We perceive several problems related to the functions in many situations in life and develop solutions accordingly. The function shows the effect of one (or more) variable(s) on another variable. In simple terms, one factor can be called the transformation of another factor. When you send a piece of mail by cargo, you pay according to the weight of your cargo. Or imagine using an hourly Internet service in a library or airplane; the more hours you use the Internet, the more you pay.

A group of people want to rent a bus. The number of people does not affect the cost of rent for a bus. However, the cost per person could change depending on of the number of people. The more passengers, the less fee they pay for each passenger. Conversely, if the number of passengers is less, the cost of the bus fee could be more.

The examples are given above help to understand the mathematical function more easily. We perceive several problems related to the functions in many situations in life and develop solutions accordingly. The function shows the effect of one (or more) variable(s) on another variable. In simple terms, one factor can be called the transformation of another factor.

Consider shipping by mail. There are actually two situations here; the weight of the cargo sent and the amount of money paid based upon the cargo’s weight. This gives us a hint for the payable amount. For example, we may know how many pounds of cargo can be sent for $10. We also may calculate how much money is needed to ship 5 pounds of cargo. We can formulate this shipping problem:  Let x be the weight of the cargo and let y be the amount to be paid. In addition, for each parcel sent, including taxes, let us assume that it costs $3. In this case, we get an equation such as y = 2x + 3. Here, the number 2 given in front of the variable x is the money paid per pound. We calculate how many dollars we will pay for a 4-pound cargo: (2×4) + 3 = $11. If 2 dollars per pound is received, a 4-pound package shipping fee is 11 dollars.

Another example would be the use of the Internet. If 40 cents is requested per hour, $1.2 will be given for 3 hours of internet usage. Thus, the equation can be written as y=40x, where x is internet usage time per hour, y is amount to be paid.

The bus rental example is slightly different from the above two examples. Although this example specifies the function, this time there is a reverse situation. In the first two examples, like (x or) input increases, (y or) output will increase. In the case of bus rental, the bus rental fee is fixed and as the number of passengers increases, the payment per person will decrease. Let’s say $400 is required for the daily rental of a bus. 40 people pay $10 per person while 8 people pay $50 per each person.  This equation would be; y=400/x, where x is the number of people, y is the amount of money paid per person. Functions are important in understanding the relationship between two variables.

Life is a function. In mathematics first, what is the function in its simplest form? Let us give the known definition in schools.

Function: Let A and B be two sets different from the empty set and there is a relation f from set A to set B. If the relation f associates each element of the set A to one and only one element of the set B, this relation is called the function from set A to set B. It is shown as f: A→B or A→B. A is called the definition set of the function and B is called the set of values. A set of elements that match the elements of set A in set B is called the set of images of the function and is denoted by f (A).

In this case, if we clarify the definition a little, a relationship from A to B to be defined in order to function f; the following conditions must be met:

1. There should be no elements in the definition set that do not have an image. However, the element can remain exposed in the value set.
2. Each element in the definition set must not have more than one image.

Let us try to find the reflections of the definition in our lives. We assume that A is the world in which we live. If we say “World” for Set A (Definition Set), we would call Group B “the Afterlife” (Value Set). Because there is a connection from this world to the other world. We will see our values in the afterlife against what we do in this world. As someone who fits the definition of a “good” person will be of high value, the definition of a “bad” person will consequently result in a lower value. So, set A considers the world and its elements as ‘living people’. We can think of all the people in the world and include them in this group since life is finite for all of us. The mathematical meaning of this reality is the following:  all elements will be moved from set A to set B (Let A and B be two sets different from an empty set and a relation f from set A to set B.). There is such a connection (or relation) that one who leaves the world cannot go to two places at the same time. Destinations are clear: abode of reward or abode of punishment. We will all be eventually placed into one of these two groups. In some cases, the last stop of the people will be paradise, even if there are those who go to hell first and purify their sins. Consequently, in the last case, no one will be in two places at the same time (If the relation f associates each element of the set A to one and only one of the set B, this relation is called the function from the set A to the set B).

Just because everyone has one final destination does not mean that that destination can only hold one person. If the levels of Heaven and Hell are considered correctly, it is possible that there is more than one person for each level or that no one has come to that level. It is possible that there are those who have sinners at the same level. We can speculate that there may even be such a level that is inaccessible to all people. The Creator creates such places in order to show His grace, mercy, and power. (In the definition set, there should not be any elements without an image. But in the value set, there may be exposed elements.)

Life itself is a function. God created life according to certain rules. We should do our best to explore, find, and use these rules. Seeing the beauties of life and being amazed by the astonishment and capturing happiness in both worlds is achieved by seeing the manifestations of God everywhere.

The periodic table is a grouping of elements (atoms) of similar characteristics. It came about primarily as a result of the work of the Russian chemist Dimitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev (1834-1907). The elements in the table form 18 groups (columns), side by side, and 7 periods (rows), one under the other. To use a metaphor: with this discovery, the last four owners have taken their places in the apartment building of elements, which consists of 118 flats. The new elements have a total of 114 friends, 92 of which are found in nature.

For now, the 113th element is known as (Uut), the 115th element as (Uup), the 117th element as (Uus), and the 118th element as (Uuo); names are still being sought for them. Elements can be named after the team who discovered them, a mythological idea, a mineral, a name of a place, or the name of a famous figure in science history.

Let’s get to know the four new elements, which were obtained by the work of Russian, American, and Japanese scientists. These elements are produced in a laboratory, like 22 other artificial elements. They are not found in nature. Though we say they’re artificially produced, they aren’t created from scratch; they’re obtained from the reactions of other elements. In other words, the possibilities of their existence are limited by the properties given to the elements that cause them to come into existence.

These elements come into being through radioactive reactions triggered in specialized labs. These four elements, which are synthetic and radioactive, are in the 7th period. They cannot be seen with the naked eye and they are degraded in a time period shorter than a second.

The new elements

113th element (Uut): The element is obtained by the chain radioactive reaction of the element dubnium (Db) and has an atomic number of 113 and an atomic weight of 284. Since the study was carried out by Kosuke Morita and his team at the Riken Institute in Japan, they will be the eponyms of this element.

115th element (Uup): This element, discovered in Russia, has a proton number of 115 and an atomic weight of 289. It was obtained by the fusions [1] of the elements americium (Am) and calcium (Ca). This and the 117th element have been discovered in studies conducted in various laboratories in Russia and the United States [2].

117th Element (Uus): This element was obtained by the radioactive fusion reactions between calcium (Ca) and berkelium (Bk). It has the atomic number 117 and an atomic weight of 284.

118th element (Uuo): The proton number of this last element is 118 and the atomic weight is 294. It was obtained as a result of studies done in institutes in Russia and in the United States [3]. It was obtained by the fusion of the elements californium (Cf) and calcium (Ca).

Mendeleyev had predicted that the periodic table would eventually be filled with new elements to be found in the future. If he was alive today, perhaps he would be the most delighted scientist, as his predictions proved right. He was the famous chemist who discovered that the proton numbers of the elements were not just random numbers but continued in a sequential fashion, with no jumps in between. The point that we have arrived at today confirms Mendeleyev’s belief that we have the periodic table of elements complete with the atomic numbers starting from 1 to 118, without any gaps.

The question remains: can there not be more elements? Today’s scientific world says that the inner elements of the push-pull balance in the nucleus of an atom, such as the weak nuclear force [4] and strong nuclear force [5] do not allow this. The proton, neutron, and electrons, which are atomic sub-particles, carry the properties of smaller sub-particles, such as quarks and leptons, which make up these particles. We can thus say that the one who created inner forces in the atom can only be the creator of the smallest particles. That is, only the one who created these forces can set the limits for whether more elements can occur or not. Everything living and inanimate in the universe is made up of atoms; we can thus say that the creator of quarks and leptons is the creator of the physical world.

After all, the physical and chemical properties of all beings are related to the atoms that form them. It can be estimated that the characteristics of the atoms were given in the first few seconds of the Big Bang. This means that all the elements were created, with all their necessary pieces, nearly 14 billion years ago.

Here’s a thought experiment. Imagine if oxygen had been created in the liquid state rather than gas. Or what would happen if the atoms that form water produced a solid under normal conditions? What would the universe look like today? Would the conditions for life have been met? Would any of us be here?

Let’s give another example about metals: which elements would be metal or non-metal was decided at the very beginning of the universe. This is important: the physical and chemical properties of the metals we use are different from each other. If this were not the case, metals would have a very limited use in human societies. Suppose there were no iron or aluminium: how would we build a ship? If we used other metals – say, a metal with a high density, such as Osmium (Os) – then the ship wouldn’t float. A ship made of another semi-lightweight metal, such as lithium (Li), might float and move faster, due to its low density. But another feature of lithium is that it is very active. It is so active that a ship made of lithium would react with the water and explode as soon as it made contact. If a gold (Au) or platinum (Pt) ship were built, it would probably float for hundreds of years. But it is impossible to find the funding for such a ship.

Even one small difference in the elements could have completely changed how the entire universe functions.  Everything was designed with a superb order at the atomic level, even to the level of subatomic particles. One must ask how this perfect design came into being.

The elements were precisely created according to how human beings would need them, in what state, and with which physical and chemical characteristics. Perhaps it will be proved that the new elements will have strategic functions in the future. Whatever their fate, their existence is further proof of the universe’s perfect order.

Notes

[1] Fusion: The process of combining two elements as a result of nuclear reactions to form a heavier element
[2] Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
[3] Russia’s Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the US.
[4] Weak nuclear force affects proton and neutron sub-particles
[5] Strong nuclear force allows the proton and neutrons in the atomic nucleus to stay together.

References

• http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-35220823
• http://www.webelements.com

Organic substances in the soil go through oxidative decomposition depending on factors such as temperature, air, humidity, and pH balance. This is a slow burning (oxidation) event of organic substances. However, oxidative decay is hindered if one of the aforementioned factors is lacking. Then, a slow decay of organic materials in soil called humification takes place.

Humification occurs in an open system in contact with air. For example, early chemical processes start with leaves changing color in autumn. The break down and partial ingestion of leaves by soil organisms follows. During this time, water soluble carbohydrates and proteins leave the leaf tissue. What remains behind are plant structures like cellulose and lignin, which are not broken down yet. Since leaf shapes are not completely deformed, species identification can still be possible at this stage. In the decay step, however, the cellulose and lignin are decomposed by various fungi species and converted to humus.

Humic substances and their properties

Humic substances are intermediate products that occur as the result of organic materials going through a series of chemical reactions. These intermediate products are humic acid, fulvic acid, and humate. Their molecular weights are around 1.000-10.000 gr/mol, 10.000-100.000 gr/mol, and 100.000-10.000.000 gr/mol, respectively. Humic acids contain weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids that are soluble in water when it has a base medium but insoluble under acidic conditions.

Fulvic acids with smaller size molecular structures can reach plant roots, branches, and leaves easily because they are soluble in water under all pH conditions (acidic, neutral, and basic). Thus, trace elements such as iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and boron can be easily transported to plant tissues via fulvic acid.

Humates, however, are insoluble in water. Only the portion of a humate called ulmic acid can dissolve in alcohol.

Major functions have been assigned to humic matter in the nutrient and carbon cycle, as they are inseparable members of the ecosystem. Plants capture significantly more nutrients from humic matter than from clay minerals. Even though they can be depleted from soil by certain agricultural practices in less than 50 years, they can still remain in natural soils, outside human activity, for hundreds or even thousands of years without being degraded. This very long presence in soil enables them to continue their functions longer. According to radiocarbon dating, humates can last approximately 1140 years; and humic acid and fulvic acid last for 1235 and 870 years, respectively, in natural soils.

Positively charged nutritious elements (cations) remain in the soil by binding to negatively charged (anions) in humic matter. Because this bond is weak, useful elements for the plant can easily be exchanged with another cation, becoming free and getting absorbed by the plant. On the other side, cations such as iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and calcium, which are hazardous to plants when taken excessively, are held in the soil, bound to humic matter and thus not causing toxicity.

Another significant feature of humic and fulvic acid is their ability to form water bridges. Water bridges facilitate the movement of nutrient ions towards roots via soil solutions.

Aside from agriculture, humic matter, with its aforementioned properties, serve humankind in the industrial, environmental, and biomedical fields.

Industrial and environmental applications

Humic matter is utilized in the staining of leather works, as wood lining paint (natural blue color), as well as water based stripping material for furniture stains. Humic matter is also used in the production of durable, resistant papers in the paper industry, to provide mechanical strength to processed ceramics, and as an additive. It is also applied as a coloring, hardening, and plasticizing agent in plastic fabrication.

Humic and fulvic acids gain significance regarding their ability to form water soluble substances with many metal compounds containing radioactive elements in their structure.

In environmental chemistry, the main role of the humic matter is to remove toxic substances, human sourced organic chemical matter, and other pollutants from water. Calcium humate, obtained from humic matter, can bind and remove nickel, iron, cadmium, and copper in addition to radioactive elements produced at nuclear power plants from water.

Humus based filters are designed to treat sewage water and mud waste. Oils, stains, poisonous phenolic substances, and pesticides are removed from sewage via these materials. In poultry, humic substances are employed to absorb and eliminate the odor of waste gases.

Biomedical applications

Drugs for the treatment of human and animal diseases are developed from humic matter. These can be used for the treatment of viral and bacterial illnesses, in the prevention of blood clots, to cure infections, and to remedy estrogen deficiencies. Clinical studies have shown that common viral diseases of children’s respiratory tracks can be treated with fulvic acid supplements. A lot of medical research has shown that humic matter, especially fulvic acids, have the ability to provide protection against cancer causing viruses. In a study, laboratory mice were given ethanol to trigger gastritis and it was determined that humic acids supplied to mice led to a significant reduction in the harm gastritis caused. The fact that humic acids can form compounds with heavy metals, such as cadmium, enables the excretion of heavy metals from organisms.

In our universe there is no place for waste. Once every particle completes its task, it is returned in a different fashion to be assigned another job. Humification is a good example to this reassignment as a complex recycling event in the soil. It is amazing to observe everything being generated from one thing and everything converted into one thing so easily and in such a crafty, balanced, and organized fashion. In fact, the power and wisdom behind the conversion of the remains of millions of different organisms into a few similar substances to be employed in different tasks are no less amazing.

Will there be wars over elements like there have been over petroleum and water? What element have we been using in color televisions? What substance is used to make energy saving, environmental light bulbs?

Each of the elements found in the periodic table have their own characteristics. After they have been cooked in the pot of the universe, these substances that are offered to our service can be radioactive (like uranium), metallic (like magnesium) and even gaseous (like helium). Seventeen of the elements not easily found among the layers underground have unique properties. These elements are called rare-earth elements, because it is hard to discover and mine them.

Rare-earth elements are in many of our everyday devices. The data projected on a computer screen is transmitted via optic cables containing erbium. The light of a tablet device is generated by the phosphorescent element europium. We actually touch indium covered surfaces when we scroll our fingers on touch screen monitors. When listening through headphones, we are using neodymium magnets that are ten times stronger than iron magnets.

From space technologies to defense industries, from cell phones to LED lighting, many such rare-earth elements are used in every stage of our lives. These elements – many of which we cannot live without, even though we’ve never heard of them – were recorded into the Critical Materials Strategy Document published by the U.S. Department of Energy in 2010. In a public announcement, the department declared fourteen of the elements as specially significant regarding clean energy, listed six of them as critical, and the other four as near critical. Fifteen elements, beginning with lanthanum and ending with lutetium, numbered between 57 and 71, comprise lanthanides. Combined with scandium and yttrium, these make up the seventeen rare-earth elements.

The elements that we touch on screens

Indium (atomic number 49) gains the properties of electrical conductivity and optic transparency when combined with tin, which, at number 50, is indiums’s neighbor on the periodic table. Optical transparency is a desired property for plasma screen and television technologies. Indium is also an important material for mobile phone touchscreens. Interestingly, when indium combines with cadmium, also as a neighbor at number 48, it loses the optical transparency. Instead, it is able to absorb light. Light harvesting is a very critical feature in the production of solar cells.

The relationship of indium with its two neighbors opens new horizons for scientists. In the near future, it is hoped that many unknown and interesting features will be unearthed by investigating the known elements of the periodic table. It is amazing that these elements have been around for thousands of years in the universe only to be discovered by technological advancements.

The need for rare-elements in the world is around fifty thousand tons. The current recorded reserve for rare-earth elements is 110 Million tons. Currently, 95% of the demand for rare-earth elements is supplied by China, yet the country only has 35% of the world’s reserves. Therefore scientists are constantly searching for rare-earth element mines to eliminate the Chinese monopoly and to boost the production of these rare materials. In recent years, China has gotten into political debates with Japan and the United States by curbing rare-earth element exports. Economic journals covering these debates wondered if “element wars” were near. In 2010, a massive reserve of elements, enough to sustain worldwide demand, was discovered in the Pacific Ocean. Developed countries are now planning to recycle rare-earth elements from used devices due to low reserves.

Yttrium, europium, and terbium (atomic numbers 39, 63 and 65) have been known for a long time. Terbium and yttrium are named after the Swedish town of Ytterby. Yttrium is the first rare-earth element discovered, at the end of 18th century. Plastics containing europium are used to make laser products; it’s also used as an element to provide the red color on television screens. Yttrium has a supplementary role that enhances europium’s red color production. And terbium oxide activates the green phosphorescence of television tubes with its yellow-green phosphorescent property.

Terbium also enables an 80% reduction of energy consumption in light bulbs. This makes it one of the most wanted elements in the $2 billion rare-earth element market. Today, when we purchase class A type light bulbs, we are actually buying rare elements like terbium.

Neodymium (number 60), which emits a green light via laser pointers, is also used in the magnets of electric motors. When neodymium combines with boron and iron, it makes a magnet twelve times stronger than simple iron magnets. Because it is significantly less dense than iron, it makes electric motors and laptop computers much lighter. Another interesting feature of neodymium is that it enhances the data storage capacity of hard drives. Furthermore, neodymium is wanted for electrical devices and wind turbines.

The union of elements

Dysprosium was discovered in 1886 and can never be found in a free form in nature. This is because it exists in a compound form with other minerals, like gadolinite. Dysprosium is also known for its magnetic property, and when mixed with terbium and iron, it forms a substance called Terfenol-D. In a magnetic field, Terfenol-D has unique transformational abilities. Dysprosium is utilized in laser production together with vanadium, and it emits infrared radiation when used with cadmium.

The magnetic alloys of iron, boron, and neodymium lose their magnetic features beyond 300 degrees Celsius. However when this alloy is combined with dysprosium at a 5% ratio, that problem disappears. Therefore, these magnets are used for electric turbines and hard disc motors. Dysprosium also makes magnets in electric motors 95% lighter. And dysprosium and nickel mixed fillings are used as cooling rods in nuclear reactors.

The human mind becomes fascinated after seeing all the wisdom and properties involved in these lifeless elements. Either we conclude that these elements have doctorate degrees in physics and chemistry from Harvard University, or we may express our weakness and fascination in front of The Grand Creator who created and presented these elements for our benefit.

Is the yellow color in glasses from the planet Ceres?

Since Dell recalled four million laptop computers in 2006, because of a possible explosion caused by overheating battery, scientists’ eyes have been focused on lanthanum and cerium. These two elements are considered to be safer than other alternatives. Lanthanum and cerium are used in electrical equipment and energy saving light bulbs, and are classified as critical elements in these processes, along with tellurium. Cerium, named after the planet Ceres, is responsible for the yellow coloration in glasses. Cerium is also used in polishes, ceramics, and petrol refineries. Tellurium is produced indirectly, unlike most other elements. The production of cadmium takes place during zinc production, and tellurium during copper refining. Tellurium is a cheaper element that has been used in combination with cadmium on solar cells since 2009; before then, most solar cells used expensive silicon panels.

Elements in our lives, from space rockets to ultrasound imaging

Hafnium, tantalum, erbium, and technetium are important elements, even though they are not listed critical. Even though hafnium and technetium are not rare-earth elements, they were still added to the critical material strategy document produced by the US Department of Energy. Hafnium is employed in space rockets for its resistance against extreme temperatures and wearing. Hafnium oxide is a valuable material for electronic transistors since it is a very effective electric insulator. It is 20% faster than the silicon oxide that is commonly used in transistors. A transistors length is around 65 nanometers when silicon oxide is used, but it is only 32 nanometers with transistors made of hafnium oxide. This 50% decrease enables smaller devices.

Touchscreens containing indium, laptop computers powered by lithium ion batteries, and cell phones with hafnium transistors are some of today’s technological wonders. Would these inventions still be possible without these elements? Could we reach the high capacities in hard discs without the tantalum? Would we be able to protect ourselves from electric leakage in computers without high quality electric insulators such as tantalum oxide?

Radioactive technetium, which was discovered in 1937, is the first artificially produced element. The technetium 99 isotope is used in nuclear medicine. Technetium produced from uranium has a half life of 211,000 years, as opposed to the 6 hour half life of the technetium 99 isotope. The number of technetium based nuclear medicinal tests, like ultrasounds and x-ray imaging, is estimated to be above thirty million annually.

We take advantage of these elements in every stage of our lives, from medicine to technology. Could we become dependent upon elements the way we are upon petroleum? Only time will tell. Either these elements will be replaced by other materials, or other technologies will outdate the current technologies. It is also possible new elements will be discovered.

A majority of our modern technologies would not exist without these elements that were dispersed among the earth billions of years ago. These elements were placed here for our benefit, and so we could utilize them, and produce institutes of scientific research and education to study them.

Kadir Can and Mehmet Ramazanoglu are science teachers in Ankara, Turkey.

A sudden vibration I feel above the earth; a rhythmic beat, like a marching band. A caressing and tranquil harmony permeates from all around. It is no stranger to me; I seem to recall this experience previously. My parents, from whose fruit I was spawn, told me stories of merciful droplets that would fall from the sky. Several miles high they would come to our aid. They were the answer to our prayers. Now, I alone, a single seed destined to beget my own clan of many fruits rejoice for the coming of rain. I wonder if the rain knows that it will allow me to fulfill my potential. Nevertheless, all that really matters is that there is an All Knowing One who brings me my sustenance from an unexpected and contrasting place – miles high in the sky.

I feel an eruption within me as the cold, parched earth moistens from all around. Although given no mouth, I have the required faculties to absorb the moisture through my rotting shell. Waiting to break free and penetrate the earth above, I first ensure that my presence is firmly established and stable by means of sprouting deep within the earth – how else would I bear the weight of my future children. Like the umbilical cord of a human child, I too draw my sustenance (earth/water) by means of my intertwined roots deep within the earth. Two miraculous and contrasting elements are earth and water. Complete opposites which do not compete but work in unison. No taste and hardly any color. There are no visible workers in sight or artists holding paint brushes in their hands, but my first sprout, which has now penetrated the earth, has various shades of green.

I sprout out of the earth in prostrated form and in awe of the events thus far. An act to acknowledge His all encompassing Power and Compassion; I am humbled by Thee. The more I accept my insufficiencies and impotence compared to His Might, the more I am nourished and sustained. Now there is a new guest which visits me at length each day. Its warmth caresses my newly formed leaves and energizes my zeal to extend and expand – the sun. Yet another contrasting force from where my roots spread deeper into the earth. The sun’s light, from millions of miles high, synergizes with the earth, air, and water to give me the strength I need to grow. I’m sure none of these causes (earth, air, water, and light) are aware of each other. If they were, they would most certainly be in conflict with each others’ will. The display of solidarity between them could only be explained by the Power of Authority and Unity, Who has Governance and Command over all. None fall out of their jurisdiction. All these causes are but only a veil to my Makers Dignity and Grandeur; however, His Divine Unity and Glory does demand that I be observed from beyond these superficial causes and acknowledge that He is the True Cause. All these conflicting elements become subservient to my needs. Indeed, He is the Creator of all things.

It has been quite some time now since my inception from within the womb of the earth. I stand tall with several arms branching out, adorned with leaves like open hands constantly asking for nourishment from my Maker. In return, He wants me to attract others to His fine display by means of decorating me with luscious flowers, neatly and purposely laid out petals side by side. Within my flowers I carry the pollen required to sustain and fulfill the purpose of other creatures and life forms. Just another piece of the ecological jig saw, which becomes un-puzzled when looked through the rational eyes of belief. No harm is inflicted to me as I hear the buzzing of wings circling my ornamental, soft, colorful, and tasty bloom. A poisonous bug pilots his landing delicately on a petal which is now fully blossomed. A succulent feast I offer to this creature that carries a toxic sting, but produces very sweet, multipurpose nourishment for its own clan and various other life forms.

I have now matured, ready to display the next work of art my Maker had preordained within my core. I must bear fruit to fulfill various other acts of wisdom; to continue my species, to act as a source of sustenance to other life forms, and once again to attract and amaze all consciously observing eyes to the Mercy, Compassion, Art, Knowledge, and Wisdom that my Creator has displayed. A picture does tell a thousand words; however, I also speak in as many tongues as there are languages. I have become a vessel to translate My Designer’s subtle but prominent messages.

My fruit, like a human child, has various stages of growth and formation. My children, too, start off as a humble seed but I fulfill my potential within a very short period of time. All my cousins and relatives follow a similar process; however, we are all commanded to bear our offsprings at different times to cater to different needs. Take, for example, the orange or apple, whose trees usually bear their fruit during autumn and winter months. They contain various nutrients and vitamins to nourish their consumers and assist in the preventing of (or aid in the healing of) common ailments that humans are susceptible to during these months.

My fruit is now mature – ready to bedazzle its observing audience and tantalize its consumer as a delicious culinary delight. It is fashioned and conserved with an outer layer to protect it from harmful outside elements. It is painted with various shades of a variety of colors and endowed with a succulence not to be found within the earth, water, air, or light! I feel so honored in being given the opportunity by my Maker to be a demonstration of His Might and Art, however small I may be in the big scheme of things. I have had no control over any of my faculties or attributes in developing into a fruitful tree, nor did any of the elements which have assisted me to grow. I have become a means in consolidating and manifesting many of my Designer’s beautiful Names and Attributes.

The time has now come for me to rest and experience my own resurrection. With all my offspring now either consumed and having given nutrition to other life forms or fallen to the earth where it had originated from, I shed my leaves. They too will fulfill another purpose by being a nutrient to the earth and the creatures within. I give praise to my Sustainer, Who has looked after and catered to all my needs; from being a humble seed to a fruitful tree bearing my own seeds. I have served many purposes, both physical and metaphysical. In conclusion I do ask all that have witnessed my journey: “Then which of the favours of your Lord will you deny?”

Until today, almost all of your organs and systems introduced themselves and explained the great artistry in their creation along with their wisdom and precision. Certainly, these were not just for your information. Of course, it is important for you to know about your organs and their duties, and for you to live accordingly with this knowledge. However, its main purpose has been to introduce you to your Lord, who created you and all living and nonliving things perfectly. Just like seeing a work of art and not appreciating the artist is a twisted view, so is seeing the art exhibited on the body of the world’s most dignified entity, the human being, and not appreciating our Lord. It would just be a worthless and pointless heap of knowledge.

Today, we will look at the human body statistically, have our last lesson, and say goodbye.

Before we talk about the systems and organs that make up your body, you should know that it is a blessing that God didn’t leave you in nonexistence, and put you into existence. Then, you should know that it is also a blessing that He didn’t leave you as inorganic molecules, but created you as a living organism. For you to understand better, I would like you to look carefully at the delicate measures of the numbers I will give you in the tables below and to realize how high your value has been lifted.

The weights and percentages of inorganic elements in a 70 kg human body:

Oxygen…….. 44 kg……. 63%
Carbon……. 14 kg……. 20%
Hydrogen……. 7 kg……. 10%
Nitrogen……. 2.1 kg……. 3%
Calcium……. 1 kg……. 1.5%
Phosphorus……. 700 g……. 1%
Potassium……. 170 g……. 0.25%
Sulfur….. 140 g……. 0,2%
Chlorine……. 70 g……. 0.1%
Sodium….. 70 g……. 0.1%
Magnesium.. 30 g……. 0.04%
Iron…… 3 g……. 0.004%
Copper…… 300 mg……. 0.0005%
Manganese….. 100 mg……. 0.0002%
Iodine……. 30 mg……. 0.00004%

The total percentage of trace elements found in the blood serum and in enzymes, such as zinc, cobalt, cadmium, molybdenum, nickel, lead, fluorine, selenium, mercury, and aluminum, is 0.80526%.

As you can see, 76% of you (53.1 kg of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen) are gases that dissolve into the air. These aren’t worth anything because there are plenty of them in the air. From 14 cents per kilogram, 14 kilograms of carbon (coal) is worth around 2 dollars. One kilogram calcium (lime) is worth around 12 cents. 140 grams of chlorine and sodium together (salt) is worth around 3 cents. All of the other elements (such as iron, copper, and magnesium) are worth a handful of soil, because they are found easily in soil, and there is only very little of them in the human body. So in total, your elements are worth $2.15.

Let’s increase your value a little bit! Our Lord didn’t leave you as elements; He turned you into organic material with very large molecules, such as protein, fat, carbohydrates, and vitamins. That gives us the table below:
Organ…. Water (%) …. Fat (%)…… Protein (%)…. Ash (%)
Skin…… 64.68…… 13.00…… 22.10…… 0.68
Skeleton…… 31.81…… 17.18…… 18.93…… 28.91
Teeth…… 5.00…… 0.00…… 23.00…… 70.90
Skeletal muscle…… 79.52…… 3.35…… 16.50…… 0.93
Brain-Spinal cord…… 73.33…… 12.68…… 12.06…… 1.37
Liver…… 71.46…… 10.35…… 16.19…… 0.88
Heart…… 73.69…… 9.26…… 15.88…… 0.80
Lungs…… 83.74…… 1.54…… 13.38…… 0.95
Spleen…… 78.69…… 1.19…… 17.81…… 1.13
Kidneys…… 79.47…… 4.01…… 14.69…… 0.96
Pancreas…… 73.08…… 13.08…… 12.69…… 0.93
Intestines…… 79.07…… 6.24…… 13.19…… 0.86
Adipose tissue…… 50.09….. 42.44…… 7.06…… 0.51
Other tissues…… 70.40…… 12.39…… 16.06…… 1.01
Blood and lymph…… 93.33…… 0.17…… 5.68…… 0.94
Total…… 67.85…… 12.51…… 14.39…… 4.84

If you wonder about your value as water, protein, fat, and ash, you can calculate it according to a 70 kg person. If you do this, you can see that you are made up of 47.495 kilograms of water, 8.757 kg fat, 10.073 kg protein and 3.388 kg ash (mineral salts). Since the water in you is dirty and not clear, it isn’t worth anything. Your minerals and ash aren’t worth anything because there are plenty of them in soil. For $1.42 per kilogram, your fat is worth around $12.86. Your protein is worth around 16 kilograms of lamb, which costs around $36.57. So when you are elevated from elemental material to organic material, your value rises up to around $50.

Of course, our Lord didn’t leave you like this. He created you in the form of organs and tissues, which carry out miraculous tasks so that you can stay alive. Now, let’s see the groups of trillions of differentiated cells:

Total number of cells in the human body………… around 100 trillion
Number of cells that die in one second…………around 50 million
Number of cells created in one second…………around 50 million
Number of cell types…………more than 200
Number of red blood cells in 5 liters of blood…………25 trillion
Height reached by putting all of our red blood cells on top of each other…………around 60.000 km
Length reached by putting all of our red blood cells side by side…………192.500 km
Red blood cells’ surface area………..more than 1000 m2
Number of white blood cells (leucocytes) in our blood…………40 billion
Number of nerve cells…………30 billion
Length of a sperm…………35 micrometers
Diameter of an egg cell…………100-120 micrometers
Average length of a liver cell…………30-50 micrometers
Lifespan of small intestine mucous cells…………1.4 days
Lifespan of stomach entrance area (cardia) mucous cells…………9.1 days
Lifespan of stomach exit area (pylorus) mucous cells…………1.8 days
Lifespan of epithelial cells in lung alveoli…………8.1 days
Lifespan of large intestine (colon) mucous cells…………10 days
Lifespan of upper skin (epidermis) cells…………19.2 days
Lifespan of covering epithelial cells in the bladder…………66.5 days
Lifespan of neutrophile leucocytes…………45 days
Lifespan of eosinophile leucocytes…………10 days
Lifespan of lymphocytes…………5 days to 1 year
Lifespan of monocytes…………months
Lifespan of red blood cells…………120 days
Number of times a red blood cell travels the body during its life…………300.000
Number of red blood cells generated in a second…………2.4 million
Number of red blood cells generated in a day…………208 billion
Lifespan of a liver cell…………222 days
Lifespan of a kidney cell…………286 days
Number of mitochondria (power plant) in a nerve cell…………up to 10.000
Number of ribosomes created in a liver cell in one second…………180
Total length of the DNA in one cell…………2 m
Number of muscles in the body…………around 600
Number of muscles that work when smiling…………15
Number of muscles that work when frowning…………43
Total amount of work done by our muscles in one day
(Equal to lifting a 6 ton truck 50 meters into the air with a crane)…………around 3.106 Newtons
Total number of capillaries…………30 billion
Number of alveoli in the lungs…………400 million
Total amount of air taken in by the lungs in one day……………around 10.000 liters
Total amount of air we use in 75 years…………around 285 million liters
Total length of the nephrons in the kidney…………around 50 km
Total length of the glomerulus capillaries in the kidney…………around 25 km
Total inner surface area of the kidney channels…………20 m2
Total filtration area of the Bowman capsules in the kidney…………1 m2
Total skin weight…………11.15 kg
Total surface area of the skin…………1.5-1.8 m2
Total length of capillaries in 1 cm2 of skin…………around 1 m
Weight of dead keratin cells that fall off the skin in one day…………10 gr
Length of the nerve fibers in the skin…………80 km
Number of sweat glands…………around 2 million
Number of sebaceous glands in the skin on the head…………around 120.000
Total number of cells in the skin…………around 100 billion
Number of sensory receptors in the skin…………around 60 million
Daily sweat amount…………800 ml
Maximum daily sweat amount…………18 liters
Number of cells in the retina…………127 million
Number of values of the same color our eye can distinguish…………around 200
Number of shades of light that we can perceive…………around 500

The reason I gave all these numbers was not just to show the multitude of cells, organs, and tissues, but to emphasize that our Lord can create these with the precision that He creates a single cell. Mammals also have the organs and tissues that I have mentioned. Besides, some mammals have different organs with superior aspects. From this point of view, we are not much different from a cow or a horse. However, our Lord says that He created us in the best form possible, equipped us with superior qualities, and granted us the authority over all creation. Dear Peter! It’s time that you shed out of being an animal and rise to the degree of humanity. You cannot do this with your cells, organs, or tissues, but by gaining knowledge of divinity via spiritual virtues (such as the mind, conscience, and free will) that our Lord gave you.

If we see our body as a palace, could the stones, glass, porcelain, and wood come together and say, “Come on let’s make a palace, which will be the greatest palace in the world.” Could elements first turn into organic matter with macromolecules, then into cell organelles, then into cells, and finally into cells with different special duties, all on their own?

Finally, I believe it will be useful to give a table that shows every organ’s share in your body. My advice is not to evaluate anything materially. You cannot live without your pancreas, which only takes up a very small part of your body. Your heart, which is only 0.7% of your body, pumps the water of life (blood) to all of your organs; and your brain, which is 3.5%, manages your whole body. You can never give up on your kidneys, which take up only 0.5%.

Percentages of organ weights to the total body weight
Skeletal muscle (red meat)…………31.56 %
Skeleton and teeth…………14.90 %
Adipose tissue…………13.63 %
Skin…………7.81 %
Blood and lymph…………3.77 %
Lungs…………4.15 %
Brain and spinal cord…………3.52 %
Liver…………3.41 %
Intestines and stomach…………2.07 %
Kidneys…………0.51 %
Heart…………0.69 %
Spleen…………0.19 %
Pancreas…………0.16 %
Cartilage, ligaments, blood vessels and peripheral nerves…………13.63 %

All in all, we can say that the human body has holistic perfection with its functional parts, from hair to nail, to intestines and kidneys, as well as its aesthetic beauty.

Dear Peter! We have talked with you for a long time. I hope it was useful. I did everything I could. I am sorry that I couldn’t portray your true value!

Zeno of Elea was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy and a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. He argued that an object in motion can never pass from one position to another, because between the two there is always an “infinity” of other positions, however close, that must be successively traversed in the course of the motion, and this “infinity” can never be exhausted. David Hilbert is a German mathematician who postulated a hypothetical hotel with “countably infinitely” many rooms, all of which are occupied. Since the hotel has “infinitely” many rooms, we can move the guest occupying room 1 to room 2, the guest occupying room 2 to room 3, and so on, and fit a newcomer into room 1. By repeating this procedure, it may be argued that it is possible to make room for any finite number of new guests, although every room of this hotel initially contains a guest.

The following two quotations from two contemporary authors may provide more substance about the nature of the problem:

On the other hand, involvement with the infinite brings with it a huge range of difficulties. In particular, there are the many puzzles and paradoxes that have been outlined in the pages of this book. Moreover, there are the many quite fundamental problems that arise for such apparently simple notions as counting, adding, maximizing, and so forth. Because we are so firmly wedded to limit notions-“best,” “first,” “greatest,” “maximum,” and so forth-that do not sit easily with the infinite, it is very hard to see how we can make our peace with the infinite.

The infinite has always been a slippery concept. Even the commonly accepted mathematical view, developed by Georg Cantor, may not have truly placed infinity on a rigorous foundation.

In the present article, we attempt to summarize Rene Guenon’s (1886-1951) alternative way of thinking on the idea of infinite from the perspective of the traditional metaphysical science. Much more detailed presentation of his perspective can be found in his (1886-1951) valuable study The Metaphysical Principles of the Infinitesimal Calculus from which we will extensively quote here.

Guenon considered mathematics as providing a particularly proper symbolism for the expression of metaphysical truths to the extent that they are expressible. However, he states that “in order for this to be so it is above all necessary that these sciences be rid of the various errors and confusions that have been introduced by the false views of the moderns.” To follow Guenon’s paradigm it is necessary to start with the metaphysical notion of the universal-All which comprehends all possibilities, the non-manifested as well as the manifested Universe, that is, the cosmos. The universal All leaves outside itself only the impossible that is a pure nothing. A determination is to define a certain domain of possibilities in relation to all the rest which is expressed by Spinoza (1632-1677) as omnis determinatio negatio est (all determination is a negation). The first of all determinations is Being itself. “Number is only a mode of quantity, and quantity itself only a category or special mode of being, not coextensive with it, or more precisely still, quantity is only a condition proper to one certain state of existence in the totality of universal existence.” Number, space, and time are all determined conditions.

The Infinite, understood in its true, metaphysical sense, has no limits since its opposite, finite is synonymous with limited. Therefore, according to Guenon,

… one cannot correctly apply this term to anything other than that which has absolutely no limits, that is to say the universal All. Furthermore, there can obviously be only one Infinite, for two supposedly distinct infinities would limit and therefore inevitably exclude one another.

He further states, “The Infinite, in its true sense, can have neither opposite nor complementarity.” The scholastic distinction between “the infinite in a certain respect” and “the absolute infinite” cannot be accepted. If a thing is not limited in a certain sense or in a certain respect than one can legitimately conclude that it is limited in no way at all, and since a determined thing does not include every possibility, as such it can only be finite.

Given any number, one can form the next by adding a unit gives the sequence of numbers to us. Therefore, we cannot actually reach its limits. However, the impossibility of reaching the limits of certain things in the manifested Universe should not cause the illusion that these determined things have no limits at all. In order to replace the false notion of “determined infinite,” Guenon introduces, the idea of the indefinite, which is precisely the idea of a development of possibilities the limits of which we cannot actually reach; and this is why we (Guenon) regard this distinction between the Infinite and the indefinite as fundamental to all questions in which the so-called mathematical infinite appears.

According to Descartes (1596-1650), the indefinite is that of which we do not perceive the limits, and which in reality could be infinite. On the contrary, Guenon affirms that

(T)he indefinite cannot be infinite because it always implies a certain determination, whether it is a question of extension, duration, divisibility, or some other possibility; in a word, whatever the indefinite may be, and according to whatever aspect it is considered, it is still of the finite and can only be of the finite.

The idea of an “infinite number” understood as “the greatest of all numbers,” or “the number of all numbers” is contradictory. The impossibility of an “infinite number” can be established by various arguments:

(T)o every whole number (integer) there corresponds another number equal to its double, such that one can make the two sequences correspond term by term, with the result that the number of terms must be the same in both; but there are obviously twice as many whole numbers as there are even, since even numbers alternate by twos in the sequence of whole numbers; one thus ends up with a manifested contradiction.

Guenon insists that number, despite its indefinitude, is by no means applicable to all that exists and the multitude of all numbers cannot constitute a number, which, moreover, is finally only an application of the incontestable truth that what limits a certain order of possibilities must necessarily be beyond and outside that which it limits.

On the other hand, the idea of multitude, contrary to that of number, is applicable to all that exists which allows one to speak of the multitude of divine attributes for example, or again of the multitude of angels, that is, of beings belonging to states that are not subject to quantity, where, consequently, there can be no question of number.

Number itself can also be regarded as a species of multitude, but on the added condition that it be a “multitude measured by the unit” according to the expression of Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).

The term “indefinite” consists of something unfinished. The “non-measured” is that which has not yet been defined, which is only incompletely realized within manifestation. The multitude of all numbers is “innumerable” or “non-measured,” which is not to say they are infinite, but merely that they are indefinite.

Guenon calls whole number as true number or pure number. He accepts that the numbers other than whole numbers can be considered as the extensions or generalizations of the idea of number. However, he adds that these extensions are also distortions. According to Guenon, numerical quantity has a discontinuous character, whereas spatial or temporal magnitudes, for example, are continuous quantities. “Between these two modes of quantity is a difference of nature such that a correspondence between the two cannot be perfectly established.” He distinguishes the arithmetical unit from the “units of measurement,” which are magnitudes of another sort than number, notably geometric magnitudes. He defines a continuous quantity as an extension-however small it might be that will always remain indefinitely divisible.

Guenon is against atomism, which necessarily implies the discontinuity of all things. He argues extension cannot be composed of indivisible elements, for these elements would have to be extensionless to be truly indivisible, and a sum of elements with no extension can no more constitute an extension than a sum of zeros can constitute a number, that is why points are not the elements or parts of a line; the true linear elements are always distances between points, which latter are only their extremities. Points multiplied by any quantity at all can never produce length, since, rigorously speaking, they are null with respect to length; the true elements of a magnitude must always be of the same nature as the magnitude, although incomparably less: this leaves no room for indivisibles.

Further,

The point, which, being indivisible, is by that very fact without extension, that is, spatially null, but which, as we (Guenon) have explained elsewhere, is nonetheless the very principle of all extension.

For Guenon, Zeno of Elea’s arguments are against atomism and indeed, they prove that without continuity there would be no possible motion.

It is this very conception of motion that is in error, for it amounts in short to regarding the continuous as if it were composed of points, or of final, indivisible elements, like the notion according to which bodies are composed of atoms; and this would amount to saying that in reality there is no continuity, for whether it is a question of points or atoms, these final elements can only be discontinuous.

And, “The possibility of motion presupposes the union, or rather the combination, of both temporal and spatial continuity.”

We consider Guenon as an important and prominent example of thinkers who tried to remind people of the traditional metaphysical ideas. This metaphysical perspective does not share the modern tendency to attribute more importance to the practical applications of science than to science itself. This perspective attempts to link science back to principles of a higher order so that a particular science can be used as a support for elevating oneself to a higher knowledge.

…And We sent down Iron, in which is great might, as well as many benefits for mankind… (Hadid 57:25)

The above verse in the holy Qur’an uses the Arabic expression “anzalna”which means “sent down” for iron. But why? Early commentators understood this as having a metaphorical meaning to explain that iron has been sent to benefit people. But after understanding the nature of one of the most powerful explosions in the universe, you realize that the direct meaning “being physically sent down from the sky” miraculously points out to a very important scientific fact that was discovered only very recently. To understand and appreciate this miracle of the Qur’an, we will first talk about the life and death of stars and then come back to this verse to describe its relevance in detail.

Just like human beings, stars are also born, live, and die. One big difference is that they can live billions of years compared to the less than 100 years of human life. Also, for us, there is no way of knowing how long we will live or how we will die. But for a star, given its mass, you can predict its lifetime and the way it will die. Stars about the size of our sun live for a long time (a couple of billion years) and die gradually. Whereas massive stars with a mass of about 8 times the mass of our sun or more have short lifetimes (tens of million years) and die in a quick and incredibly violent explosion known as a supernova.

Supernova explosions are one of the most spectacular astronomical events observable by human beings. Normally, in a typical galaxy there are about 10 billion stars. A supernova happens to be one of these ordinary stars until it explodes. During the explosion, the amount of energy released by the supernova can exceed the energy of all the other stars combined in its galaxy! The power of this explosion is far too big even to imagine. The energy released is even greater than the total energy our sun will put out during its 10 billion year life!

The brightest supernova of modern times was an extragalactic supernova recorded in 1987. Since it was the first supernova in 1987, it was labeled as “1987A.” This is by far the best studied supernova of all times. In Fig. 1, the left panel shows the region of the sky two weeks after the supernova exploded. The supernova is still very bright. The right panel shows the same region before the explosion, with the arrow indicating the star undergoing the supernova explosion. This particular supernova was 160,000 light years away from us. This means that the actual explosion happened 160,000 years ago, but because it was so far from us, it took 160,000 years for the light rays from the explosion to reach us.

Fig 1. After and before images of the 1987A supernova. The left panel shows the region of the sky two weeks after the 1987A supernova exploded. The supernova is still very bright. The right panel shows the same region before the explosion and the arrow indicates the star undergoing the supernova explosion.

Since the supernova becomes extremely bright, it is even sometimes possible to see it with the naked eye in daytime. In fact, there are historical reports from ancient times concerning supernova explosions. On July 4th, 1054 A.D., Chinese astronomers noticed a “guest star,” which was visible in daylight to the naked eye for 23 days. Its remnant was discovered by the British amateur astronomer John Bevis in 1731. We now know that this bright “guest star” was a supernova. Its remnants, known as the Crab Nebula, are shown in the left panel of Fig. 2. This supernova is one of the very few that have been observed in our Milky Way galaxy. The last supernova to explode in our galaxy was in 1607 (see Fig. 2 right panel).

Supernova explosions are one of the most violent events that happen in the universe. They release an unbelievable amount of energy. But why would a star explode anyway? If it has so much energy still, why does it not remain shining peacefully as it does for most of its lifetime? To answer these questions, we need to remember how stars work.

Figure 2 Supernovae remnants. The left panel shows remnant of the supernova that exploded in 1054. It is about 6,500 light years from earth. It consists of diffuse interstellar gas and dust (nebula) spread in a circular region of a diameter of 6 light years.(Image Credit: FORS Team, 8.2-meter VLT, ESO ). The right panel shows remnants of the last supernova, which exploded in our galaxy in 1604. This combined image — from NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope, Hubble Space Telescope, and e Chandra X-ray Observatory — unveils a bubble-shaped shroud of gas and dust that is 14 light-years wide and is expanding at 4 million miles per hour (2,000 kilometers per second). It is about 20,000 light years away from us.(Image and caption credit: NASA )/

Let us start by answering a more basic question: What is the energy source of stars? Stars produce their energy through a process called nuclear fusion. The idea is very simple; you fuse together light nuclei, like hydrogen, to produce heavier nuclei, like helium. In this process, the combined mass of low-mass nuclei is more than the resulting fused massive nucleus. This difference in the masses is converted to energy through the Einstein’s famous E=mc2 equation, where E is the energy released, m is the mass difference that is released in the reaction, and c is the speed of light.

But since the nuclei are positively charged, they repel each other, so there must be extremely high densities and temperatures to overcome this barrier. The most common form of fusion that takes place in stars is the fusion of four hydrogen nuclei to produce one helium nucleus. The temperature needs to be about 8 million C0 for this reaction to occur. It requires higher temperatures to fuse nuclei that are heavier than hydrogen. For example, fusing helium requires temperatures higher than 100 million C0.

During most of their lifetime, stars produce energy by fusing hydrogen into helium. After they run out of hydrogen, if the temperatures in their cores are high enough, they start to fuse helium nuclei into carbon and oxygen. And when they run out of helium, they then start to fuse carbon and oxygen. As mentioned above, fusing heavier elements requires extremely high temperatures and high pressures, so it can only happen for massive stars in the late stages of their lives where such conditions are met. For lighter stars like our sun, temperatures are not enough for this.

Even for the massive stars, fusion reactions cannot continue forever. The game of building heavier and heavier elements stops when iron is produced in the core. Iron is a very special element. It has the highest binding energy per nucleon. This makes it the most stable element. You actually lose energy when you fuse iron nuclei together rather than gain energy, so elements heavier than iron cannot be made during these cycles. At this stage of its life, the star looks like an onion, in the sense that it has a layered structure. At the core there is iron, surrounding this core there are layers of lighter elements in the order of their atomic weights, with hydrogen being at the outermost layer (see Fig. 3).

At this point in time, a very delicate balance that holds the star steady becomes unstable. Normally, the gravitational attraction tries to compress everything together. Therefore, the star has a tendency to collapse onto itself due to gravity. This is balanced by the outward radiation and thermal pressure that are generated by intense fusion reactions that are occurring in the core. But when the core turns into iron, fusion can no longer take place. That means there is no longer a supporting outward force that prevents the star from collapsing.

Figure 3 The onion skin model of a supernova. As it gets close to its death, a pre-supernova star has a layered structure that resembles an onion. Heavy elements produced by nuclear fusion inside the star are concentrated toward the center of the star. Iron, being the most stable element, sits at the core.

After the iron core gets to a certain size, this iron core suddenly collapses onto itself. This collapse happens so fast that it takes only a fraction of a second for the initially earth-sized core to shrink to a radius of 60 km. As the core collapses, the outer layers of the star start to collapse and rush in to fill the gap created by the collapsing core. At this point, another drastic event occurs. The iron core cannot compress forever. When the density in the core reaches the nuclear density, it rebounds. This time the core starts to move outward. But wait, the outer layers are still collapsing! When the collapsing envelope of the star meets with the rebounding core, one of the most powerful explosions in the universe occurs. This is known as a supernova explosion, which can be seen millions of light years away!

This gigantic collision ejects the outer layers of the star into the interstellar medium. As a result of the extreme conditions generated by this, the fusion of heavier elements (heavier even than iron) occurs. As the material from the exploding star collides with the interstellar gas and dust, a whole range of light emissions (from visible to X-ray) occurs. Colorful nebulae (as seen in Fig 2.) that will glow for thousands of years are thus generated.

One of the most important outcomes of supernova explosions is that heavy elements, including iron, are ejected into the interstellar medium. In fact, the only source of heavy elements is such events. All the heavy elements that are found in our solar system are made in one of these violent explosions. They cannot be made in our solar system, as they require extremely high temperatures. That means, the carbon that makes our cells, the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in our blood, and basically almost everything in our body are all made of elements produced in these explosions. We are, in the most literate sense, stardust. It is estimated that on average each carbon atom in our body went through four of these cycles in the past.

It is very clear that these explosions are important for the existence of life on earth. But, understanding the mechanism of these events was only possible in recent years.

It is extremely surprising to hear that iron and almost every other element in our body were made during one of these explosions. Even more astonishing is when we look at what the Holy Qur’an says about iron.

In the Holy Qur’an, there is a special chapter about iron, known as “Hadid” or “Iron”. The first thing that surprises you about this chapter is its chapter number: 57. The interesting thing about this is that it matches the atomic weight of one of the isotopes of iron. Iron can have stable isotopes with atomic weights of 54, 56, 57, and 58. The most common form of iron is the one with atomic weight 56 (56Fe).

The reason why this chapter is called “Iron” is the fact that in one verse of this chapter, the Holy Qur’an talks about iron. The second thing that is surprising is the verse number of this particular verse: 25 (or if you count the basmala, it becomes 26). This number (26) is the number of protons in an iron nucleus. And the third numerical code is the total number of verses in this chapter and that is equal to 30. This is equal to the number of neutrons in the most common form of iron nuclei (56Fe). Additional numerical codes can be found through a more detailed inspection of this Qur’anic chapter. No one knew anything about the iron nuclei in the 7th century when the Qur’an was revealed in its present form. And the chance of these numbers being purely coincidental is less than one in a thousand.

After studying these numerical codes, the content of the verse is even more interesting and closely related to our topic. In this verse, the Almighty says: …And We sent down Iron, in which is great might, as well as many benefits for mankind … (57:25). The expression “sent down” used for iron in this verse is the English translation of the Arabic word “anzalna”. This can either be understood as having a metaphorical meaning to explain that iron was given for the benefit of people. But, if the literal meaning, “being physically sent down from the sky,” is considered, we realize that this verse miraculously indicates the scientific fact that all the iron in our solar system came from the sky from supernova explosions.

Another interesting aspect is the fact that the verse says “…in which is great might …” The Arabic word “shaded” used to describe this can also be translated as “in which is great power” or as “in which is great violence”. If you assume this phrase is referring to iron, you can understand it to mean that iron has a great strength. Or a deeper meaning would be to consider the fact that iron nuclei is the most stable nuclei, i.e. the fact that it has the highest binding energy per nucleon. If you consider this phrase as referring to the act of sending down, in that case it reminds you of the great violence in supernova explosions.

In summary, supernova explosions are the violent deaths of massive stars. The course of events that leads to these gigantic explosions, as well as their far reaching consequences, is very interesting. They are the only source of iron and other heavy metals found in our solar system. They show the mercy of God, as life on earth without them would not be possible. At the same time, they can be thought of as an incredible show of divine power. As the Holy Qur’an says at the end of the verse that mentions iron:

Surely God is the All-Strong, the All-Glorious with irresistible might. (Hadid 57:25)

The Anglo-Australian Observatory (http://www.aao.gov.au/)

http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap030914.html

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_219.html

For more detailed discussion, see for example: Adam Burrows, Nature 403 (6771), 727 (2000).

http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/illustrations/superPre.html

For example, according to numerological (abjad) calculations, the abjad of the word “Al-Hadeed” in Arabic, when the numerological values of its letters are added up is also 57 and numerological value of the word “Hadid” alone is 26. ( http://www.miraclesofthequran.com/scientific_30.html )

Did you know that we are actually stardust? Most probably, you didn’t. Nuh Gedik lifts our eyes from the ground into the depths of space. In his thought-provoking article he describes how a star explodes to present a marvelous celestial supernova show. Supernova explosions are actually “the only source of heavy elements, including iron . . . the carbon that makes our cells, the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in our blood, and basically almost everything in our body are all made of elements produced in these explosions.” “Supernova Explosions” explains more not only about stars, but also about our chemical make-up.

The mysteries of nature are disclosed a bit more by another show, this time on earth: The glowworms of the Waitomo caves in New Zealand are bioluminescent flies which present stunning shows that rival the star-lit sky at night. The theory of evolution fails to explain the complex nature of this minute insect which can yield light at an output of 100% with no energy wasted as heat. Have we yet reached such a capacity of power production? Safak Ozturk tells us more in his “A Message from Glowworms.”

Inefficient use of time is something that we all complain about. Everyday, we get up in the morning and rush to our jobs to start work in time. However, today, more frequently than ever, we end up having spent our days having done little more than checking several e-mails, making telephone calls, and going to meetings to change schedules and deadlines. Cafer Tayyar Yavuz highlights the importance of even the smallest slice of time we usually ignore and explains how better efficiency can be achieved in our use of time.

The widely accepted argument today is that the elements used as building blocks of life were first backed in the nuclear furnaces of stars under extra ordinary heat and pressure, undergoing a series of transformations and took their forms as we realize them on our earth. Among all the elements on our planet earth, the unique properties given to carbon and hydrogen elements has made the existence of carbon-based life forms possible.

Carbon combined with different elements in many different quantities and geometric arrangements, results in a vast assortment of materials with vastly different properties.

The molecules that are found in live organisms are created from different quantities, geometric arrangements and assortments of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur. The base properties of carbon are playing an important role in creating these compounds.

Each carbon atom makes four bonds. Carbon may make bonds with other carbon atoms forming chains, branching chains or rings of linked carbon atoms. These properties given to carbon are important factors in the miracle called life.

When a carbon atom makes bounds with four hydrogen atoms methane gas is obtained (CH4). If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with oxygen atoms in methane we obtain carbon dioxide (CO2). If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with sulfur atoms in methane we obtain carbon disulfur (CS2), which is a combustible and poisonous liquid.

If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms in methane we obtain carbon tetrachloride CCl4. If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with fluoride atoms we obtain fluorocarbon compounds. The Teflon used in our kitchenware is a fluorocarbon resin.

When two carbon atoms each having three hydrogen atoms attached come together, the ethane molecule is formed. As mentioned before chains, branching chains and rings of linked carbon atoms can be formed this way. Some carbon compound’s molecules consist of just a few atoms; others contain thousands or even millions. This is one of the main reasons of organic versatility that is behind the scene. Attaching other functional groups to the carbon atoms in the chain increases the versatility of compounds. Some examples of these functional groups that are built up with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur coming to mind at first would be the hydroxyl functional group (OH), the carboxyl functional group (COOH), the methyl functional group (CH3), the amino functional group (NH2), the phosphate functional group (PO4), the carbonyl functional group (CO) and the sulfhydryl functional group (SH).

If we exchange one hydrogen atom in methane with a hydroxyl group we obtain methanol, which is an alcohol that damages the optic nerves. To turn methanol into ethanol, which is found in alcoholic beverages we need to add a methyl group to methanol. If we add one oxygen atom or a carboxyl group to ethyl alcohol we will obtain acetic acid (vinegar acid). Adding a nitrogen atom or an amino functional group to acetic acid we obtain amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Looking to these examples we understand that a slight difference in the structure or order of the atoms within a compound can change the whole functionality of that compound. We realize that live systems are fragile and that very sensitive adjustments are made to create the right conditions for the existence of life and that delicate balances are kept to maintain the order of life, which we enjoy so much. Another important fact these examples can prove is that building everything from one thing or building one thing from everything is one of the aspects of creation. This aspect provides us valuable knowledge about creation.

We can explain this matter further with an analogy. To construct a building we need various materials like bricks, cement, wood and iron. Buildings with different architectures and functionalities are constructed with the same materials in different quantities and arrangements. Similarly, this amazing variety of life forms and the order of life on earth are brought to existence with only a few element types (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur) which are brought together in different arrangements, representing infinite numbers of different shapes in space.

Life is protected from extinction with buildup and breakdown mechanisms, which change and convert these molecules from one to another.

The popular child game called LEGO is another example that can be used to explain how this infinite variety of life forms is created by a few types of elements. Children can build different objects according to their imagination by using the limited number of plastic pieces in different quantities and arrangements. Just like this, the most merciful has created the amazing nature and every living creature in it by using the limited number of elements in different arrangements and quantities.

Natural forms of pure carbon include graphite, one of the softest minerals known, and diamond, the hardest substance known. The only difference between the two is the structure of the bonds between carbon atoms. Diamond and Graphite, being the same chemical composition, but different crystal structures, are two polymorphs of pure carbon. Another example is aspirin, gasoline and vanillin oil. All three compounds are composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms but their properties and usage are completely different. All these examples point to the attribute of creation stating that many things are made from one thing.

Another related topic is isomers. Hydrocarbon variations that differ only in the arrangement of atoms are called isomers. Isomers are very important in biology. The preference for some isomers of molecules that are used in the base metabolism of living beings and biological systems shows us that the existence of life is not without certain intentions and willpower. For example, only the D form isomer of glucose can be used by biological systems. Similarly when the C vitamins are produced synthetically in the lab environment, 50% of those are isomers. Because only one of the isomers is biologically active, our body can use only %50 of the C vitamins we buy from the drug stores.

To stay alive, the human body needs water, air and nutrition from the outside world. It is very important that the nutrition we take has enough elements like iron, zinc ant iodine in it. These elements take place in certain enzymes and molecules, which are important for some proteins and hormones to work properly. For example not having enough iodine in our nutrition can cause an enlargement of the thyroid, which shows up as an abnormal swelling in the neck called a goiter. This illness can be seen more often in mountainous regions where the soil has less iodine because the rainwater washes it away. This reflects on the vegetation and fruits grown in the region and causes the body to not produce enough thyroid hormones. When iodine in nutrition is less than a certain amount it can even slow down the brain development. Similarly iron deficiency causes anemia and zinc deficiency causes growth retardation.

In summary, the magical order and amazing complexity in nature is based on a few molecules, which are arranged in different shapes, orders and in different quantities.

It is one of the miracles of creation that all complex organizations and structures, which even have different specifications, are made from very basic building blocks. The science of complexity (chaos theory, fractal geometries, etc.) has begun to research how God, who is able to make one thing from everything and everything from one thing, has created these astonishing complex beings from very basic and plain molecules. This research to understand how this amazing order and complexity exists will open new doors for the 21’st century science. 

References

• Crawford, M. and Marsh, D. (1989). The Driving Force: Food in Evolution and the Future. Mandarin paperbacks.. Octopus publishing Group. London.
• L. Vlasov & D. Trifonov, 107 Stories About Chemistry, Translator : Nihal Sarier. TUBITAK Populer bilim kitaplari No: 26, ANKARA.