravitational forces, and the “Higgs” particle, that theoretically fills space according to quantum theory, are waiting to be discovered.

The book of nature is written in such a way that it is expressible by mathematical language. Famous physicist Sir James Jeans (d. 1946) expressed this situation as follows: “From the intrinsic evidence of his creation, the Great Architect of the Universe now begins to appear as a pure mathematician.” Yes, the level of knowledge that is at play in the universe encompasses both physics and mathematics. The overall interconnectedness of sciences and the interdisciplinary character physics and mathematics point to an owner of this knowledge.

As a conclusion we can deduce that physics and mathematics, just like material and non-material worlds, are in fact intertwined with each other’s various dimensions. The physical face of the universe is the place where records are kept and concepts of matter like heavy or light, big or small, and soft or hard, exist. The mathematical face of the universe (as if spiritual) is the unseen side of events or materials that are hidden and intangible. In a way, this relation between physics and mathematics is a display of the material and spiritual sides of universe.

Nuri Balta is the Head of Physics department at Samanyolu Schools in Turkey. He is also pursuing a PhD degree in Physics at Middle Eastern Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.

1. Genes and inheritance
2. Obesity
3. Lack of exercise

The diagnosis of diabetes is described as a level of sugar that is above a certain amount in the blood stream. In fact, diabetes itself is the metabolic disorder of three food sources: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (Cholesterol and especially triglycerides). As healthcare providers we, doctors and scientists, are very much aware that the physiology-that is, the mechanism-of this wonderful sugar metabolism is one of many harmonies existent in the human body. While patients with diabetes seek help from us, our help is limited to what we have learned-and are still learning-from the human body. Thus, the medication we use today are not miracles, but rather a good example of understanding how one of the many mechanisms in body works.

Since the discovery of insulin in 1921, a hormone that is secreted from the pancreas and the only one to work at lowering the level of sugar in the body (several others increase the sugar level)-the development of treatments for diabetes has been focused on greatly in an effort to better serve humankind. Such developments include tiny, sharp needles and pens to deliver the insulin-known as insulin pens. Currently many alternative insulin delivery methods have been developed-via the skin or lungs-yet none of these are as successful as the human body’s normal program for dealing with a rise in the sugar during stressful conditions and after meals. Despite the incredible efforts and impressive studies carried out on both animals and humans, not every method of diabetes management (treatment) is suitable for every individual. Each person is unique regarding the capacity of their pancreas to generate insulin.

In the United States, more than 20 million people have diabetes; however this number is well below the actual number of sufferers. Having enough insulin is not the solution to the problem, while resistance to the action of this hormone can limit its efficacy leaving the glucose (sugar) level high. This further suppresses the pancreas’ ability to provide insulin and the remaining glucose becomes toxic to many vital organs, causing several of the following conditions:

• Heart (heart attack)

• Liver (fatty liver)

• Brain (stroke)

• Vessels (hardening of the arteries)

• Blood (easy clotting)

• Feet (gangrene and amputation)

• Immune system (suppression of the immune system, in turn leading to a tendency to infections, giving the opportunity of germs to invade various parts of the body; in the same way increase of tuberculosis bacteria, yeast infections, pneumonia)

• Skin (late healing after abrasions or trauma)

Excess sugar is converted into cholesterol which will further accelerate the detrimental effects to the vital organs (brain, heart, kidney).

Current suggestions for the management of the problem with sugar are education, better diets, correct and regular exercise, correct medication and careful follow-up. We know that God created cures for every illness. Respecting and thinking of this will encourage many of us to concentrate on solving the problem of diabetes. Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, indicates “Eat and drink, but never waste” and “Leave the food table before you are full.” The diet that is recommended for people with diabetes is to eat small amounts of food during the 3 main meals and to add 3 snacks to control the undesirable rise in sugar that occurs after eating a large amount. We are informed that we are full due to the induction of tension receptors in the stomach after the meal, the induction of the brain, and the digestion of food that leads to an increase in the level of sugar in the blood stream… etc. Unfortunately, most diabetics wait for the third mechanism to operate before leaving the table; as a result, they may continue to eat and further increase their blood sugar level, and this may in turn be the reason for early or late complications in diabetes.

Today, the greatest number of diabetics per population are the Pima Indians living in Arizona. Interestingly, a new molecule that has recently been developed seems to have a preventive efficacy for the development of diabetes and to assist in its satisfactory management, even after the diagnosis of diabetes. This molecule was actually found to be present in the saliva of Gila Monster again that is fairly close to the area where these affected tribes live.

Kelly J. Smith is a clinical diabetes research scientist in Arizona. 

As is the case in many scientific arenas, the first studies in the field of algorithms were conducted by Muslim scientists. The concept of algorithm was used for the first time by the worldwide renowned Muslim scientist Al-Khwarizmi, who lived between 780–850 AD in Baghdad. Al Khwarizmi put his name to historic studies in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and geography. His work entitled Hisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala (Calculation by Completion and Balancing) constitutes the first collection of algorithms. The Latin translation attracted great attention in Europe. The Europeans used the term algoritmi, rendered from “Khwarizmi,” to refer to rules for solving arithmetical problems by using Arabic numerals.

Having first developed as a branch of mathematics, algorithms have been described as a sequence of instructions that is used to solve a certain problem. These finite number of steps,begin at a certain point and come to an end with a result. But, today when we talk about algorithms, what comes to mind are the methods pursued in the operations of sequencing in computer programming; though algorithms are used in many fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, and music.

When different algorithms are used for solving the same problem, this enables us to reach the same solution through different means. There are, for instance, a great number of sorting algorithms (selection sorting, merge sorting, quick sorting) that have been developed for the purpose of incrementally sorting a given set of numbers. The same also applies to the search algorithms which find a given number in a set of numbers. What does this imply for us? Different people can attempt to solve the same problem with different algorithms or approaches that are better, truer or more “beautiful”. Thus, it is always important not to reject an idea without a prior examination or understanding, to welcome proposals of different opinions and to try to benefit from better alternatives or solutions. Thus, we can understand from an algorithmic approach that establishing dialogue and showing mutual respect are essential moral virtues in transforming differences into wealth.

Computer algorithms solve certain problems according to pre-defined parameters. Thus, we should never forget that computers cannot carry out a spontaneous operation, but can only carry out functions that have previously been programmed into them by human beings. Although some researchers, by relying too much on recent developments in computer sciences, and particularly in fields like artificial intelligence, attribute human characteristics to computers. They even estimate that they can produce human-like things in the near future, which seems rather unfeasible when we consider countless physical and spiritual features of humans. What does this imply for us? Pursuing a systematic method when solving problems in both computer sciences and daily life would considerably increase one’s success rate in solving any problems encountered. The most critical stages in problem solving are obviously a correct diagnosis and full description of the problem. The algorithms are developed and the most coherent and suitable are then chosen.

After an algorithm is designed in a flowchart, it is translated into software and tested against verifiable data prior to its usage in real operations. This test is necessary to prevent probable flaws in the software. What does this imply for us? By utilizing all the talents and especially the intelligence granted to us, human beings are always able to find what is better or truer. Research has been conducted in scientific studies by keeping in mind that there is always a next step in any development that has been achieved; the experience of the history of mankind demonstrates that a method that has been developed today might prove to be inadequate tomorrow.

When analyzing a number of different algorithms that are used to solve the same problem, the cost is assessed, with the least costly and most suitable one being selected. The cost of an algorithm is determined according to the number of operations carried out in solving any problem. An algorithm which solves the same problem with a greater number of steps has a lesser efficiency and a lesser performance.

Sorting algorithm by insertion

Sorting algorithms are one of the most frequently used algorithms in computers. As sorted data is more easily processed and used, data are usually sorted first with a sorting algorithm before it is processed within more costly operations.

In insertion sort (i.e., sorting by insertion), numbers to be sorted are inserted into a new “sorted” set. The new sorted set is empty at the beginning, and the numbers are inserted one by one into the right position of this set. During each insertion, the number at hand is compared to the numbers of the new set from the smallest to the largest. During a comparison, if the term (number) at hand is smaller than the term in the new sorted set, then the term is inserted right before the term in the sorted set. As each term is generally compared with all the terms which precede it, sorting of n numbers is done by about n2 comparisons. Thus, the cost of such a sorting algorithm is O(n2).

The quick-sort algorithm

This algorithm is used to find the shortest way between two points. Let us suppose that we have a limited number of points, some of which are inter-related. During this type of calculation, the shortest way is systematically found by checking all the combinations that have been able to be established among given points. The web sources that are provided for planning routes and mapping services with PNDs (Portable Navigation Devices) for travelers can be given as examples; here the minutest details of every highway and road have been recorded to the virtual media. In accordance with certain criteria, by taking into consideration all the probable routes between the two addresses provided by the user, the optimum driving route, including road and street names, is suggested.

Use of algorithm in medicine

Any research or inquiry used in the diagnosis and treatment/curing of a disease is defined as a medical algorithm. The logic of a decision tree is used in diagnosing, curing and following up diseases with these algorithms. Guiding algorithms, for example, “if symptoms A, B, C are observed in patient, then, the patient is probably suffering from the disease D, so, use the treatment E” are used in medical expert systems. The purpose of such algorithms is to standardize the medical services provided and thus minimize potential uncertainties and errors that likely to arise. Moreover, such algorithms are also used for educational and training purposes and as a guide to approaching the patients, diagnosing and curing diseases and towards solving their problems with greater ease. A great number of medical information that has been published has been transformed into numerous algorithms, ranging from those that use simple calculations to those that make highly complicated decisions. For instance, in the algorithm that was developed to measure the Body Mass Index (BMI), age, sex, height and weight are among the questions that are asked of the patient. The data obtained from the patient is later applied to a formula developed from the experiences of medical science, and the said index can thus be calculated. However, doctors should compare the results obtained from such algorithms with their existing knowledge, for even such simple algorithms as BMI become undependable in different cases, for example an athlete or an expectant mother. Algorithms only provide guidance for physicians, but the final decision should be taken by the physician after having individually assessed the status of each and every patient.

Algorithms and music

The algorithmic composition has been used in music for centuries to produce music with a methodological approach. Canon, for example, is a form of music produced with an algorithm in which a melody is replicated by one or more imitations of it played after a given duration.

Human brain, nature, and algorithms

Although the secrets of brain have not yet been fully explained, vital information has been compiled about its biological structure and functioning, thus proving that different sections of the brain fulfill different roles. Such sophisticated tasks as controlling the bodily organs, mental discernment, functions corresponding to the use of tongue and other sensory activities, the perception of colors, calculation of actions and the perception of physical conditions, are all carried out by use of brain mechanisms and faculties. All these tasks are accomplished by algorithmic processes which have not yet been fully explained. The issue of the unification of the data or images received by the eyes is, for instance, one of the matters that scientists do not yet fully understand. Although many have tried to imitate the human brain, such simple cerebral functions as walking and communicating have, to date, not been convincingly imitated.

What algorithms imply for us

As science and technology develop more and more, new inventions are being made, algorithms are being proposed for unsolved problems, while algorithms of already solved problems are being further developed. For example, many ciphers, which in the 1970s were believed to be unsolvable within an acceptable span of time, are being easily solved today thanks to the algorithms that have been developed and the ever-increasing operational power of computers. Consequently, developments in algorithms suggest to us that we should always search for that which is better and more effective; also we should remember that there are a number of different ways that lead to the very same target. Thus, we should always be open to the ideas of others and willing to consult with them before making a decision about any subject.

Ahmet Isik has a PhD in mathematics and is a freelance writer.

References

• Cormen, T. H., C. E. Leiserson, R. L. Rivest, Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms, MIT Press, 24th Edition, 2000.
• http://www.nist.gov/dads/termsType.html#P

In this article I address four questions regarding the importance of mathematics in our lives:

1. Why is mathematical thinking significant to comprehend the universe and how it runs?

2. What are the problems in the new millennium and what solutions to these problems are expected from scientists?

3. How important a role does mathematics play in today’s world?

4. What is the relationship between defense industry and space research

In contemporary scientific research methodology, mathematics is the most objective tool which can be used to draw a general conclusion from outcomes obtained. Mathematics is considered to be an expression of the knowledge of the All-Knowing. This characteristic of mathematics recognized by Muslim scholars in the Middle Ages was emphasized by well known scholars such as Ghazali, Al-Biruni, Nasiruddin Tusi, Al-Hujandi, and Al-Khwarizmi. Following in the path of Muslim scholars and being considered one of the pioneers of modern science, Galileo stated in his second book published in 1623, Il Saggiatore, that “it is impossible to understand the universe without learning the real logic of the universe and decoding its characters. The universe was created in mathematical logic and it is impossible for us as human beings to comprehend its words without mathematics.” Galileo’s statement points towards an important truth-that even though it is possible partially to explain the intricate perfection in the universe through the mathematics that has been developed so far, we are not skilled enough to produce or comprehend any mathematical systems or formulas that can express the whole universe despite the complexity of occurrences that go on in the universe.

In the history of science, the structure and the mechanism of the universe have been explained to some extent using mathematics. Physicists have developed equations to demonstrate the structure of matter and forces in nature. An engineer who designs an artificial heart considers the equation that governs the bloodstream in a vein. An astronaut at NASA utilizes equations that describe the motion of satellites or the orbit of a spacecraft. In our contemporary world, the crucial role of mathematics is the main reason why Landon Clay, a millionaire philanthropist and the founder of the Clay Mathematics Institute, came up with a list of seven “millennium problems” and promised seven million dollars to the first person who found the solution to each of them. They have not yet been solved.

Many of us remember traditional mathematics classes as boring because they were not apparently related to real life. Only once symbols and equations become meaningful and solutions are found, does mathematics become pleasurable. Despite the stress endured, true success is hidden in the process of writing the correct equation. An equation developed to solve a specific mathematics problem becomes an invention when it is practically used in life, for example, to build a spacecraft or design a medical device.

However; in order to make an invention, the correct equation for that invention needs to be developed, or a pre-developed equation that works for the invention needs to be determined. The next step is to solve it. Even if the solution to an equation cannot be found, an approximate solution can always be discovered and used to build an invention.

The equations for two of the millennium problems come from physics. One of the problems involves finding a general solution to the Navier-Stokes equations governing fluid dynamics. These equations were first formulated in the 1820s to describe the motion of fluids and gasses. Examples include the flow of water around a boat, air over the wings of a plane, and blood pumped from the heart to the vessels. At first glance, the Navier-Stokes equations resemble equations taught at the undergraduate level in the fields of science and engineering. However, the way they look is deceptive because no one has ever come close to finding the general solution to these equations. Even though a general solution to these equations does not yet exist, the Navier-Stokes equations do help one comprehend the aforementioned problem. Therefore, they do not help naval architects to construct better marine vehicles, aerospace engineers to build better aircrafts and spacecrafts or biomedical engineers to build artificial organs.

Another millennium problem involves finding a solution to the set of equations formulated by Chen-Ning Yang and Robert Mills in 1954 that describe the fundamental forces of nature. This set of equations reveals the description of the raw material out of which everything in the universe has been created. None of these equations have been solved so far. Physicists have gained accurate results and made calculations tested in laboratories based on Yang-Mills equations that could be solved by using computers as in Navier-Stoke equations. Even though these kinds of equations provide physicists with almost all the necessary information, no one has ever been able to solve the Yang-Mills equations by known methods. What is important is not to solve equations; it is to figure out what the solution means instead. Using numbers and making calculations based upon these equations remain secondary despite their importance.

As a result of positivist and materialist approaches to knowledge and science, most people today are interested in science and technology for the sake of their own material wealth and comfort. If this degrading approach continues, worldwide degeneration cannot be prevented. However, mathematics is a universal language generated by mathematical thinking. This type of thinking is one of the qualities of the “inheritors of the earth.” In The Statue of Our Souls (2005), M. Fethullah Gulen says,

In the past the people in Central Asia and later on in the West achieved their renaissances by means of the laws of mathematical thinking. Man discovered and brought to light many uncertain and unknown things in the mysterious world of numbers. Without going to the extremes of the Hurufis,^[1] what we say is that without mathematics it is not possible to understand the relations of humanity and natural phenomena with one another. It illuminates our roads like light on the line that stretches from the universe to life; it indicates to us what is beyond the human horizon, even the depths of the world of contingencies, which is very difficult to think upon; and it makes us meet with our ideals.

On the other hand, being mathematical does not mean knowing everything related to mathematics. It is to think mathematically, to think within mathematical laws, and to be aware that it permeates everything from man’s thoughts to the depths of existence, from physics to metaphysics, from matter to energy; from body to soul, from law to Sufism. In order to comprehend existence completely, we have to accept a dual method of Sufi thinking and scientific research. The West essentially lacks essence, and has tried to compensate for this loss, as far as it can, by taking refuge in mysticism. In our world, which has been always intimate with the soul of Islam, there is no need to look for anything strange or foreign, or to take refuge in anything. We have all our sources of power within our system of thought and faith. That suffices as long as we comprehend that source and spirit with its original richness. Then we will see some of the mysterious relations in existence, how harmoniously such relations run, and reach a different knowledge of observing and taking pleasure in everything.

In short, being mathematical is necessary to describe the universe we live in and the principles of how it runs. This tool will be considered triumphant in as much as it can remove blockages from the individual’s eyes and exhibit the truth. Only if scientists who have attained the harmony of heart and mind penetrate into the secrets of existence, utilizing science and its fruits for the benefit of humanity, will justice be done to their profession.

Global traffickers in humans bring people from underdeveloped or developing countries, enticing them with the promise of work or a better life, to developed countries, where there is an immense demand for labor. These people are forced to work painstakingly long shifts at unskilled and demeaning jobs; for example, men are forced to do dangerous tasks that require physical strength, often working without any safety precautions. Minors are forced to work in less labor-intensive jobs, but again for extremely long hours without any proper training. Women are forced to work in socially degrading and debasing jobs, which in some areas are no different from slavery, and the worst, they are used in prostitution.

Nowadays there is a global sector abusing minors and women for these vicious purposes. On the other hand, the acquisition of the global dimensions of TH can be seen to be an outcome of poverty and the misery that results from the poor socio-economical situation of third world countries. Most international trafficking in humans is from poor countries to developed countries. It has also been witnessed that this problem is aggravated by the peculiar traits of prosperous societies.

What is Trafficking in Humans?

In most countries where TH is committed, there are no conceptual or legal precautions taken to protect against such abuses. Within the classical conception, TH is usually defined as the abuse of people in actual physical slavery. Yet today, since the problem has become so widespread as to be global, and as TH is committed for the sake of contemptible purposes, this narrow-scoped definition is no longer sufficient. Thus, the United Nations felt the need to define TH in a broader context.(1)

The ultimate goal of TH is to force people to work in oppressive and exploitative situations in a way that will benefit the organized human traffickers. These conditions include the coercion of men to work in the most menial and labor-intensive jobs, women and girls to partake in debasing activities, servanthood, counterfeit marriages and adoptions, even prostitution, with secret contracts that are in no way legal, forcing them to work under harsh conditions.(2)

The Factors that Nourish TH

For the most part, human traffickers utilize new technological tools of transportation, communication, and media to accomplish their goals. The Internet is a commonly used tool. Some matchmaking companies in developed countries work outside of legal boundaries. Not only do they put ads in the national newspapers, they also put the c.v. and photographs of women and girls who are willing to marry rich men onto the Internet.(3)

This evil marketing approach illegally prospers under the guise of matchmaking and is generally ignored by the countries from where it originates. This, in part, stems from the mutual benefit of the involved parties (for example, bribing officials while transporting people across borders.)(4)

TH is also related to what is called “pleasure tourism.” Third world countries that depend heavily on tourism revenue tend to neglect the conditions that contribute to such problems. For example, Kenya has overlooked TH in order to support tourism. In order to please the increasing number of tourists, women are even brought from neighboring countries, like Uganda.(5)

Undoubtedly, the International Development Banks as well as multinational financial institutions are also responsible for TH by supporting the countries involved and ignoring the socio-ethic consequences. Among developed countries, according to Focus, the Germany is the country most involved in tourism for base purposes. Between 200,000 and 400,000 Germans travel to Far Eastern countries, mostly Thailand and the Philippines, for this purpose each year. In Thailand, among the 1.5 million women employed in such demeaning jobs as prostitution, 800,000 of them are minors. In the Philippines, the minors involved number between 30 and 60,000. In such countries, diseases like AIDS are widespread. For instance 80% of women working in such forms of employment in Thailand are infected with HIV. According to data from the World Health Organization, there will be over 40 million AIDS patients in a couple of years.(6) Lately, there have been reports that after the Tsunami in the Far East, TH has increased in the victimized regions where children now have even less protection.

The multinational organized crime groups who commit TH usually employ two methods. One is to bring women and minors who are already in an abusive situation to developed countries. The other is to promise good wages, work conditions, and prospects to desperately poor people and then to force them to undertake unthinkable actions. For example, as the demand in the evil practice of TH for prostitution increasingly turns to younger and younger girls, due to concerns about AIDS, the second form of TH is frequently committed. As a result, there is an increasing demand for foreign women and girls in developed societies, where marriage has become something to be put off, or perhaps altogether avoided.(7) According to UN data, one million minors are traded in the global TH market.(8)

Although TH is one of the most heinous crimes and something that requires serious punishment, the victims of TH face many discouraging impediments if they try to seek their rights. Most of the time, suspects manage to get away with a very light punishment, if any, as the victims cannot prove their case. Thus, although the judicial system protects women in theory, in practice TH is easier to commit than most people think and remains unpunished. It would be useful to give the example of a trial that lasted eleven months here. At the end of the trial, which was brought to court by Thai women who were promised work in pubs as waitresses in Germany, the criminals were found guilty of “encouraging prostitution” rather than TH; the former carries a much lighter punishment. In the hearings, the women said that they were forced to marry German nationals in Denmark so that they could enter Germany legally and attain a work permit. But later, they were forced to engage in prostitution “to pay for the expenses.”(9) The abuse of women sometimes can be hidden behind a legal disguise. For example, in Berlin a female computer programmer had been laid off from work, and was on unemployment benefit. When a brothel owner saw her c.v. on a database of job seekers and offered her a position, she refused on moral grounds. The government then threatened to cut her unemployment benefits, as she had refused a job. Surprisingly, brothels were legalized two years ago in Germany, and now are considered to be just “another workplace.”(10)

Final Remarks

The people who are forced to work underground or in demeaning jobs know neither the language nor the laws of the country to which they have been brought with fake documents. As the dependents or guardians of these people are paid in advance, it is even more difficult for these people to return to their families as long as their financial dependence continues. On the other hand, if they notify the authorities, they will face deportation and be arrested, as they are not legally residing in that country.

TH can be said to be modern slavery from the perspective of the methods used, the purposes it serves, and the exertion of physical and psychological oppression on the victims. Hence, it is necessary to protect people who are victims of TH wherever they live through the law, and to severely punish the human traffickers. 

References

1. The declaration of UN-General Secretary about “Trafficking in Women and Girls,” number A/50/369. date:08/24/1995.
2. The decision of UN-General Committee, number: 49/166, date:12/23/1994.
3. Bundesministerium fur Familie, Senioren, Frauen, und Jugend (BMFJ) (Federal Ministry for Family, Seniors, Women, and Youth). Materialen zur Frauenpolitik (Materials of Women Politics). Nr.63. Bonn 1997. p.20.
4. Marjan, Wiyers and Lin Lap, Chew; Trafficking in Women; Forced Labor and Slavery-Like Practices in Marriage, Domestic Labor and Prostitution, Utrecht. 1996, p45.
5. BMFJ, same issue.
6. Focus, Nr. 2; 1995. pp 111-114.
7. Licia, Brussa. Survey of Prostitution, Migration and Traffic in Women: History and Current Situation; EU, EG/Prost (91) 2; p.42.
8. Der Spiegel. Nr. 35, 1996, p.31.
9. Elvira, Niesner et al. A woman’s Dignity is Inviolable: A Trial on Trafficking in Women, Forschungsprojekt im Auftrag des BMFJ (Research Project on behalf of BMFJ); Frankfurter Institut fur Frauendforschung (Frankfurt Institute for Women Research). Frankfurt; 1991.
10. The world at a glance…The Week, volume 5, issue 196, February 25, 2005. 

A: Genuine knowledge (ilm) is a source of infinite light covered with truth, which leads enlightened people toward the righteous path. Modern science is built and developed upon existing information gained through experimentation and correcting previous errors. In general, science represents theories and hypotheses that we devise and pursue in order to acquire knowledge. From this point of view, knowledge and science are not the same and must not be considered as synonyms. For example, sometimes ilm is mistranslated as science, because the translators do not take into consideration the genuine meanings of the words. This mistake can be excused when it is made by the general population, who might not be aware of the difference; however, we expect scientists and professionals to use these terms correctly, according to their core meanings, so that their different meanings become obvious and clear.

Knowledge is born and developed between our hearts and minds. On the contrary, science is totally material, belongs to this world and all physical beings, and depends fully upon Earth’s natural rules. Science is born through theories, and its continued development always engenders doubt. Initially, science was built on rationalism and developed through positivism. It sprouts in the world of the five senses, and continues its life with reference to the theoretical mind. Most of the time, science rejects things that cannot be seen or heard. In fact, its eyes are blind to the concealed meaning of existence, and its ears cannot hear it. Modern science accepts only those objects and events that can be perceived by the five senses.

Scientific developments in the classical Islamic world have had a tremendous influence upon the achievements of modern science. Several Western scholars and writers, among them Maurice Bucaille, Jacques Cousteau, Alex Carrel, Thomas Carlyle, and Roger Garaudy agree with this fact, and state that the West totally owes all its achievements to the East. Andalusia, a Muslim state in Spain, was a perfect example of this process. In some cases, Western scientists considered the roots of the knowledge derived from the East to be abstract theories, and so they did not consider what they had given to humanity and upon what basics and pillars they had been built.

The West has mixed its materialistic ideas in the development of these ideas and sciences, and by restricting their analysis only to subjectivity, they alienated the roots from their origins. As a result, religion in the West was confined to the church and people could learn about their religion only when they came to the church to participate in religious ceremonies. Thus religion could not enter fully into the people’s lives. In fact, after Constantine, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, proclaimed Christianity to be the empire’s official religion in 315, the government strictly controlled its all relations with life. This approach toward religion was a bad luck for Christianity. The first 3 centuries of Christianity was the best time for this religion, despite the severe pressure that it faced, for it was a time of blossoming and purity. After became the official religion, Christians no longer faced oppression. However, the religion fell under the control of the government and was corrupted. According to the state, religion belonged in the church, and while people occasionally would come to the church to practice their religion, they could not make it an intimate part of their life. As a result, Christianity was divorced from everyday life, society had to accept that there was life without religion, and that there was religion without life. Given this reality, scientific research and implications had nothing to do with Christianity, and that religion became a moral institution whose only responsibility and activities were the ceremonies connected to birth and death.

The West’s scientific roots lie in the classical Greek and Roman civilizations. This knowledge was incorporated into the Islamic civilization, whose scholars and scientists developed it, made original contributions to it, and passed it on to the West. Unfortunately, Western scientists developed modern science as an independent enterprise completely separate from religion. Thus, its scientific development was built of unbelief and differs dramatically from the understanding of science and knowledge in the East.

On the other hand, knowledge and science flourished for centuries in the Islamic world. Some of its luminaries are Jabir, Ibn al-Haytham, al-Khawarizmi, al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina, and al-Farabi. Ancient Greek scholars claimed that the smallest particle of being is an atom. However, theologian Ibrahim al-Nazzam (d. 835/845) said that substance could be divided into pieces an infinite number of times, and spoke as a modern scientist who would say the same thing today. If we look at this from the theory of particles, it would be clear that al-Nazzam’s statements are true.

Muslim scholars never rejected or separated their inventions and discoveries from religion. Rather, knowledge and science reinforced their belief and understanding of religion. Even though they argued about various scientific matters, their attitude toward religion never differed from one another. For example, a Muslim physician-scholar like al-Razi had mystically spiritual intellect. Muslim scholars explored the universe in the name of The Creator, and every single discovery and invention brought a new passion, a new enthusiasm, and a spirit of new devotion. That is why they always traveled in the horizons of is there any more? and they lived in a state of continual passion of searching for the truth.

It is true that Muslim scholars understanding of knowledge developed their understanding of religion and created metaphysical tension in their lives. Several Qur’anic verses, such as: Behold! In the creation of the heavens and Earth, and the alternation of night and day, are Signs for men of understanding(3:190), always attracted Muslim scholars. Using such verses to inspire them, they devised their theories with a feeling of prayer toward God and built their knowledge upon a foundation of such an understanding and approach. Muslim scientists explored the heavens and Earth in the light of such verses, and learned and researched the relationship between the universe and Earth, such as the connection between a flower and the sun, the association of the smallest animals and living things to the sunlight, and so on. As a result of this approach, and by reciting the Qur’n while studying the universe (the Book of Existence), Muslim scholars strengthened their faith in and closeness to God.

However, due to today’s materialistic theories, Western scientists will never be free of the fear, anxiety, and unexpected surprises that might arise in their fields even though they reach the heavens and continue to solve the mysteries of the universe. On the contrary, Muslims believe that they can build castles even in the center of black holes, for: God’s Existence, Divine Beauty, and Power are behind everything. Perhaps black holes are no more than dark hallways toward brightness and light. As we enter the grave and come out of it toward Paradise, these undesired and unwanted black holes just might be bridges between the heavens and this world.

Western society, confined within the limits of discoveries and scientific inventions, cannot see the true beauty of the material world. But Muslim scholars and scientists, while learning and exploring life by means of Divine guidance and assistance, could read the wisdom and hidden purposes behind the things and events occurring in the material world and see God’s Divine Power behind everything in the universe. For example, consider the Islamic point of view toward the human face and appearance. Muslims never attributed such things to nature, which is unconscious and blind, but rather saw in that wonderfully beautiful human complexion the reflection of The Most Merciful and The Most Compassionate God. By seeking to increase their limited understanding, they made the limited unlimited and decorated simple mirrors with the most beautiful crafts and designs. From this point of view, Muslim scientists had the chance to see hidden wisdom and knowledge side by side, and could observe and witness clearly the things and events that were taking place in the material world.

The following Qur’anic verse describes such people: He grants wisdom to whomever He wills, and the one to whom wisdom is granted receives a benefit overflowing. However, none will grasp the Message but men of understanding (2:269). Such people with intellect can see the concealed wisdom. People who look to the universe without the glasses of wisdom and concealed truth see and observe things as unreasonable and useless.

Islam understands ilm to be that knowledge that was built and developed upon these fundamental basis. As a matter of fact, Islam considers the purpose of knowledge as bound to knowledge about God, His Divine Power, and His All-Mighty Wisdom. The result of knowing God is love for God, and the result of this love is spiritual happiness. Given this reality, Muslim scholars and scientists do not feel anxiety and hopelessness, for as they pursue their studies, they discover new existences, feel closer to God, and varying degrees of spiritual peace. For those who study the universe from such perspectives, knowledge is the way to reach material and spiritual happiness; for those who follow the path of materialism, knowledge can become the way to see the undesired consequences of existence and the final end of the universe. Such knowledge will cause them to be in a state of constant unhappiness.

For those who do not know The Most Merciful and The Most Compassionate Lord of the universe, the sun will burn out in 5 billion years. Such knowledge will spread fear into their hearts, for they will think that œafter the sun burns out, the horrible end of the worlds will begin and we will dissolve into atomic pieces and face non-existence. They will suffer from being a part of this universe. In short, following a materialistic approach to science results in hopelessness, fear, and disappointment. At this point, knowledge (in the Islamic context of this world and the Hereafter) gives confidence, and science (in the materialistic context of being limited to what the five senses can perceive) gives hopelessness. Thus, the two contradict each other. Those who follow the path of knowledge, by His help and guidance, always will walk in enlightenment and will never be disappointed or have doubts about the future.

In order for such things to happen, all of the aspects of knowledge (ilm) and science must be taken into consideration. That is why many modern scholars and scientists are trying to change and direct existing materialistic theories and approaches toward the Islamic understanding of knowledge and science. A number of them are convinced that the contemporary Western approaches are based upon unbelief and that they cannot be changed. If materialistic science makes no effort to find God, and if it does not strive to become a mirror showing His Divine Beauty, humanity’s future may be unexpectedly dramatic.

Judaism and Christianity also emphasize peace and trustworthiness. No revealed religion can clash with another. Furthermore, all of them but especially Islam thoroughly reject corruption, oppression, and conflict.

Historically, Muslim governments did participate in battles and wars, just like any other government. No government or religion can claim not to have participated in such events. But I would like to remind the readers of the words of the man who was tortured on the cross: ‘Let him who is without sin cast the first stone’ (John 8:7).

All claims of innocence in this matter are no more than distortions of history. Islam allows military action only in the cases of self-defense or to repel those who interfere in its affairs. Over the centuries, a vast body of literature on the proper conduct of war was developed. Today, such guidelines are known as ‘laws of war.’

Many Qur’anic verses deal with the concepts of justice and peace, both of which are the current essence of the modern legal system developed to protect life, capital, and reproduction. For example: Deal fairly, and do not let the hatred of others for you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just, for that is next to piety, and fear Allah (5:8); If someone kills another person, unless it be for murder or for spreading mischief in the land, it would be as if he had killed all people (5:32); If the enemy inclines toward peace, you (also) incline toward peace and trust in Allah, for He is the All-Hearing, All-Knowing (8:61); and O believers, enter into peace (Islam) wholeheartedly, and do not follow Satan’s footsteps, for he is your avowed enemy (2:208).

In the Hadith literature, Prophet Muhammad describes Muslims as those people from whom others are secure from their tongues and hands.(1) In other words, those Muslims who are not known for their provision of security and trustworthiness to others must reexamine their claim to be Muslim.

In another hadith, the Prophet was asked: ‘Which action is more virtuous in Islam?’ He replied, and I hope his response brings us to sharp vision in this theme: ‘Muslims who invite others to their meals and who give greetings to everyone, even if they have never met before.'(2)

I would like to give some more hadiths to clarify even further the Prophet’s view on this subject:

The Prophet spent first 13 years of his mission in Makkah, where they endured severe persecution and an embargo by the pagans. Abu Jahil, the Prophet’s leading enemy, was responsible for causing great pain and suffering to the Prophet, who never answered back with hatred. Instead, he and his followers followed a policy of patience. One day Ikrimah, the son of Abu Jahil, converted to Islam. Some Muslims who had not yet fully accepted the values of

Islam in their hearts and minds, started to blame Ikrimah for what his father had done. But the Prophet rebuked them by saying that ‘cursing your own mothers and fathers is one of the big sins.'(3) When they asked how people can curse their own parents, he replied: ‘If you curse someone else’s parents, they curse your parents. Thus it is like cursing your own parents.’

As the following examples indicate, annoying others is equal to annoying to your own parents.

Those who research such issues in Islamic history will find that Muslims have been representatives of peace and trustworthiness throughout history. Thus trying to associate Islam with terror is both a distraction and an injustice, an enormous example of ignorance that history cannot forget.

Thus we can say with full confidence that there is no terror in Islam. Terrorists are not Muslims, and Muslims cannot be terrorists. Islam and terror are like black and white or spring and winter. They are sharply different from each other, and terror cannot approach Islam. In connection with the above logic, Muslims must be legitimate in their intentions when it comes to their goals, thoughts, and actions, for only a straight and allowed way can lead them to their exalted object.

Islam equates the killing one innocent person to killing humanity, and prescribes eternal hell for such an action. The Prophet stood up for the funeral procession of a Jew out of respect for the fact that the deceased was a fellow human being. Certainly such religion never allows terror for any purpose.

September 11th will remain a blemish on the pages of human history. Although no Muslim approves of such terrorist acts, the print and visual media continue to do their best to link Islam with terror so that we will see them as related to one another. I am very sorry to say that some media outlets are doing this intentionally in order to make all Muslims appear guilty.

Another part of this is the circumstances in Muslim countries. We must realize that no Muslim country, when considered from the viewpoint of administrative, legal, and economic matters, exists. What we mean by that phrase is countries with majority Muslim populations. Many of them have movements for independence and also have to cope with the pressures of artificial and oligarchic governments, poverty, ignorance, lack of accurate religious knowledge, geographical difficulties, and unjust distribution of wealth; continued intervention from outside forces who want to block democracy from taking root; easy imports and the consequent non-improvement in domestic production, export, and economics; and, more than anything else, the role of the media in undermining moral values. All of these problems are confronting the Muslims and make them appear in an unfavorable light.

If any Muslims are joined to or associated with terrorism and anarchy, it is because they do not understand Islam correctly and because the existing realities in their countries to do not allow them to acquire a correct understanding. But the roots of these causes can be traced only to cultural, economic, and other related reasons not to Islam.

In our increasingly smaller and global world, developed countries and international associations are more often than not only spectators that make no contribution to other nations’ growth and do not take seriously their responsibility to make this world a better place for everyone.

In conclusion, when we look at terror from the Islamic prospect, we see that it causes only disaster and tragedy in this world and leads to Hell in the Hereafter.

Footnotes

1. Bukhari:Iman 4,5 / Muslim:Iman 64,65
2. Bukhari:Iman 6,20 / Muslim:Iman 63
3. Bukhari:Adap 4: Aba Dawud 120: Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal:2,216

And We have made the heavens as a canopy well guarded: yet do they turn away from the Signs which these things (point to)! (Qur’an 21:32)

We are often awed by how fine-tuned our planet is for the existence and continuation of life. One factor that makes this possible is its atmosphere, which is designed to filter out harmful radiation and meteors from space. While solar radiation is largely absorbed, some is reflected by the planet and the atmosphere. Some of the radiation reflected or emitted by Earth passes through the atmosphere, while the rest is absorbed and emitted in all directions by some gases in the atmosphere. This reflected radiation, combined with the energy absorbed by Earth, enables life to exist here.

Since this phenomenon resembles the heat reflected by glass panels in a greenhouse, it is called the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse gases that contribute significantly to this process are carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. The greenhouse effect is necessary for life, but too much of it is undesirable. Some negative consequences are changes in average temperature, precipitation, wind and ocean circulation patterns, polar glacier melting, and more storms, droughts, and floods.

The atmosphere is an extremely complex system that is not fully understood. During Earth’s long history, its atmosphere’s composition has experienced natural variations. By analyzing tree rings and core samples taken from Greenland and various high-altitude tropical areas, scientists have concluded that Earth has undergone several warming and cooling cycles. Among the factors that can cause such changes are greenhouse gases and ocean water salinity. According to Stant: “Since 1861 the Earth has warmed by about 0.5 degrees Celsius. Most of this warming took place before 1940, but much of it has taken place in the last 15 years. The global temperature of the Earth is projected to rise anywhere from 0.8 to 2.6 degrees Celsius in the next thirty to forty years.”1

Some scientists think that the most recent atmospheric changes are part of a natural variation. But there is a growing consensus that human activity, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases and especially the carbon dioxide produced by industrial activity, has played some role. Small amounts of such gases can be absorbed by forests and oceans, and thus do not represent a serious problem. But thanks to the Industrial Revolution, this system has been thrown out of balance. Other activities, such as increased agriculture, deforestation, and the widespread use of fossil fuels for transportation, industrial processes, and heating fuels have exacerbated it.

This article will summarize the latest findings on the potential impact of global climate change.

Background

The vast majority of scientists now agree that business-as-usual may lead to irreversible change in Earth’s atmosphere. Global climate change became part of the political agenda in the developed world during the mid-1980s, a time of increasing environmental awareness and mounting public concern due to the efforts of Greenpeace, the Sierra Club, and other pro-environment groups. One assumption gradually emerged out of the numerous conferences, grassroots efforts, and publications: The developed countries are primarily responsible for the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and therefore should take the lead in fixing the problem. The latest step taken to mitigate worldwide emissions was the Kyoto Protocol (11 Dec. 1998), which devised a formula to determine the amount of gases each country could emit. Although signed by 84 countries, it has to be ratified by at least 55 countries (emissions from which make up at least 55% of global emissions) before it can be enforced. This has not happened yet.

The United States, the major producer of greenhouse gases, has signed but not ratified the Kyoto Protocol. Hopes were high that the new Bush administration would do so. However, Bush soon reneged on a campaign pledge to regulate carbon dioxide emissions from U.S. power plants, and shortly thereafter repudiated the Kyoto Protocol. His claim that the scientific evidence for the greenhouse effect and its consequences was not yet convincing was greeted with disbelief. Questions were raised about corporate America’s role in forming his views, as many companies opposed the protocol and contributed heavily to his presidential campaign.

Fortunately, there is also mounting evidence that industry opposition, led by the oil, gas, and automotive concerns, is weakening. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, “many businesses recognize global warming as a threat and realize that reducing emissions is in their economic interest. Several-including such giants as BP-Amoco, IBM and Johnson & Johnson-have voluntarily adopted emissions reductions stronger than those called for in the Kyoto Protocol.”2

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. Tasked with assessing the scientific, technical, and socioeconomic data needed to understand the risk of human-induced climate change, its mission is to provide policymakers with the most current scientific data on global climate change. The IPCC serves as a good example of how scientists from different backgrounds and countries come together to investigate a global problem. Some of its findings are summarized below.3

Agriculture and Food Security. In principle, increased levels of carbon dioxide should benefit agriculture. However, one has to consider subsequent regional changes in rainfall and the reaction of crops, soil, and pests. Moreover, excessive heat and drought might have a negative impact on crop yield.

The overall effect on crop yield is predicted to be positive, especially in such colder regions as Canada and Russia, if the rise in average temperature does not exceed several degrees Celsius. If it does, the effect will be negative. In tropical regions, where crops are already near their maximum heat tolerance, even a minimal increase in temperature is predicted to have a negative effect on crop yields. The number of people at risk of hunger, especially in Africa, is expected to increase. The most vulnerable populations will be those who depend heavily on agriculture and those living in developing countries.

Ecosystem Damage. Ecosystems react to climate changes much slower than people. Wildlife habitat distribution and composition will be directly influenced by any change in temperature and rainfall, and indirectly by any change in vegetation. Most likely, species will not have enough time to adapt. This will be exacerbated by the continuing fragmentation of wildlife habitats by human settlement, which makes migration infeasible for most species. Since migration is unlikely, species composition and dominance will change, and endangered species will face extinction. Changes in ocean circulation will affect fish abundance and habitat boundaries, as well as fish population dynamics. This might have a significant impact on fish-dependent societies.

Rising Sea Levels. This is perhaps the most worrisome impact category. The IPCC Working Group I reports that as a result of melting polar glaciers, the global sea level will rise anywhere from 0.09m to 0.88m. Oceans cover a large part of the planet and have a significant impact on its climate. Wind and circulation patterns also are affected by changes in sea level and sea-surface temperature.

If the rises are high enough, many of the generally accepted models indicate that small islands will be submerged, many coastal areas will be inundated, and freshwater resources will face seawater intrusion. In addition, large coastal areas will be evacuated, populations will have to migrate, and wetlands and mangrove forests will be lost. Such countries as Bangladesh, which depends heavily on mangroves, will be devastated. The fishery industry will suffer as fish abundance and location change.

And, as if all of this were not enough, there also might be a rise in the frequency and severity of storms and sea-surges. Countries that depend largely on coastal tourism will suffer. Although people will see the approaching catastrophes and try to protect themselves by building seawalls, nourishing beaches, and other measures, not all of the impact will be cancelled.

Health Sector. There will be fewer complaints about the cold during the winter, but more complaints about the heat during the summer. Whether the benefits will outweigh the costs depends on the region. Tropical regions will face more deaths from heat stress. In addition, the influence areas of vector-, food- and water-borne diseases will shift. For example, depending on changes in rainfall and average temperature, malaria or dengue fever might become more widespread.

Although the specific impact depends on a wide variety of local conditions, such as the health infrastructure and socioeconomic conditions, the overall effect is predicted to be negative, especially in developing countries. Such extreme climate-related events as cyclones, floods, and droughts might become more common and severe, and thus leave exposed populations with even more health problems.

What Needs To Be Done

For each anticipated impact category (and for others not included here),

there is a wide range of institutional, technological, and behavioral adaptation measures that can be pursued to minimize damage. The IPCC report contains many suggestions. Governments should become aware of the consequences of global climate change and start working to increase public awareness. As most measures might take decades to plan and implement, any delay only makes the problem harder to solve.

In addition, greenhouse gas emission rates have to be decreased. The time for playing around has passed. Governments and people in positions of power, as hard as it might be, should agree on a global approach and then set about implementing it. There have been some advances, but not enough. Developed countries, having caused the global warming problem, should take the lead in implementing the Kyoto Protocol as soon as possible.

A key ingredient is technology transfer. Most developing countries are still building industrial, energy, and distribution infrastructures. Developed countries should try to ensure that only the latest and cleanest technologies are installed so that the solution is not only postponed to a later date.

This is vital in China, now home to almost one-fourth of humanity and undergoing rapid economic growth and development. Given its size, its development policies will have a global impact. According to Mark Hertsgaard, who spent 6 weeks in China studying this issue: “China is … the world’s second largest producer of greenhouse gases, trailing only the United States. With its immense coal reserves, huge population, and booming economic growth, China is very likely to triple its greenhouse emissions by 2020 …. If outsiders want China to do something about global warming, they will have to pay for it. As one Western consultant with regular access to senior Chinese officials puts it, “They know very well they can hold the world for ransom … and whenever they can extract concessions, they will.”4

Many people in the developing world might object to “hold the world for ransom” for a quite logical reason: When the now-developed countries were developing, environmental damage and pollution were non-issues. Now that others are trying to develop, the developed world wants to maintain the status quo, which is stacked in its favor, by raising standards. This charge must be addressed in such a way that those making it will accept proposed environmental regulations and policies.

A Recent Development

On July 26, 2001, Japan and other nations joined Europe in accepting the Kyoto Protocol. But the price might have been too high: a scaling back of carbon dioxide reductions, the acceptance of “carbon sinks” (that forests and other environmental reatures would absorb more greenhouse gases), and that violators would not be penalized. President Bush has not yet revealed his promised alternative.

Conclusion

Global climate change, as the phrase indicates, is a global challenge that requires a great deal of attention and resource concentration. However, it also requires political will. This is especially true with China, which endured great famines and poverty during the twentieth century. Hoping to avoid any repetition, China has embraced the late Deng Xiaoping’s policy of “to get rich is glorious.” If it comes down to a choice between development and the environment, China and other developing countries just might choose development.

Western businesses claim that the developing world will gain an unfair competitive edge if its companies are exempt from existing environmental regulations. But instead of showing such countries see that environmental protection is in their own long-term interest and helping them acquire and implement the latest technology, many Western companies relocate in countries with lax and easily subverted environmental legislation. Such short-sighted policies increase the problem’s severity, for it shows that the developed world does not really care about the environment. If this is so, how can it expect the developing world to care about it?

Hopefully, nations will find a way to protect their environments while enjoying double-digit growth figures, and their scientists and politicians will find the necessary will to solve this problem

Footnotes

1. Linda Ruth Stant, “Changes in the Earth’s Climate for the Past Two Million Years.” Online at: http://www.gly.fsu. edu/~kish/dynamic/global/LS.htm.
2. www.nrdc.org/globalWarming/nnego.asp.
3. The findings are taken from “Summary for Policy Makers: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.” The summary of the Working Group II report is online at: www.ipcc.ch.
4. Mark Hertsgaard, “Our Real China Problem,” The Atlantic Online (Nov. 1997). Online at: http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/97nov/china.htm

Other References

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Online at: www.epa.gov/globalwarming.
• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Online at: www.unfccc.de.

Besides searching for new techniques to substitute man in the fields of labour, modern scientific inquiry is also directed to finding analogues for human mental activities. Since their assumption is that man is merely a physical-material entity (a complex of physical, biological and chemical processes) many scientists are hopeful that they can produce a complete copy of human functions. It is their assertion that since at least nothing in existing physical theories accounts for the existence of non-computable processes in the brain, all of man’s intellectual activities can be computed. However, Roger Penrose, the famous Oxford mathematician, argues against this assertion. He argues from Godel’s theorem which states that for every consistent formal system that has the power to do arithmetic, there will always be a true statement. That is, a formal system is a set of logical or computational rules; termed consistent if it never produces contradictory statements. Yet, as human beings can see that that statement is true, this constitutes a sign that our minds can go beyond the powers of any formal system. However, since Penrose himself (like many others who share his opinions) cannot free himself from the confines of (materialistic) physics and nothing in existing physical theories accounts for non-computable processes, in order to be able to find a physical foundation for his theory, he pins his hopes on future elaborations of the theory of quantum mechanics. In his attempt to explain human consciousness, Penrose notes that the biggest mystery of all is how electrical activity in the brain gives rise to the experience of consciousness. It is hard to understand why an inner life should arise from the mere enactment of a computation, no matter how complex. However, his alternative is not more convincing that what he rejects. He tries to explain human consciousness with quantum processes in microtubules – collapsing quantum wave functions (the mathematical functions describing the position and momentum of a particle) in protein structures found in the skeletons of neurons.

The main problem arises from accepting the physical body as the origin of all activities of mans intellect. The problem is also true for the expectations from Artificial Intelligence. Dr Aksoy has a simple but meaningful objection to the assumptions underlying those expectations: ‘A man-made system can be very smart and artificially very intelligent but no such system so far has been awarded a prize for its innovative abilities. It is the human being who made it who wins the prize. What is prized, what is of higher worth, is not the system but its maker or builder.’ Another more simple objection can be raised here. For example, after doing a spell-check on a word-processor. you may come across many mistakes which the software has not recognized. Any sentence can be written in several ways in which the words are correctly spelt but are not the words you intend to use. For example, if we type the sentence ‘What is prized is not the system but its maker or builder’ as ‘What is priced is not the system but its make or build’, most people who know the language will recognize it immediately and effortlessly as nonsense. But the software’s spell-check and grammar-check will pass the sentence as OK. Such examples can be multiplied for a great variety of tasks requiring experience and understanding which cannot be analogued or translated for Al machines but which humans cope with quite easily.

According to what we are asked to believe, the brain continually self-organizes, learns and adapts throughout our lives. Understanding how millions of neurons self-organize through non-linear feedback interactions requires that we have a full grasp of the mathematics of neural networks and of how this mathematics helps us to understand the link between brain and behaviour point to mention concerning man’s intellectual activities relates to the issue of learning and education.

Materialistic approaches attribute all of man’s intellectual activities to his brain. According to the theory of evolution, if taken literally, more developed animals must also be more developed in using their senses and faculties or their brains. But this is not the case. As Dr Yilmaz points out (‘Perfection and Primitiveness, The Fountain, Vol. 2, No. 19, p. 34), compared with a shark which can smell a drop of blood in the sea from a distance of about 25,000 feet, man is very much less developed. If we judge the degree of development according to the sense of smell, in place of men or monkeys, sharks will be at the top of the chain. Whereas, with respect to the sense of seeing, eagles are much more developed than sharks, as well as more than men and monkeys: an eagle can spot a rabbit on the ground from a height of about 6,000 feet. Would it not be true for a honey-bee to say of us: Those clumsy ones can draw with tools and only after calculations the hexagons that I can make so easily and exactly identical to one another. They cannot make so sweet and healing a substance as honey that 1 produce. Again, according to the literal logic of the theory of evolution, must a more developed animal not inherit the abilities of one less developed than itself? In this case, must man not have the abilities of all animals and must apes not have the abilities of all other animals ‘lower’ on the evolutionary ladder than themselves? Also, if man was evolved from apes, should the first man evolved not have inherited all the abilities and knowledge of all apes? However, we see that while all other animals are born as if educated and instructed already in all the information they will need to survive, man is born knowing next to nothing of what he needs to know to survive. And while all other animals come to the world with the same information or knowledge their predecessors had and there is negligible (if indeed any) difference between the amount of knowledge and abilities that the members of a species have, a man’s knowledge cannot be inherited by his progeny. Consequently, human beings vary hugely in their intellectual and artistic capacities and the amount or level of their knowledge.

Materialistic and evolutionist psychology consider learning either as a matter of behavioural patterning by reinforcement or the storage and use of knowledge. The first view is called behaviourism, while the latter cognitivisim. However, both are agreed that it is the brain or neural systems which learn. That is, the intellectual dimension of man’s being consists in his brain. They confuse how a man learns with what it is that does the learning. What they want us to believe with respect to man’s intellectual faculties is not different from defining how a factory works. According to their logic, it is the factory itself which built itself and works according to the laws pre-determined by either itself or the collective being of factories. Although they use personal pronouns such as ‘I’ or ‘You’ or We’ in referring to those who learn, speak, think, reason, decide and so on, forgetting that the brain does not know itself or what it is doing and also forgetting that it is we – humans – who study, speak about, comment on and even operate on the brain, they regard it as scientific to attribute all man’s intellectual activities and faculties, and therefore his conscious existence, to the brain, If that is so, why do we not concentrate our efforts merely on the brain and adjust it as a way of adjusting or educating individuals rather than go to the trouble and expense we currently go through to educate and bring our fellow members of society? Again, does attributing man’s intellectual activities to the brain mean that whatever man will need in life and also his desires, expectations, feelings, pains of the past and anxieties of the future, etc. were pre-encoded in his brain and that according to the situations or the stimuli coming from the outer world, the brain brings them forth as responses?

According to what we are asked to believe, the brain continually self-organizes, learns and adapts throughout our lives. Understanding how millions of neurons self-organize through non-linear feedback interactions requires that we have a full grasp of the mathematics of neural networks and of how this mathematics helps us to understand the link between brain and behaviour. Is it not compounding our ignorance to attribute to a heap of blind, deaf, ignorant flesh, blood and neurons unconscious of themselves, of their existence and what they are doing or why, all of man’s intellectual faculties and activities with all their complexity, all of our consciousness and culture, religious life? Does this make sense? And does not doing so entail a denial of man’s free will? Although some psychologists such as Tolman and Kohler are of the opinion that at least in some cases learning appears to be purposeful and animals and people have an awareness of what is being acquired and they actively interpret the stimuli they sense from the environment, since they too attribute this to the brain by asserting that there must be more than one system in the brain involved in learning, the point on which all materialistic approaches are agreed (consciously or unconsciously) is that man is an animal whose acts consist in the automatic responses of his brain, an animal that has no free will to direct and control his life.

The activity of learning is remarkably easy as both behaviourists or cognitivists assert. Yet it is nevertheless extremely complex. Besides senses, many human faculties such as imagination, conceptualization, reasoning, comparing, retaining, remembering, confirming and conviction, have a share in it. Each of these faculties give its colour to what is learnt. For example, only imagination gives rise to falsehoods, while conceptualization is ambiguous as to what passes through it. Reasoning does not have an established view of what comes to it, while capable of confirming partiality or prejudices pleasing to the one doing the reasoning. Surely the materialistic approach has no right to that degree of conviction achieved by impartial reasoning and study of real evidence and which is worthy to be called scientific knowledge. Rather, what materialist and evolutionist psychologists suggest may only be the product of imagination or partial (i.e. biased) reasoning.

Bibliography 

• KOHLER, W. (1925) The Mentality of Apes. Translated by E. Winter, New York.
• CRICK, Francis (1994) The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search for the Soul, Charles Scribners Sons. PENROSE, Roger (1994) Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness, Oxford University Press.
• PENROSE,Roger(1994)Shadows of the Mind:A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness,Oxford University Press.
• AKSOY, M.S. (1993) ‘Artificial Intelligence: A Different Approach, The Fountain, Oct.-Nov, 1993, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.9-11