To attain happiness and to avoid mood disorders, which should we pursue

The messages of modern society are all too familiar to us: buy more, eat more, sleep more, take more pictures, and care less about the effects of our actions. We are encouraged to maximize pleasure while avoiding anything that inconveniences us. We cloister ourselves with our material goods and social media habits, promoting self-centeredness. This induces a fluctuating happiness in which phases of pleasure and displeasure repeatedly alternate, which can result in various mood disorders and has been linked to decreases in well-being. In this article, we are going to analyze self-centeredness and its consequences and also interpret its role in a variety of mood disorders and various areas of life.

The Self-centeredness / Selflessness Happiness Model (SSHM) is a theoretical model proposed by Dambrun et al. in 2011 [1]. This model represents different sorts of happiness that are dependent upon the self, particularly the structure of the self. They claim that self-centered psychological functioning derives from how someone perceives themselves and the belief that they are powerful, permanent, and independent. This functioning causes fluctuating happiness and afflictive affects which are also the roots of many mood disturbances. This is heavily contrasted by the perception of the self as flexible which leads to selfless psychological functioning and is a crucial factor at attaining more authentic/durable happiness [1].

After proposing this model, Michael Dambrun conducted a study in 2017 that built upon this model. According to this research, self-centered psychological functioning allows individuals to fluctuate between joy and sorrow, a vacillation that results in afflictive affects. Conversely, selfless psychological functioning gives the individual more emotional stability and feeling of harmony with the environment. They tested these hypotheses in two studies consisting of a heterogeneous sample of citizens (n=547). Analyses of these two studies indicate that self-centeredness (measured by egocentrism and materialism) and selflessness (measured by transcendence and connectedness to others) were two different psychological constructs rather than strict oppositional ideas.

In addition to showing the distinct functioning, these analyses also revealed that self-centered functioning is significantly associated with fluctuating happiness that is the root of afflictive affects. However, selflessness is linked to authentic/durable happiness, which is the result of perceiving the self as flexible and harmonious with the environment and universe. These associations are mediated by distinct psychological processes. For self-centeredness, afflictive affects play a crucial role in the correlation with fluctuating happiness in self-centered individuals.

In contrast, selfless individuals attain authentic-durable happiness that is partially mediated by emotional stability and perceiving themselves as harmonious with others and the universe (2). In our view, individuals who are more concerned about their happiness are more susceptible to mood fluctuations and disorders, while individuals who have more significant interest for the happiness of others attain more robust and durable emotions.

These studies also suggest that self-centeredness causes problems in society; as such, we will to analyze the results later.

Fluctuating happiness in the self-centered individual

The idea of the self as a real, permanent entity with its distinct boundaries results in self-centered psychological functioning. Laborit’s [3] study suggests that each organized structure in the form of an entity seeks gratifications that positively reinforce it and avoids things that risk its homeostasis. The hedonic principal is a major ruler in self-centered functioning and is deeply associated with egoism, egocentrism, an exaggerated importance given to the self, and ego inflation (through material possessions, for example) (e.g. Higgins,1997) [4].

The hedonic principle and its associations are also correlated with some personality disorders, particularly narcissistic personality disorder [5]. This principle induces the individual to focus on attaining pleasure and avoiding displeasure. Feelings of temporary happiness, joy, and gratification are the result of impulsive actions for attaining pleasure and avoiding displeasure. However, only the presence or absence of certain stimuli reinforce the individual and only give temporary pleasure and happiness (Wallace & Shapiro, 2006 [6]). The experience of pleasure depends on circumstances, is an unstable condition that may soon become neutral or may be displaced with displeasure. (i.e., hedonic adaptation, e.g., Brickman, Coates & Janoff-Bulman, 1978; Lyubomirsky, 2011 [7]). Focusing on attaining more pleasure and avoiding displeasure lead an individual to recognize and realize the impossibility of attaining valued objects, durable pleasure, and cause them to repeatedly vacillate between pleasure and displeasure and the arising affects such as frustration, nervousness, anger, hostility, or jealousy, all of which damage their well-being and health (e.g., Miller) [8]. Contrarily, altruism, also called selflessness or focusing on others’ happiness, is significantly associated with a higher quality of well-being, health, and longevity [9].

Self-centeredness cause depressive symptomatology

A self-centered lifestyle may cause not only mood disorders but also social problems that also increase the prevalence of different mood disorders. Loneliness is a big problem in contemporary society, though we mostly live in crowded cities adorned with skyscrapers. As the title describes, a study conducted in 2017 shows loneliness and self-centeredness have a reciprocal effect that cause depression and various mood disorders, as well as health and social problems [10].

Loneliness increases not only the motivation to repair or replace deficient social relationships, but also the implicit motivation for self-preservation. John T. Cacioppo et al. reported a cross-lagged analysis of 10 waves of longitudinal data (n=229) on loneliness and self-centeredness (as gauged by Feeney and Collins’s measure of choric self-focus) in a representative sample of middle-aged and other adults. Loneliness increases the implicit motivation for self-preservation, and loneliness in the current year anticipates self-centeredness in the following year beyond what is reasoned by current-year demographic variables, self-centeredness, depressive symptomatology, and overall negative mood and emotions. Their study also revealed that self-centeredness in the current year foretells loneliness in the subsequent year, a reciprocal relationship that could potentially contribute to the maintenance of loneliness [12].

Generation Me and its consequences on human mood

An increase in narcissism with some indicators of increased self-focus in Americans born after 1970 leads authors to describe that generation as “Generation Me” [5, 12]. This narcissism and self-focus are also intimately related to self-centered psychological functioning since both are formed by an exaggerated importance given to the self, ego-inflation, and so on. We think self-centered psychological functioning may also be considered as a part of this dynamic, thus being a member of Generation Me may be one of the major risk factors for narcissistic personality traits and disorder [2, 12].

Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is a personality disorder in which there is a long-term pattern of abnormal behavior characterized by a grandiose self-view, unrealistic sense of entitlement, exaggerated feelings of self-importance, and a lack of understanding of others’ feelings [13, 14]. Narcissists who consider themselves to be superior to others, and also have unrealistic expectations for the future, become angry and aggressive when in trouble, take more resources for themselves and leave less for others, and value money, fame, and image over family, helping others, and community. Though narcissism has some benefits, like public speaking, it has lots of adverse effects on human mood and behavior and comorbidities with psychological disorders [15].

Selfless functioning

The principle of “harmony” has a primary role in the selflessly functioning individual; harmony directs all mental activities (conation, motivation, attention, emotion, cognition, behavior). Harmony and emotional stability are associated with empathy, benevolence, compassion, and deep respect; all of these have a beneficial effect on behavior and a reduction of psychological distress [2]. Many studies have revealed the results of altruism on happiness and health and have consistently found a deep and intimate connection between altruism and current and future health and well-being.

References

1. Dambrun, M., & Ricard, M. (2011). Self-centeredness and selflessness: A theory of self-based psychological functioning and its consequences for happiness. Review of General Psychology, 15 (2), 138-157.
2. Dambrun M. Self-centeredness and selflessness: happiness correlates and mediating psychological processes. Hung T-M, ed. PeerJ. 2017; 5:e3306. doi:10.7717/peerj.3306.
3. Laborit (1979) Laborit H. L’inhibition de l’action: biologie, physiologie, psychologie, sociologie. Edition Masson; Paris: 1979.
4. Higgins (1997) Higgins ET. Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist. 1997; 52:1280–1300. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
5. Jean M. Twenge The Evidence for Generation Me and Against Generation We Vol 1, Issue 1, pp. 11 – 16,First published date: March-01-20131177/2167696812466548
6. Wallace & Shapiro (2006) Wallace BA, Shapiro SL. Mental balance and well-being: building bridges between Buddhism and Western psychology. American Psychologist. 2006;61:690–701. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.690. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
7. Brickman P., Coates D., Janoff-Bulman R. (1978). Lottery winners and accident victims: is happiness relative? J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 36, 917–92710.1037/0022-3514.36.8.917 [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
8. Miller et al. (1996) Miller TQ, Smith TW, Turner CW, Guijarro ML, Hallet AJ. A meta-analytic review of research on hostility and physical health. Psychological Bulletin. 1996;119:322–348. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.322. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
9. “altruism (n .)”.Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
10. Cacioppo JT, Chen HY, Cacioppo S. Reciprocal Influences Between Loneliness and Self-Centeredness: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis in a Population-Based Sample of African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian Adults. Pers Soc Psychol Bull.2017 Aug;43(8):1125-1135. doi: 10.1177/0146167217705120. Epub 2017 Jun 13.
11. Twenge JM. Generation Me: Why today’s young Americans are more confident, assertive, entitled—And more miserable than ever before. New York: Free Press; 2006.
12. PubMed Caligor, E; Levy, KN; Yeomans, FE (May 2015). “Narcissistic personality disorder: diagnostic and clinical challenges.”. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 172 (5): 415–22. PMID25930131. doi:1176/appi.ajp.2014.14060723
13. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5(5th ed.). Washington [etc.]: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp. 645, 669–72.
14. Cai H, Shi Y, Fang X, Luo YLL. Narcissism predicts impulsive buying: phenotypic and genetic evidence. Frontiers in Psychology. 2015;6:881. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00881.
15. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5(5th ed.). Washington [etc.]: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. pp. 645, 669–72.

Eating disorders are not problems with food. Eating problems start out when someone wishes to lose weight, and this wish turns into behavior that is out of control. An eating habit becomes an eating disorder when it satisfies the psychological need of that person. Eating disorders are a combination of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa is a purposeful attempt to stop eating. Bulimia nervosa is eating a large amount of food in a short time and then making one’s self ill, “purging” one of the food they just ate. Binge-eating is using food to deal with emotional distress. Eating disorders can be symptoms of other psychological problems; a study in 2003 found that people with anorexia are 56 times more likely to comment suicide than people without anorexia (Polivy and Herman). Some teenagers develop eating disorders because of familial influences, psychosexual problems, or sociocultural factors.

Familial influences, such as using food as rewards, parental critical comments, and biological factors, can cause eating disorders in teenagers. Some problematic behaviors can seem innocent. For example, many parents use food to comfort their children after a stressful day. Food can act as a drug and calm a child’s anxiety (Siegel and et al. 32). In this case, the food may become a problem for teenagers who do not know how to deal with stress and painful feelings.

If over-indulgence is a problem, so is total prohibition. If parents try to limit their children’s access to junk food, children may overeat these prohibited foods. This behavior may lead to eating disorders in the future (Polivy and Herman). Research has shown that parents of teenagers with eating disorders are overprotective. This kind of parent complains and criticizes their children’s appearance. Appearance-related teasing or critical comments, even in jest, can increase the risk of eating disorders in teenagers. Furthermore, teenagers with a high risk of eating disorders have usually been more criticized and less accepted in their families. On other hand, teenagers who have a good relationship with parents and other family members are at a low risk of developing eating disorders. Emotional support from families can help teenagers develop positive body images and eating behaviors.

Some teenagers’ eating disorders are biologically inherited. Genetic factors are reasons for approximately 56 percent of the risk for developing an eating disorder (Polivy and Herman). In addition, statistics show that teenagers who have a family member with an eating disorder develop anorexia nervosa 12 times more, and bulimia four times more, than other teenagers without this family history (Polivy and Herman). Furthermore, mothers who themselves have an eating disorder have a negative influence on their children’s eating behaviors. Some parents with eating disorders feed their children irregularly and use less nutritional food.

Psychosexual problems in teenagers can also cause eating disorders. Whenever extreme weight lost occurs, psychological depression might be the cause. Teenagers who are eating disordered, eat because they are psychologically hungry (Siegel and et al. 7). Emotional stability, self-criticism and perfectionism play a large role in the development of eating disorders. The pre-anorexic is the model teenager, never complaining and very helpful. On the other hand, teenagers with anorexia and bulimia are competitive and perfectionists. They are highly critical of themselves and get upset if they fail to meet their goals. This dissatisfaction can drive them toward eating disorders (Polivy and Herman).

Gender identity, such as discomfort with one’s own sex, can cause eating disorders, too. During the developmental period many teenagers face physical changes in their body. Female teenagers want to decrease the overall size of their bodies; however, males want to increase their upper bodies. Research shows that in 2005, 45.6 percent of high school students were trying to lose weight (Polivy and Herman). Female teenagers displayed a higher risk of eating disorders because young girls are encouraged to pay more attention to others’ opinions about how they should look.

Finally, sociocultural factors, such as social pressure and media influence can cause eating disorders in teenagers. These days, the ideal woman’s body image is much discussed. Society is brainwashing teenagers into believing that when they are thin they are accepted (Polivy and Herman). Sometimes, romantic partner or peer influence can cause eating disorders. Relationship problems, loneliness, and conflicted connections can lead to destructive behavior. Furthermore, teenagers who have eating disorders seek social approval, and lower peer acceptance is often blamed for an increased risk of eating disorders.

Cultural expectations can contribute to disordered eating. Sometimes, cultural expectations and direct or indirect messages about body image can be cruel. Teenagers are told that if they want to be happy, they should be in good shape and successful in school. Studies show that Hispanic and Asian-American teenage girls have greater body dissatisfaction than Caucasian girls. This can be partly attributed to the kinds of “ideal” bodies portrayed in popular media. Teenagers consume popular media and want to resemble their favorite stars. Media highlights that young, thin, and stylishly dressed actors and models are happy and successful. Teenagers who watch more shows than average tend to view themselves as overweight and unhappy. There have been some national and international attempts to change these unrealistic, photoshopped, and unachievable portrayals of men and women, but the dominant image is still that young and thin are ideal (Ata and et al.).   

Familial influences, psychosexual problems, and sociocultural factors can contribute to the development of eating disorders in teenagers. It’s important to educate teenagers about the causes and symptoms of eating disorders, as their understanding of eating disorders can lead them to get professional help. But it’s also important for teenagers’ families to help them. Developing healthier relationships, establishing responsibilities, and learning to listen effectively can help teenagers’ families communicate with them and help them to cope with an eating disorder.

References

Ata, Rheanna N., Alison Bryant Ludden, and Megan M. Lally. “The Effects of Gender and Family, Friend, and Media Influences on Eating Behaviors and Body Image during Adolescene.” Journal of Youth and Adolescene 36.8 (2007): 1024-37. ProQuest. Web. 12 July 2014. Henderson, Eric. The Active Reader. Canada: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print. Polivy, Janet, and C.P. Herman. “Causes of Eating Disorders.” Annual Review of Psychology 53 (2002): 187-213. ProQuest. Web. 12 July 2014. Siegel, Michele, Judith Brisman, and Margot Weinshel. Surviving an Eating Disorder. 3rd ed. Vol. 274. United States of America: Collins Living, 2009. Schaefer, Jenni. Goodbye Ed, Hello Me. Vol 219. United States of America: McGraw Companies, 2009.

Antisocial personality disorder manifests itself in different ways, but it often means having no regard for rules, an obsession to immediately do whatever one wishes, and disregard for the wishes of others. People diagnosed with this disorder feel they have the power to do anything they like and are authorized to act as they wish. For them, it is their natural right to trouble others and they feel no remorse for their actions, which can lead them into criminal behavior. During childhood, they tend to lie, steal, skip school, and harm their peers. They show a higher level of inclination to abuse alcohol and drugs. They pay no heed to what others think about them. They are spurred on by their inner instincts and recognize no obstacles. They do not learn from punishments or painful experiences. On the contrary, they do their best to convince others that they were right in their actions. If they commit a crime, the society and their families are the usual suspects; for they are the product of the society and the family, both of which deserve to be punished. There are many instances in which such people lay all the blame on their parents, and may go so far as to even harm them.

“If I believe in something, then it should be right,” is a typical argument they frequently voice. When they are not willing to do something, they are absolutely sure it is not right to do that thing.

There are various theories as to how antisocial personality disorder comes about: genetic heritage, parents’ treatment of the child (especially in the earlier stages of development), an of parents’ absence or pathological behavior. Parents’ connection with children has an important effect on developing moral values, which will serve as checks and balances over the child’s ego. Parents’ balanced reaction to a child who harms his or her friend, or keeps lying all the time, will be a major factor that will determine the child’s personality.

Antisocial behavior could also develop from negative learning. For instance, if a child yells and cries when he is told to tidy up his room and eventually manages to force his parent to retreat, this may plant a seed in the child to adopt this attitude because it works.

Education of antisocial personality

Parents have a huge responsibility in helping their children to overcome this disorder. Parents have to work hard to ensure that their child develops healthy relations with the larger family and the social community, and that they set goals worth accomplishing. Socializing with others, visiting neighbors and the sick, attending funerals together, greeting others, teaching them to help the poor, and similar activities can be useful.

Establishing a peaceful family environment is also necessary. Growing up in such a family, children will develop a sense of responsible parenthood and lasting relationships, which will help to protect the next generation. Parents should be supportive of their children when they come of age and want to have their own families.

Helping others through charity is a significant hindrance to the development of antisocial behavior. Charity is, by definition, an altruistic act where one learns to empathize with others. The recurrent emphasis on charity in many faith traditions defines the act in a variety of forms, which enables people from every class to be a part of it. For instance, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, said charity includes even a smile or one’s effort to prevent himself from harming others.

Setting higher goals in one’s life is also helpful in overcoming one’s tendencies towards violence. Goals will bring meaning and purpose to one’s life and will help the person develop constructive relations with others.

One of the difficult aspects of antisocial personality disorder is the inclination to alcohol and drug abuse. This is not easy to fight against, for alcohol and drugs give the person even more audacity and aggressiveness, albeit for a short period of time. Such rebellion against established social principles can cause even further imbalance.

Spiritual nourishment is also necessary to eliminate the reasons that lead to antisocial disorder. It is important in faith traditions to raise awareness that each and every one of us will eventually be held accountable for our behavior, that our actions are being observed and recorded accordingly by the Divine, and that it is compulsory to live a balanced life without going to extremes and violating others’ rights.

Our hearts are broken today” said the President Obama after the school shooting in Connecticut on December 14, 2012. These words reflected most concisely the emotions all of us felt that tragic day, as our minds and hearts failed to grasp how possibly this could have happened, how come a seemingly human being could go this much lower than the wildest beasts. One of the ideas that was proposed to explain this murky situation was that the gunman had an Asperger’s syndrome, which was immediately refused by experts. “First and foremost, our thoughts go out to the families,” says Lisa Goring, vice president of family services for Autism Speaks. “We are all searching for answers, but it can be so irresponsible to label autism as the cause of this because we endanger totally innocent kids” (1). This article aims to explain what the Asperger’s Syndrome is about in an effort to save especially kids with this syndrome from another stigma that they have to deal with on top of so many other things.

Thirty years ago, only 4 or 5 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) cases were reported per 10,000 people. Today, however, approximately 1 in 150 children across the U.S. is diagnosed with it; so chances are, you know someone affected either directly or indirectly by these disorders (2). This being the case, the debates, advocacy, and awareness activities are on the rise. Individuals with ASD show abnormal social interactions, language difficulties, repetitive or restrictive behaviors, and special interests. ASD includes Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorder and Asperger’s Syndrome (3).

Asperger’s syndrome was first recognized by Hans Asperger in 1944 and the term was popularized by English psychiatrist, Lorna Wing, in 1981. The incidence of this syndrome is not well established, but experts in population studies estimate that two out of every 10,000 children have the disorder. It is more common in boys. They are three to four times more likely than girls to have Asperger’s syndrome (ninds.nih.gov). However, the prevalence in females might be lower because of the fundamental lack of awareness of what Asperger’s Syndrome looks like in females. A female with Asperger’s Syndrome might be considered as shy, quiet, perfect at school, tomboyish, moody, overly competitive, aloof, Gothic, depressed, anxious, or a perfectionist (disabled-world.com).

It is always challenging for people with Asperger’s to lead a normal life in spite of it because this disorder makes it hard to develop social and conversational skills. Affected people display socially and emotionally inappropriate behavior, limited facial expressions, body gestures and inability to recognize nonverbal signals. They lack interest in other people; however, they are obsessively interested in unusual and specific subjects. In addition, they prefer to follow repetitive routines or rituals because they cannot cope with unexpected changes.

Children with Asperger’s Syndrome

A child with Asperger’s syndrome may have the listed signs and symptoms (kidshealth.org):

• inappropriate or minimal social interactions
• conversations almost always revolving around self rather than others
• “scripted,” “robotic,” or repetitive speech
• lack of “common sense”
• problems with reading, math, or writing skills
• obsession with complex topics such as patterns or music
• average to below-average nonverbal cognitive abilities, though verbal cognitive abilities are usually average to above-average
• awkward movements
• odd behaviors or mannerisms
• lack of eye contact

Parents usually sense there is something abnormal about a child with Asperger’s by the time of his or her third birthday, and some children may exhibit symptoms as early as infancy. Their early language skills retain but motor development delays (for example, crawling or walking late, clumsiness) are sometimes the first indicator of the disorder (ninds.nih.gov).

Hans Asperger called the children with these behaviors “little professors” because they could talk continuously and in great detail about their favorite subjects. These little professors may have an amazing ability to recall dates, names, and events. One parent laughs about how her ten-year-old knew the scientific name of everyday things—from the sugar in the kitchen to the trees in the backyard. He would keep discussing things using the scientific classification (yourlittleprofessor.com).

Most children with Asperger’s syndrome have difficulty interacting with their peers due to the problems in understanding figurative language and tendency to use language literally. Children with this syndrome do not recognize non-literal language that includes humor, irony, and teasing. They struggle just to understand common social cues so they are mostly loners and may display odd behaviors. A child with Asperger’s, for example, may spend hours each day preoccupied with counting cars passing on the street or watching only the weather channel on television. Children with Asperger’s syndrome are also at risk for other psychiatric problems including depression, attention deficit disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (aacap.org).

While the more obvious symptoms of autism are usually at their most florid in early childhood, the symptoms of Asperger’s syndrome may only become noticeable with the social and functional demands of adolescence (autism.net.au). Luke Jackson, a thirteen-year-old boy with Asperger’s Syndrome from England, wrote a book named Freaks, Geeks and Asperger’s Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence. He wrote this informative, sincere and entertaining book about complicated topics such as bullying, friendships, when and how to tell others about Asperger’s syndrome, school problems, dating, relationships and morality (4).

The idea that every child with Asperger’s syndrome is a potential genius can put excessive pressure on a child with Asperger’s syndrome (yourlittleprofessor.com). Luke Jackson, for example, complains that he is always watching television about high functioning autistic people who can do things like play the piano brilliantly without taking lessons, draw detailed renditions of buildings they had only seen once or add numbers in their heads like Rain Man. “I find these television programs depressing,” he says. “I got all the nerdiness and freakishness but none of the genius.”

Seeing a child struggle socially and emotionally can be particularly heartbreaking for parents. Children who had seemed to be developing in normal and delightful ways suddenly retreat into their own world, excluding their loving moms and dads in the process after being diagnosed with ASDs. Learning more about ASDs can help parents take charge of their child again and find treatments and therapies that work (specialchildren.about.com). In some states, expanded services are available through public school programs. The most valuable service might be “parent in-home training” with a behavior specialist sponsored by the school. Moreover, parent education and skill building groups organized by some hospitals or health centers can be helpful for parents of youth with ASDs.

Speculations about famous people with Asperger’s Syndrome

There are many famous people for whom there is a lot of speculation that they had Asperger’s Syndrome (5 and 6), such as Albert Einstein, Benjamin Franklin, Leonardo da Vinci, William Shakespeare and Ibn al-Haytham. We may never know for sure if all these people have been affected by Asperger’s syndrome. However, most of the listed geniuses focused on something which interested them and their works were not disrupted by the everyday interactions that take up so much time for the rest of us. This might be the key factor behind all their great inventions. Then we can think of their Asperger’s syndrome as a blessing for humanity, because it does give certain strengths and brilliance to these scientists or pioneers that others do not have. In brief, Asperger’s syndrome is not a handicap, but rather a collection of strengths and challenges. If Asperger’s individuals are supported as they explore their capabilities, they can build on their strengths; they can even be the most successful people in history.

References

1. http://shine.yahoo.com/parenting/why-asperger-8217-didnt-cause-sandy-hook-school-164900109.html
2. Delaney T. and Madigan T. 2009. The Sociology of Sports: An Introduction. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
3. Llaneza DC, DeLuke SV, Batista M, Crawley JN, Christodulu KV, Frye CA. 2010. “Communication, Interventions, and Scientific Advances in Autism: A Commentary.” Physiol Behav. 100, 268-276.
4. Jackson, L. (2002). Freaks, geeks and Asperger syndrome: A user guide to adolescence. Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
5. Steffens, B. 2007. Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist (Profiles in Science). Greensboro, NC: Morgan Reynolds Publishing.
6. www.news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3766697.stm