Global Climate Report. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov). July 2019.

It’s summer, and it is hot out there; but if it feels like record-breaking temperatures are becoming more common globally, they are. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and European Copernicus Climate Change Service announced that July 2019 was the hottest month across the globe ever measured since measurements began, in 1880. Global temperatures averaged 16.73°C in July, which is 0.95 °C higher than the 20th-century average of 15.78°C . Average Antarctic sea-ice coverage was 8.5% below the 1981-2010 average. And sea ice coverage was 10.5% below the overall average, which is based on records beginning in 1979. The scientists also released geographical data, showing that the regions where temperatures varied furthest from averages, were Alaska, Central Europe, Northern and Southwestern parts of Asia, and certain regions in Africa and Australia. These findings corroborate scientific predictions regarding the effects of man-made climate change. Human activities, primarily from burning fossil fuels, emit carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. Increasing greenhouse gas emissions are associated with warmer global surface temperatures. The planet’s 10 hottest years on record have all fallen in the past two decades. Scientists and policymakers around the globe are also feeling this heat.

Unless significant measures to curb greenhouse gas emissions are adopted, scientists expect temperature records to keep falling. Scientists say global temperatures could increase by at least 3°C this century, which will create conditions on Earth that have not been seen in more than 2 million years. Given the notable trends in higher temperatures and natural disasters, we might be pushing the climate system toward states that we haven’t seen in our societal experience – and even in our species’ experience.

Manipulation of brain circuits using smartphone-controlled device

Qazi R et al. Wireless optofluidic brain probes for chronic neuropharmacology and photostimulation. Nature Biomedical Engineering, August 2019.

Scientists recently designed a device that can regulate brain circuits using a tiny brain implant controlled by a smartphone. This bluetooth-enabled device utilizes replaceable lego-like drug cartridges to target neurons with drugs and light. Existing methods to deliver drugs and light to the brain typically involve metal tubes and optical fibers. These tools are rigid and can substantially damage the brain’s soft tissue over time. Moreover, this bulky equipment often limits the patient’s movement because of the wired connections, making them unfit for long-term use. To achieve chronic remote-controlled drug delivery without exhaustion and evaporation of drugs, scientists invented a neural device with a replaceable drug cartridge, which could allow neuroscientists to study the same brain networks for several months without depleting the drug supply. These “plug-n-play” drug cartridges were integrated into a brain implant for mice with a soft and ultrathin probe (about the thickness of a human hair), which consisted of microfluidic channels and tiny LEDs (smaller than a grain of salt), for unlimited drug doses and light delivery. The implant is regulated via a smartphone, allowing researchers to trigger precise combinations and sequences of drug and light delivery. In animal models, these stimuli can be triggered with the target outside of the laboratory, allowing researchers to wirelessly instill changes in the animal’s brain while in its natural habitat. Using these neural devices, researchers are now able to perform fully automated animal studies where the behavior of one animal could positively or negatively affect behavior in other animals by conditional triggering of light and/or drug delivery. This device will allow researchers to better dissect the neural circuit basis of behavior and how specific neuromodulators in the brain tune behavior in various ways. In addition, the device can be utilized in complex pharmacological studies to develop potentially new therapeutics for pain, addiction, and emotional disorders.

The secret weapon of E.Coli 

Melson E. at al. The sRNA DicF integrates oxygen sensing to enhance enterohemorrhagic Escherichia colivirulence via distinctive RNA control mechanisms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, June 2019.

Scientists have revealed how E. coli (Escherichia coli) bacteria seeks out the most oxygen-free parts of your colon to cause the worst infection possible. E. coli normally live in the intestines of healthy people and animals. Most varieties of E. coli are harmless or cause relatively brief diarrhea. But a few particularly nasty strains can cause cramps, diarrhea, vomiting – even kidney failure and death. Children are particularly at risk. A new study uncovers how this foodborne pathogen knows where and when to begin colonizing the colon on its way to making you sick. Bacterial pathogens typically colonize a specific tissue or organ in the host. Therefore, as part of their infection strategies, bacterial pathogens precisely time deployment of proteins and toxins to these specific colonization niches in the human host. This allows the pathogens to save energy and avoid detection by our immune systems and ultimately cause disease. The researchers in this study identified how E.Coli detects low oxygen levels in the large intestine and then produces proteins that allow it to attach to host cells and establish infection. Oxygen actually diffuses from the intestinal tissue into the gut, and there are comparably higher levels in the small intestine than the large. Remarkably, E. coli specifically waits until it has reached the-low oxygen large intestine before striking. E. coli controls this process via a small form of RNA that activates particular genes when oxygen levels are low. This is the point when the infection really gets established and the bacteria are able to begin to manufacture harmful Shiga toxins. The researchers predict that other bacterial pathogens, such as Shigella and Salmonella, likely utilize a similar control mechanism. Researchers suggest that if we can find a way to block oxygen sensing, we may be able to prevent the infection by allowing E. coli to pass harmlessly through the body.

Heart Failure

The heart is basically a pump that provides the force needed to circulate blood and its contents to the body. It consists of four chambers: left ventricle, left atrium, right ventricle, and right atrium. The right ventricle and atrium collect the blood from the whole body and pump it to the lungs for removal of carbon dioxide and replenishment of oxygen. On the other hand, the left ventricle and atrium are responsible for collecting the blood from the lungs and pumping it to the body through the aorta (main artery). Non-stop blood circulation requires life-long and unfailing heart muscle power. Common symptoms of heart failure include waking up at the middle of night with shortness of breath and decreased ability to walk a few steps upstairs. Heart failure could arise due to any condition that decreases efficiency of the myocardium (heart muscle – Figure 1) through myocardial infarctions (death of muscles due to lack of oxygen, also known as heart attack) or overloading, such as hypertension, that requires increased contraction force. Loss of function in the ventricles (lower chamber of the heart) may require the use of ventricular assist devices (VAD).

Ventricular assist devices

A VAD is a mechanical pump that is implanted into the chest of patients to support the heart function through bridging the blood flow from the lower chamber to the aorta (Figure 2).^2,3 A VAD is usually useful during or after cardiac surgeries until recovery of the heart or while waiting for a heart transplant. VADs could also be used long term if the patient is not eligible for a heart transplant due to other complications. A VAD has several components, including a tube carrying blood out of the heart into a pump, a pump with another tube carrying blood to the aorta, and a power supply connecting to a control unit that monitors the VAD`s functionality.

There are different designs of VADs such as HeartMate, HeartWare, DuraHeart, and so on. Some VADs pump like the heart does, using a pumping action, and others use continuous blood flow. Intriguingly, VADs with continuous flow lead to a loss of normal pulse, but this has been found to decrease complications and increase survival. Two types of VADs include left ventricular assist device (LVAD) or right VAD (RVAD). LVADs are the most commonly used ones due to higher incidence of left ventricular function loss. If both LVAD and RVADs are used together, they are called a biventricular assist device (BVAC). VADs nowadays could be used not only for people with end stage heart failure, but also earlier stages of heart failure, including children. A VAD takes ninety percent of the pumping function of the heart. When using a VAD, your heart will still beat and have a rhythm. If none of these works for a patient, this requires the use of a mechanical or artificial heart, also known as total artificial heart (TAH).

Total artificial hearts

An artificial heart is a mechanical device that substitutes for the failing heart.^4,5,6 They are commonly used during heart transplantations to bridge the blood flow temporarily or to replace the heart permanently during a shortage of transplantable hearts. Early studies with artificial heart trials go back to the 1940s. Since then, various groups worldwide have invested in development of artificial heart prototypes and performed animal and human trials. Total artificial heart prototypes include, but are not limited to, SynCardia, ABIOMed (AbioCor), and Carpentier (CARMAT).6

SynCardia is developed from the Jarvik-7. It was first implanted in 1982. Dr. Robert Jarvik originally designed the Jarvik-7 (Figure 3). Barney Clark underwent the first artificial heart implantation at the University of Utah and survived for 112 days. This was followed by other implants. The longest survival with the Jarvik-7 is 620 days. However, the device is more commonly used on patients as a bridge during heart transplants. It has two pumps that resemble the two ventricles of the heart and is pneumatically (air) powered. The pump of SynCardia is covered with polyurethane. A pneumatic driver used in the US is a non-portable console, and requires patients to stay in the hospital. However, a portable version has been developed in Europe that could be carried a backpack while a patient waits for a donor heart.

The ABIOMed (AbioCor) is a completely self-contained, total artificial heart, which avoids the need for an external console or having wires or tubes piercing the skin to power the device. It uses a wireless energy transfer system, also known as a transcutaneous energy transmission system. This decreases the risk of developing infections due to implants.

CARMAT, on the other hand, is designed by Alain F. Carpentier.⁷ It is a fully implantable artificial heart with embedded biomaterials that make the device more biocompatible. In addition, the CARMAT includes valves made from cow heart tissue and has internal pressure sensors. This allows a person to adjust the flow rate in response to increased demand, such as during exercise. This feature distinguishes the CARMAT from other artificial hearts that provides a constant flow rate.

Biological artificial hearts

Synthetic replacement of organs is one of the long-sought dreams of modern medicine. To this end, there are efforts to develop biological artificial hearts in the laboratory. One recent study took the approach of producing a decellurized (empty from cells) scaffold of a mouse heart and recellurized it with human cardiac cells, and showed that lab-grown human heart tissue can beat on its own (about 40-50 beats per minute) in as short as a few weeks (Figure 4).⁸ They took the advantage of induced pluripotent cell (iPS cells) technology to produce multi-potential cardiovascular progenitor (MCP) cells, which could give rise to all three types of cardiac cells found in the heart. This area of research is still in its infancy but in the future, at least, it may provide tools to generate patches of heart tissue to replace damaged parts of the hearts. Given the success of a mouse heart cellurized with human cardiac cells, it’s possible that scientists will also try to decellurize the heart of a monkey or another animal and then cellurize it with human cardiac cells to produce a beating human heart in the laboratory as an alternative source to a full heart transplant.

Another approach to a biological artificial heart is to genetically modify animals in a way that their hearts will be compatible with a human body. Genetic engineering is a rapidly evolving field that one day could provide such tools for scientist to grow necessary organs in monkeys, dogs, or maybe even horses. Genetic modification may overcome tissue rejection issues when they are transplanted into a human body. For instance, one study tested the possibility of a heart transplant from genetically modified pigs into monkeys and showed the applicability of heart transplants between different species.^9,10

Until the development of biological artificial hearts, ventricular assist devices and mechanical artificial hearts seem to the best options. However, artificial heart implants have had various complications, including infections, pneumonia, high fevers, and multiple organ failures with variable survival rates based on the type of device and materials used. Another issue is the necessity of artificial heart to meet requirements of the body in terms of heart flow rate. For instance, the required flow rate of someone walking or exercising is different than someone at rest. In addition, the possibility of mechanical or computerized systems to fail may be a source of distress in patients implanted with artificial hearts or assist devices. This reminds us of that as long as we take care of our heart’s health, we won’t have worry whether its battery could fail – and what a mercy that is.

It is stunning that even with so much need and effort we are still not able to develop something that completely replaces all the functions of a heart. This clearly points that the heart is a marvelous gift granted to us. We are counting on every beat of the heart for our survival, and we should give thanks, with every beat, for what an incredible gift we’ve been given.

References

1. Bui, A. L., Horwich, T. B. & Fonarow, G. C. Epidemiology and risk profile of heart failure. Nat Rev Cardiol 8, 30-41 (2010).

2. What Is a Ventricular Assist Device? NHLBI, NIH. Retrieved from www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/vad/ on 1/2/14.

3. Ventricular assist devices (VADs) Definition – Tests and Procedures – Mayo Clinic. Retrieved from www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/ventricular-assist-devices/basics/definition/PRC-20020578 on 1/2/14.

4. Artificial Hearts. Retrived from www.umasswiki.com/wiki/Artificial_Hearts on 1/2/14.

5. Artificial heart. Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_heart on 1/2/14.

6. Heart Assist Devices. Texas Heart Institute. Retrieved from http://texasheart.org/Research/Devices/index.cfm on 1/12/14

7. Carmat artificial heart patient in good condition: hospital. Retrieved from www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/30/us-carmat-patient-idUSBRE9BS07O20131230 on 1/2/14.

8. Lu, Tung-Ying, Bo Lin, Jong Kim, Mara Sullivan, Kimimasa Tobita, Guy Salama, and Lei Yang. “Repopulation of decellularized mouse heart with human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiovascular progenitor cells.” Nature communications 4 (2013).

9. Heart of genetically modified pig ‘successfully transplanted into monkey’, South Korea scientists claim. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2164964/South-Korea-scientists-successfully-transplant-heart-genetically-modified-pig-monkey.html on 12/1/14

10. Pig to human transplants. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/jan/03/qanda.simonjeffery on 12/1/14

Futile cycles are described as two opposing biological reactions that take place in a cell at the same time [1, 2]. As a result, futile cycles have seemingly zero net gain for the cell. Actually, because no process is 100 percent efficient, some energy is lost as heat. Thus, these cycles may even cost cells some energy. They were named “futile” cycles because scientists thought that it was wasteful for a cell to operate two exactly opposite processes simultaneously.

One such process occurs in the powerhouses of cells, the mitochondria. Mitochondria are the places where a process called “oxidative phosphorylation” takes place. Oxidative phosphorylation is an efficient way of producing ATP, the cellular energy currency [1]. In this process, high-energy electrons in nutrients are used to generate potential energy, which is in turn used to produce ATP.

Scientists who worked on mitochondrial function were flabbergasted to discover a family of proteins in the mitochondria that had a strange function. These proteins were dissipating the potential energy in the mitochondria before it could be used to produce ATP. They were named “uncoupling proteins” because they were uncoupling the potential energy buildup from ATP production [3]. Scientists couldn’t imagine what these wasteful proteins were doing in our mitochondria. Uncoupling proteins were decreasing the ATP production efficiency of mitochondria. Therefore, they named this process a futile cycle, where electrons from food were used for building up a potential, and an opposing action of uncoupling proteins were dissipating this potential before it could be stored as ATP [4]. This was similar to short-circuiting a battery by connecting two poles with a wire, and just discharging the energy—energy is lost but no work is done. The scientists took this process as a remnant of a random evolutionary process that was left unfinished—“futile,” with no function at all.

It took several years and the work of a different team of biologists to figure out the benefit of these uncoupling proteins [5]. The scientists were working on the differences between wasps and honey bees. One striking difference between these species was in their ability to adapt to colder temperatures: honey bees couldn’t fly and collect pollen when the outside temperature dropped below 10 C (50 F). They had to stay in their beehives to keep warm. On the other hand, wasps could fly around in colder temperatures. The researchers discovered that the main difference that accounted for this phenomenon was that honey bees didn’t have uncoupling proteins in their mitochondria, while wasps did. Therefore, it became apparent that the main function of uncoupling proteins was to generate heat for the body to stay warm during the times when outside temperatures fell. The uncoupling proteins, it seemed, were generating heat while dissipating the potential energy (just like the wire that heats up when you connect two poles of a battery in short circuit). Later on, it was discovered that these proteins had crucial functions in all warm-blooded animals, especially in ones that hibernate during winter.

In this case, an event that initially appeared to be meaningless or even stupid turned out to be indispensible for supporting life under certain circumstances. The fact that we cannot see wisdom behind certain events does not mean they are random or meaningless. Perhaps it is just a matter of time when, in some context, the seemingly futile thing will have a vital role. So the question remains: is there really any such thing as “random” or “futile”?

References

1. Alberts, B., J.H. Wilson, and T. Hunt. 2008. “Molecular Biology of the Cell.” 5th ed. New York: Garland Science. xxxiii, 1601, [90]

2. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futile_cycle#cite_note-0.

3. Nedergaard, J., D. Ricquier, and L.P. Kozak. 2005. “Uncoupling Proteins: Current Status and Therapeutic Prospects.” EMBO Rep. 6(10), p. 917–21.

4. Jezek, P. and J. Borecky. 1998. “Mitochondrial Uncoupling protein may participate in futile cycling of pyruvate and other monocarboxylates.” Am J Physiol, 1998. 275(2 Pt 1): p. C496–504.

5. Staples, J.F., E.L. Koen, and T.M. Laverty. 2004. “Futile Cycle Enzymes in the Flight Muscles of North American Bumblebees.” J Exp Biol. 207(Pt 5): p. 749–54.

Original Article: Gibson, D.G. et al., Science Express (2010).

A team of genome researchers at the J. Craig Venter Institute in the U.S recently announced that after almost 15 years of work and with a budget of $40 million, they had finally built the first bacterial strain with a completely synthetic genome. In the study, researchers chopped the genome of Mycoplasma mycodies into 1,000 pieces in the computer, chemically synthesized these fragments and assembled them into an artificial chromosome in yeast cells. The reconstructed artificial genome was subsequently transferred to a closely related bacterium Mycoplasma capricolum, whose genome was removed. Remarkably, the strain with the artificial genome was able to guide the protein machinery of the host cells, produce the necessary enzymes and macromolecules for a bacterium to survive and most importantly to grow and divide. Team leader Prof. J. Craig Venter, best known for his pioneering efforts in human genome mapping project, commented on their findings as “we created a ‘synthetic cell’ and it is the first self-replicating species we’ve had on the planet whose parent is computer.” Many media sources also publicized the study as the first successful creation of the artificial life. As much as the scientific community agreed that the synthesis, transfer and retention of a functional synthetic genome is a breakthrough, most of the scientists have found Prof. Venter’s comments and the media’s reflection on the study to be somewhat of an overstatement. It would be quite unfair to call the new bacteria an example of “artificial life.” The synthesized genome was a copy of another living bacterium with slight modifications. The genome is a blueprint, whereas the proteins perform the actual cellular functions. This new approach shows that we can copy the book of cellular blueprints reliably but it brings no new parts to our inventory. Moreover, the synthetic genome had to be assembled in live yeast cells, processed with biochemical extracts from mycoplasma cells and finally transplanted into another (closely related) live cell. In other words, “natural life” was absolute prerequisite for the so-called “artificial life.” The generation of a fully functioning organism directed by machine-synthesized genome certainly represents a major step in our ability to manipulate large chunks of genetic material. It is clear that this study will positively influence many scientists, especially synthetic biologists, to try writing novel “synthetic” software to recruit the variety of organisms’ cellular hardware for solving various global problems like energy shortage or environmental pollution. However, the philosophical questions that probe the essence of life, like: “Can we reduce life to material? Is the human being ever going to be able to build a live cell from only a few chemicals?” will likely remain as major controversial issues for many years in the age of molecular biology.

2- Sharing the powers of Spiderman

Original Article: Vogel, M.J. & Steen, P.H., PNAS (published online before print on February 4, 2010).

The adhesive powers of Spiderman, jumping from one building to another and walking on the walls, attracted most of our interests. The recent invention of scientists from Cornell University brings this power from science fiction cartoons/movies to the real life. Inspired from a little creature, leaf beetle, which can stick to leaves by generating a force exceeding 100 times its body weight, these researchers designed a device which can stick to surfaces by using the adhesive powers of water. The device consists of a plate not thicker than a credit card with hundreds of tiny holes on it. The water is pumped through these holes, which builds liquid bridges between surfaces and thus generates a strong adhesive force. Simply pushing back the water un-sticks the device in a controllable and switchable manner. There are no solid moving parts nor any kinds of glue used in the system, and this makes device even more promising. The capabilities of the device are not at the level of the leaf beetle yet, but the inventors believe that it can be improved by building on the same principles. The system can potentially be used in many practical applications, such as robotics, and it can also be implemented into shoes and gloves allowing them to stick to surfaces. Accordingly, it is no longer improbable to imagine sharing the sticky-powers of Spiderman and walking on the walls very soon.

3- Igniting a Supernova

Original Article: Gilfanov, M. & Bogdan, A., Nature 463, 924 (2010).

upernova: the Rosetta stone that may help us put together the missing pieces of the cosmic jigsaw puzzle; one of the most energetic and most luminous explosions in the universe, putting out energies equivalent to what our sun could produce in 10 billion years. Yet the mechanism that produces these explosions still eludes us. Once our sun consumes its remaining fuel in another 5 billion years, it will shrink into a “white dwarf.” These compact stars are believed to produce subsequent explosions leading to supernovas if they reach beyond a critical limit of mass. One way to gain mass is to steal material from a companion star through an “accretion” process. Accretion was thought to be the most common means that might help push the mass of a white dwarf beyond the critical mass limit, until a recent study revealed that two clashing (in-spiraling) white dwarfs might be the missing fuse that ignites supernovas. German astronomers measured the X-ray flux of four nearby elliptical galaxies and the core of the Andromeda Galaxy to see whether the amount of X-rays from these galaxies are consistent with predictions based upon the accretion mechanism. Contrary to expectations, the observed X-rays were 2–3% of the amount that would have been produced if accreting white dwarfs were the primary trigger of supernova explosions. Hence, perhaps merging white dwarfs are more commonplace in the cosmos after all.

4- Strategy of bats finding their way

Original Article: Yovel Y et al., Science 327, 701 (2010).

Bats, dolphins, shrews and swiftlets use sound waves for navigation and hunting. They emit short sonar pulses and listen to the echoes reflecting back from solid objects. Microsecond differences in the arrival times of echoes are coded by detector neurons and used as a main cue for positioning objects in an environment. This phenomenon is known as biosonar. A recent study published in Science reveals one unknown part of this perfect sound processing strategy. The study shows that bats do not center the sonar beam on the target. Instead, they aim to match the maximum slope of the beam to the target in order to increase the signal-to- noise ratio. Around the sharp edge, small variations of the target position can be detected as a clear signal change in reflected sound intensity. Furthermore, the researchers showed that if the environment is very noisy, bats could bias this critical point to increase amplitude of the echoes. This powerful technique has already been employed by humans in engineering and used in various technological tools such as atomic force microcopy. Whether this strategy is used in general by other echolocating animals remains to be answered.

A child of this time when minds were blown by scientific achievements and new philosophical trends, Said Nursi also struggled to find truth in his life – a struggle that he called “transitioning from the ‘Old Said’ to the ‘New Said.’” In order to reach this truth, he not only utilized traditional sources, but also turned to modern science for help. Unfortunately, not every piece of information or knowledgeable person proved helpful during his transition; the knowledge he acquired was inadequate with a short-sighted view of human nature. Nevertheless, he came to the realization that he was not alone in his quest for truth. The sequence of events in his life was a result of his destiny, which would prepare and ultimately lead him to fulfill the duties expected of him later on.

In many parts of his works, Bediuzzaman describes various details of this transition that involve both the heart and the mind; but it is in the 26th Gleam where he specifically talks about the years during his exile in Russia, as well as the years following, all of which correspond to his transition period. There, he elaborates on his mood and state of mind in the aftermath of the First World War. But, what is of utmost significance is that at one point, he says “Those who want to understand my personal identity and human nature as a believing man, which is like that of all believers, should look at the meaning of the ‘I.’” Clearly, this implied reference takes us to the 30th Word, in which he expounds on the subject of “I,” or ego. However, at this address, we cannot yet understand his personality; at least not at first glance.

After a more attentive look, we catch the only likely place relevant to Said Nursi’s personality – the First Purpose of the 30th Word – where he explains a story that he saw like a dream in the period of his transition from the “Old Said” to the “New Said.” This story includes three journeys made to the other side of the earth: through the earth, on the earth, and over the earth. He uses this story as a type of symbolism, from which certain truths can be revealed. Yet, he barely elaborates on them, leaving his readers eager to discover the truths on their own. In this article, we are going to focus on his journey through the earth, what it entailed, and what one can make from it.

Journey through the Earth

The following is the first part of the aforementioned fictional story, in which he covers the journey through the earth:

I saw myself in a vast desert. A layer of murky, dispiriting, and suffocating cloud had covered the whole face of the earth. There was neither breeze, nor light, nor water, none of these was to be found. I imagined that everywhere was full of monsters, dangerous and dreadful creatures. It occurred to me that on the other side of this land there should be light, breeze, and water. It was necessary to get there. I realized that I was being driven on involuntarily. Under the earth I wormed my way into a tunnel-like cave and gradually travelled through the earth. I saw that many people had passed along this subterranean way before me on all sides; they were drowned. I saw their footprints, and once I heard some of their voices, then later they ceased.

…

Gradually I realized that I had been given two things to use. One was a torch; it would scatter the darkness of that subterranean nature. The other was a device, which, by smashing mighty boulders and huge rocks, would open a way for me. I was told: “This torch and device have been given to you from the treasury of the Qur’an.” So, I carried on for a long time in this way. Then suddenly I realized that I had come out on the other side. I saw a world where everywhere there was rejoicing, bright sunshine in a most beautiful springtime and an invigorating breeze and delicious life-giving water. I said: “All praise be to God!”

Paradigms for deciphering the story

In his brief explanation of this story, Bediuzzaman alludes to the two approaches to creation: one guided by naturalism and other guided by the Qur’an. For example, he says that the land corresponds to nature, and the two sides of it are of two different views; one based on materialistic science, the other based on Qur’anic interpretation. He also explains that the subterranean way is the way of the naturalists. The sounds and traces he saw along the subterranean way belonged to those who ventured the same journey with inapt guidance and power. The two devices are given to him through the Qur’an.

However, he gives no clue about the two devices. The meaning of the rocks and the dark that prevails in the subterranean way is also absent. And, for the entire story, a logical reasoning behind the connections between the symbolism and reality is not revealed. Most of all, his brief explanation is veiling an important but unanswered question: What does this story have to do with his personality and transitioning into the “New Said”? He was a firm believer both before and after this event, so we cannot say that this transition was from naturalism to the Qur’an. Therefore, in order to decipher the symbolism and build paradigms for further discoveries, we have to read between the lines and check out other places in his writing, bearing in mind our goal: to learn about his personality and transitioning.

The Earth

In the 30th Word, Nursi tells us that the nature and the ego are analog. If we ponder on this, we see that nature is a work of art which is weaved into the earth; as a matter of fact, the earth is the biggest component of nature. Then it follows that earth in the story is the macro icon for the ego. So, it is fair to rename his “journey through the earth” the “journey through the ego”. But, is this a sound finding?

Well, this finding of ours is indeed confirmed by clues given in other places in the Risale-i Nur collection: human is a minor universe, and universe is a major human. We also know that the earth is the center of humanity in the universe. Based on these last three points, if we were to condense the universe to a human size, the earth would become the ego of that human being. Conversely, if we were to expand a human to the size of the universe, his ego would become the earth.

Along the same lines, the creation of mankind in the universe took place long after the creation of the universe itself. This is very much like the development of our self-consciousness, in other words our ego, years after our birth into the world. This similarity agrees with the analogy between the human and the universe; and so, it is another confirmation for the finding that the earth in the story corresponds to the ego.

Journey through the Earth

Now, we are at a point where we can reconsider the question on the personality of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. The transitioning to the New Said, hence the journey through the earth, can be understood as an internal conversion that he experienced and which changed his vision of the world. Interestingly, not only is this confirmed in various places in the Risale-i Nur collection, but it is also in agreement with the findings of modern psychology. He experienced this transition in his late forties, which corresponds to a possible mid-life crisis, triggered by several traumatic events in his life, such as the First World War; his captivity in Russia, the destruction of the Ottoman State and subjugation of the Muslim world by the West; the onset of his old age and the loss of his most beloved nephew, Abdurrahman. , , … In other words, all of these convolutions in the outer world corresponded with Bediuzzaman’s inner world, which altogether called for a re-evaluation and a fundamental change.

This is a major clue that reveals most of the answers we are looking for. The side that he starts off is the one that bears all the convoluted figures and forms. Suddenly, he is inspired that there is hope on the other side and he wants desperately to get there. At this point, he is not aware of the fact that this journey is actually a journey that will bring about change. Yet, his desire for the journey to peace is employed through his fate, and he is motivated to surmount the difficulties on this path of transformation.

During the journey, he is driven to the entrance of an underground tunnel. Then, he is left on his own for a while, at which time he hears sounds and sees traces of the travelers who tried going down this path before, but who failed due to a lack of divine guidance. These travelers were the ones that he once considered to be sources of wisdom. After seeing their failure in that underground tunnel, he is psychologically prepared to fully embrace the devices that are going to be given to him from the Qur’an.

Two Devices

In the 23rd Word, Bediuzzaman tells another visionary story that very explicitly describes what the darkness and light are. The darkness is lack of knowledge, and the light is knowledge associated with some wisdom. In his case, the knowledge is gained by a believer’s perception, which is shaped by the wisdom of the Qur’an, hence the luminary device. Later, we will see that this same luminary device represents wisdom that not only reconciles, but also satisfies the mind and the heart under divine guidance.

As for the meaning of rocks and the device used for digging, we need to make an exhaustive search for clues. First, a travel through the earth would take us to the parts of the earth that had been formed during our planet’s past. Again, using the analogy of the human ego and the earth, we can conclude that the journey through the ego involves a journey through a period in which our personality is formed, meaning the past life. Yet, exploring one’s own past with investigative eyes is not as straightforward as it sounds. There are difficult boulders along the way, representing the ever increasing stiffness of the conditionings of the mind, especially at an older age. So the question we are facing now is “what were the mental conditionings of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi?”

This is not an easy question, and we are risking being disrespectful towards his personality by using this daring language. However, for the sake of learning a way to the truth through his life experiences, we will take shelter under his forgiveness.

Bediuzzaman’s mental conditionings can be understood when comparing his life before and after this transition. Before the transition, we see a person who openly challenges all scholars of his time. He is one who would sternly fight against the anti-Islamic ideologies, and who would fight in wars. During this period, Said Nursi not only represents a man of knowledge, but also a man of action. Having been involved in politics and leadership, he seeks salvation for his nation through reviving the education system and establishing the practice of religion in the government and all levels of society.

If we were to take an overall look at his activities and try to trace their mental and psychological roots, we could see the understanding of Islam at that time. This understanding was based mostly on the narration of centuries-old interpretations and jurisdictions. It was optimized according to a state-regulated religious practice that had been in existence since very soon after the time of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. Under such conditions, it was nearly impossible for a person to formulate a religious perspective that does not involve the state or politics.

Among the religious circles, the scientific and philosophical innovations of the time that were being developed in western countries were considered potential enemies to the state and to Islam. Thus, any contact or interaction with the West was strongly discouraged by religious authorities. The only reason for establishing such contact would be for the purpose of trade or obtaining their technology to regain power over them . All of these reactionary ideas were of course based on sincere religious sensitivities, whose roots had been embedded throughout Islamic history. Said Nursi’s preconditioning by this atmosphere is no exception.

However, when we look at the actual events in the face of all these reactions based on religious sensitivities, we see that western philosophies were spreading among the educated classes, and an admiration for western countries was prevailing. Blind imitation of the social practices of Westerners was uprooting the moral values of the Ottoman society. Worst of all, the challenges raised by scientific philosophy against religion were not met with satisfactory answers from the religious authorities.

In time, conservative people became outnumbered, and eventually withdrew from the social life. Those who were involved in the innovations from the West lost their religious and cultural roots. There was a clear defeat on the side of the religious people, despite their conviction of having the truth at their side. This complex situation bewildered the defeated minds for a long time, because they could not justify their failure with having truth at the same time. They could not find the answers to what it was that the West had right and the East had wrong.. Recourse to blind faith did not do any good for the new generations, but only made things worse.

The above-mentioned paragraphs were aimed at bringing us back to the conditions of the time, in which the Old Said lived; hence the conditioning in his mind symbolized as the rocks in the story. Just like other scholars, Said Nursi’s mindset was not conducive to fully explain the situation or to bring forth a path of salvation. Nobody was really able to figure out what God meant through the language of the events, and what He wanted from Muslims.

After so many paragraphs, we are almost ready to discover what that rock-breaking device is and to understand the meaning of clearing the subterranean way. As a last clue, we are going to look at the method Bediuzzaman used in the period after the emergence of the New Said.

Having been given a unique understanding of the Qur’an, e.g. the illumination device, by which he can justify human scientific inquiry and religion and by which he can utilize the scientific knowledge in service to the Qur’an, Said Nursi begins authoring the Risale-i Nur Collection. This collection introduces the articles of faith to the human mind in a rational way. Belief in the unseen becomes no more a matter of blind faith, and millions of people run towards this source of light. Thus, the service of establishing firm belief in minds, instead of striving towards establishing a religious state, becomes his ultimate dedication in life.

In fulfilling his service, Bediuzzaman follows a path that is totally devoid of politics. He uses a language and style that is very polite and welcoming compared to his style in the Old Said period. He calls this “qawl al-layyin” (mild language, gentle words), which necessitates convincing people instead of preaching to them and which precludes the use of power. Qawl al-layyin becomes his second device, which breaks the rock-like conditionings in his own and in other people’s minds. This was revolutionary for its time, and something that the entire believing world, including himself, was in dire need of. The All-Compassionate and the All-Wise God facilitated his method, and guided him along the way.

Knowing his life story before and after the transition, we can see that the changes in his life were actually pointed out in a dream before the First World War. In his dream, Mount Ararat suddenly explodes, and huge pieces of the mountain fly all around the world. It so happens that he is watching this event with his mother. After the explosion, he says to her, “Mom, don’t be scared. This is God’s command. He is compassionate and wise.” Then, suddenly a man of high stature appears and tells him to explain the miraculousness of the Qur’an. Said Nursi, himself, interprets this dream as the coming of a severe attack on the Qur’an, and as a result the collapse of the protective walls around it. Then, he realizes that his service will be to protect the Qur’an by explaining its miraculousness.

We can take a second look at this dream having the subject matter of this article in our minds. The co-presence of the Old Said and his mom in the dream could very well be interpreted as the blending of wisdom and compassion, respectively, in the person of the New Said who is given the mission of explaining the miraculousness of the Qur’an. The rocks that make up the mountains in his dream are the same rocks in the journey we are investigating. We know that the scholars at all times strived for the true understanding and interpretation of the Qur’an. They tried to protect the religion from the attacks of disbelievers. However, over time, due to the imitative and narrative habits that developed among the Muslims, the body of knowledge accrued by these scholars, which was intended to be like the city walls around the Qur’an, became a veil preventing people from reaching the Qur’an itself, or the truth in it for that matter. Thus, the attacks of the disbelievers, which were aimed at destroying the religion, were employed by the Compassionate and Wise God to break down the veils surrounding the Qur’an, exposing people to the truth in it. Looking back from the present, we see that all the attacks on religion, especially on Islam in the present context, only resulted in people’s rediscovering the religion in its original purity. For this rediscovery, the writings of Bediuzzaman have provided a straight path for the mind to embrace the pillars of faith.

Finally, we can combine all of the findings so far. The first device he is given is the wisdom of the Qur’an, which unites the human mind and heart. The second device is compassion, reflected on a believer’s dealing with other people (qawl al-layyin). With these two devices, he is neither lost on the way nor out of power, and finally reaches the truth under the Divine guidance. Having used these devices extensively in his life, Said Nursi tells in The Letters that in the part of his life representing the New Said, he has especially observed the manifestations of two names of the Almighty: The Compassionate and The Wise.

Implications of the First Journey to Light

Upon his exit to the other side in the story, Said Nursi finds the fresh air and sunshine that he has been starving for since the beginning. With the consequent expanse of heart, he now feels that he is in the place that he is meant to be. Thus, the start of a new life is the first implication of his journey through himself, or through his ego.

In his journey to this beauty, he encounters darkness and hardship. The extreme contrast witnessed before and after the journey sharpens his sensitivity and enables him to fully appreciate the beauties he comes to discover. The same sensitivity helps him realize the beauties that are hidden under the veil of familiarity. Then, an enhanced sensitivity towards the beauties, which are signs from God, is the second implication of his journey.

With his contemplations during and after his transition and with the aid of his enhanced sensitivity, the New Said writes the Risale-i Nur Collection, and it becomes the Noah’s Ark for many who were drowning in the tide of scientific materialism. Even today, his work that combines the mind and heart saves the faith of new generations. So the third implication of his journey is the change of events and people surrounding him .

A journey for everyone

The above-mentioned discussion is very much like deciphering a map that leads to a treasure. This underground journey, or the journey through the ego, tells us once again that the more we are aware of our selves, the closer we are to God. As a response of approval, God changes the things we are not capable of changing on our own; and this fortifies our reliance on and love for God. Although the subject-person here is Said Nursi, the journey through the ego and its implications can be useful to anyone who is on a journey towards God.

Seth Mette has a PhD in Aerospace Engineering and is currently working as a postdoctoral fellow at West Virginia University. He has a special interest in psychological fiction.

Notes

1. Nursi, Said. The Gleams, 26th Gleam, 14th Hope, NJ: The Light, Inc., 2008, p. 354.

2. Nursi. The Words, 30th Word, First Purpose, NJ: The Light, Inc., 2005.

3. Nursi. 20th Letter, Letters, Volume 2, pp 16, Truestar Publications.

4. Nursi. Epitomes of Light, 11th Treatise, Izmir: Kaynak Publications, 1999, p. 439.

5. Jung, C.G. The Basic Postulates of Analytical Psychology, Modern Man in Search of a Soul, Translated by W.S. Dell and Cary F. Baynes, Harcourt, Inc., 1933.

6. Nursi, 2008, 5th Hope.

7. Nursi, 2008, 7th Hope.

8. Nursi, 2008, 12th Hope.

9. Nursi, 2005, 23rd Word, 1st Matter, 2nd Point.

10. Lewis, Bernard. What Went Wrong? The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East, NY: Perennial, 2003, pp. 43.

11. Nursi, The Letters, 4th Letter, NJ: The Light, Inc., 2007.

12. “Surely God changes not the conditions of a people, unless He changes what is with their selves” (Qur’an 13:11).

Many people probably would agree that the transistor was the greatest technological invention of the twentieth century. The first transistor, invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958, was made from silicon. Even though integrated circuit technology has advanced to the level of putting millions of transistors on a fingernail-sized chip, transistors are still made from silicon. Now, however, both the scientific community and the high-tech industry are very excited about something new: plastic electronics. For many of us, this might sound like an oxymoron, for we know plastic only as an insulator. So how can a protective substrate or a carriage box to the actual electronic device be converted into an electronic device?

The story of plastic electronics started late 1970s with Alan Heeger, Alan Macdiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa. These scientists demonstrated that the molecular structure of certain polymers (plastics) can be manipulated and then used as conductors. The Swiss Academy of Sciences was somewhat slow in recognizing their work, for they were awarded the Nobel prize in chemistry only in 2000. Nevertheless, the scientific community did not wait for the Nobel committee’s recognition of plastics. Since 1977, plastic has become probably the most common material in our daily lives.

Silicon versus plastic

All computer chips are made out of silicon (semiconductor) and aluminum (metal). Silicon is a great material for integrated circuits, because it is available, can be acquired in an extremely pure state (single crystal or amorphous), and has a very high mobility (the speed that electrons can travel through material). This mobility, in turn, determines the device’s switching speed. However, silicon has one important drawback: It is not easy to process.

Integrated circuit technology can deposit millions of silicon transistors on a single chip. However, the procedure for making these devices usually requires facilities worth billions of dollars, for silicon has to go through complicated photolithography procedures under clean room conditions before it can be incorporated into a device. But is it really worthwhile to spend billions of dollars on such facilities? The answer probably looks obvious, since Intel remains one of the world’s largest companies. However, we do not really need such a high quality in many of the applications for which silicon is used. So if there is something cheaper that can do the job perfectly, why not use it? Plastic is far cheaper, but not so sophisticated an alternative.

Plastic is cheap because billion-dollar facilities are not required to convert it into a device. In fact, the technology needed to process plastic into an electronic device is only slightly more advanced than an ink-jet printer. Electronic circuits are printed on an insulating polymer, and then certain parts of the polymer are exposed to UV light in order to convert the insulating polymer into a conducting polymer. The result is a device in which only the parts that we want to conduct are conducting. Moreover, these conducting parts sit on a protective insulating sheet of plastic. That is pretty much all we need for many applications.

The case for plastic

Plastic has two advantages over silicon: price and flexibility. Like other inorganic elements, silicon has strong covalent bonds between its atoms. As these bonds are rigid, they cannot bend or stretch. Plastic has very loose molecular bonds that can tolerate a significant amount of bending and stretching. Flexibility combined with electronics implies applications like flexible displays that can be rolled up and taken somewhere else, reloadable electronic newspapers that can be bent like paper, disposable mobile phones, and many others.

So if plastic is that good, why is it not the electronics industry’s standard material? For one simple reason: Plastic’s loose molecular bonds, which make the material so flexible, make it more difficult for the electrons to travel through it. Thus, plastic devices are slower than silicon devices. Until several years ago, the mobility of a typical conducting plastic used to be around 0.1 cm2/volts, whereas crystalline (best) silicon could reach 1000 cm2/volts at room temperature. Recently, a new class of polymers (pentacene) has been found in which molecules tend to self-organize. As a result, the mobility has been pushed up to 3 cm2/volts. Scientist working on pentacene estimate a number close to 50 cm2/volts as the limit of achievable mobility for this special polymer.

These expectations are not just wishful thinking of some optimistic scientists. In fact, even now there are some significant outcomes of plastic technology.

Current developments

John Rogers and coworkers from Bell Labs (Lucent Technologies) have patterned 256 polymer transistors on the back-plane of a flexible optical display. Richard Friend and coworkers from University of Cambridge have produced thin film transistor circuits using a high-resolution inkjet printing. Dago de Leeuw and colleagues at Philips Research Laboratories in Eindhoven, The Netherlands, have developed a new technique called photochemical patterning. In photochemical patterning, a light sensitive-polymer is exposed to ultraviolet light through a mask shaped in the form of the desired circuit. The ultraviolet light changes the polymer from a conducting state to a non-conducting state. In this process, the polymer’s resistance can increase as much as 11 orders of magnitude (100000000000). The advantage of this technique over the patterning techniques used for silicon is that it does not need any vacuum and can be used on flexible substrates. The problems with photochemical patterning are that it is not significantly cheaper than photolithography and etching used for silicon, and it can be used only for light-sensitive polymers. Different research groups have developed various techniques that have pros and cons compared to photochemical patterning. However, many of the techniques cannot print features that are small enough for electronic circuits. The critical length is the distance between the transistor’s source and drain, typically 0.01 mm. This is the distance that the field-induced charges have to travel. As the drive current and switching speed of the device depend on this distance, having too large of a distance reduces the capabilities of the device. Another technique that pursues quite a different approach is microcontact printing. Developed by the Bell Labs group, microcontact printing with rubber-like stamps can make small enough features. Scientists have used this technique to make a flexible display in which a transistor controls each pixel. The key point in developing this technique was using gold pads, instead of a polymeric material, to deposit the transistor’s source and drain. Even though this device is not completely plastic, it is a step toward that goal. When a special kind of ink was applied to a thin film of gold, it formed some sort of self-assembled layer on the gold, which then produced well-defined patterns and sharp edges. This provided the required resolution to make small enough features necessary for an electronic device having a reasonable speed. These two techniques show two important aspects of the problem. In photochemical printing, we have a device that is completely plastic and so has the important advantage of flexibility. However, it is not as cheap as it could be and does not have the required resolution. In the second technique, the outcome is not a 100 percent plastic device, so it is not as flexible as a purely plastic circuit. However, it can be manufactured very cheaply and has a better resolution (and thus a higher switching speed).

Conclusion

Many other approaches are being employed to develop this new and exciting technology. If plastic electronics does become standard for at least some applications, it probably will be a hybrid of these different techniques. If the optimistic group of scientists working on plastic electronics prove to be right, one day we might see TV screens curling around the walls of our rooms and even reloadable electronic newspapers that can be folded and carried like regular newspapers. Who knows what new inventions will come with this new technology?

References

• Garnier, F., (et al). Science 265 (1994): 1684-86.
• Gelinck, G., T. Geuns, and D. de Leuw. Applied Physics Letters 77 (2000): 406-8.
• Levi, Barbara G. ‘New Printing Technologies Raise Hopes for Cheap Plastic Electronics.’ Physics Today (February 2001). Online at: www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-2/p20.html.
• Nobel Focus: Electricity through Plastic.’ Physical Review Focus (24 October 2000). Online at: http://focus.aps.org/v6/st18.html.
• Scott, Campbell. ‘Electronics Put It on Plastics.’ Physics in Action. (October 1998). Online at: www.physicsweb.org/article/world/11/30/3/1.
• Voss, David. ‘Cheap and Cheerful Circuits.’ Nature 407 (28 September 2000).