Violence. It surrounds us. It is all over the media. It is so common in our society today that violence has become the norm rather than the exception. Perhaps one out of every ten people in the United States have experienced or witnessed a violent crime. Psychology Today states that homicide is the 5^th most common cause of death in the United States in all age brackets between 1 and 44 years. Violence to one’s self, in the form of suicide, is ranked second only to death by accidental causes. As violence is a behavior, it is common to lay the blame for violence to a psychological abnormality. Unfortunately, that is not the cut and dried case.

The potential for violence exists in all of us. It is part of our biology. Especially in males. Men are far more predisposed to violence than women, and this has been the case since the dawn of time. We were violent to hunt for food, protect ourselves and our families and to maintain order in society. As we can see, violence is still required today to do much the same thing.

Everywhere, we see the potential for violence. In how the police keep the peace, in how the military defends politics and diplomacy across the globe. In how one group seizes property, or food, or people against their will through the use of violence.

While we are predisposed to violence as a species, let us not forget that we haven’t brought ourselves to the point of extinction yet. This is because for all of our violent tendencies, society has developed a moral structure. Whether it’s because of a common belief in a spiritual concept, a religion, or just some inner moral compass, society has evolved with laws. These laws guide us through what is right and what is wrong. Such an evolution has brought some structure to societies, and has maintained some control over humanity’s violent aspects.

While yes, psychology is part of the equation of violence, there are other determining factors that make a person more predisposed to violence. For instance, it has often been discussed that environment, and external influence play a large part in violent behavior. A person who grows up in a violent environment, or around violent people may be more apt to be violent themselves. This can be seen across the United States where people grow up, and live in rough neighborhoods. Young impressionable people tend to go with the flow in order to be accepted by the elder violent natured individuals in their society. Observing aggressive behavior makes children learn new aggressive behaviors, for we tend to imitate the specific behaviors that we see, and start to believe that it is OK to do the same (Bandura 1973).

Influences in that environment could be a constant state of war such as we see in developing countries. It could be gang members who recruit younger people through coercion, or exposure to violence. It could be any number of hate groups who are able to influence people, imparting to them at a young age that one race or another is inferior, or to blame for something. In doing so, such groups are able to convince people that an ethnic group is deserving violence. So it can successfully be debated that environment, and external influence, are definitely keys to violent behavior.

There are others who argue that it is only biology that is the defining factor regarding violent behavior. In an article for Medical News Today, the author writes that the Hypothalamus, the ventrolateral part of the ventromedial hypothalamus, and the Lateral Septum areas of the brain are specifically to blame for violent behavior. Biology can be a factor to understand violent behavior in relation to build-up of electrical impulses that finally get released in a physical expression. But it surely does not help to explain exactly why these impulses get built-up.

In my opinion, I believe it is a combination of factors. I am United States Air Force veteran who has deployed to numerous locations where violence is common, and then spent time as a contractor there. From my exposure to these other cultures, I can say that I believe that environment plays a large part in violent behavior along with external influence. The more people are fed the idea that violence is acceptable, the more they are inclined to exhibit violent behavior.

It is true though that biology is really the tie that binds all of us into a predisposition for violence. Studies have shown that any person placed under enough negative mental stress will react violently to the situation they are in. In effect the Fight or Flight response is triggered. This is because regardless of environment, influence, or predisposition, we are all human and are all hardwired in the same way. Violence is a product of the Fight or Flight response. When presented with a given situation imbued with enough negative mental stress, we will either fight or run. Factors such as environment and influence will either mitigate or exacerbate our response.

To make matters worse, the ingestion of certain drugs such as amphetamines can produce states where the individual is more prone to be violent. The same can be said for alcohol, which is notorious for lowering impulse control. If the condition is chronic, then the individual will become violent over and over again. Again this is a matter of an external influence.

Now having said that, there are certain people who argue that psychology is the only defining factor. According many health professionals, mental illness is widely considered the principal cause for violent behavior.

People with psychotic tendencies who have no real sense of right or wrong are certainly more predisposed to violence. This is especially so in Paranoid Schizophrenics, where people come to believe they are being persecuted. They may then attack the person they believe is persecuting them. The same can be said of people who are sexually deviant. Often they will perform violent acts against other people to satisfy a psychological need. However, there is a standing argument that sexual deviance is a product of both environment, and the individual being a victim of sexual violence themselves. Therefore, potentially, sexual deviance is a result of environment and negative external influence.

The trend of violence in today’s society has reached epidemic proportions. In violent riots, people may act out violently because people around him or her are acting violently. It is perceived as normal to do so in such situations in which peer pressure, an external influence, lowers an individual’s self-control, thus allowing for violent behavior.

A child with a history of parental abuse kills small animals for the sheer enjoyment of doing so. The child has experienced violent behavior and is looking for an outlet to express his or her own violent tendencies. Once the child knows he or she has an outlet, they will continue to find ways to express their violent tendencies. The concern here is that as this person gets older, the need for release will need to be satisfied to a greater degree. Much in the way a drug addict needs larger and larger doses to maintain a high.

A soldier acts out violently on numerous occasions. He has a string of prior violent actions before joining the Army. Because of his violent tendencies, he is more accepted as a soldier. In such a situation, where violence is considered the norm, a person with a predisposition to violence could function for years before anyone caught on that they were actually emotionally disturbed.

A man with an automatic rifle walks in to a church and opens fire, killing dozens of people. Perhaps he has a deep seated hatred for an ethnic group. Or perhaps he has an issue with the religion being preached in the church. What is disturbing is that he has convinced himself over time that his actions are acceptable. He has decided that it is right to render violence to other people.

We see so much violence now that we have become jaded to it. Oversaturation of the topic by the media has made us numb to the violence in our society. We have in fact come to expect it. This is because the media knows that bad news sells better than good news. This is another example of external influence.

It is therefore my opinion that yes psychology does play a part. So does environment and external influence. When these three factors are combined with the fact that we are by nature, and biology violent creatures, the predisposition for violence increases exponentially. A word of caution however in stereotyping people who, based on these factors, are predisposed to violent behavior. We are all capable of violence. It merely depends on the situation we find ourselves in at a given moment in time.

References

• Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

·       Fields. R. Douglas. 2016. “The Science of Violence,” Psychology Today.

• https://psychweb.chbs.jmu.edu/Graysojh/pdfs/Volume101-ChildrenWhoAbuseAnimals.pdf
• https://www.traversebaycac.org/2018/06/15/animal-abuse-child-abuse-link/

Life is in the center of existence, and food is in the center of life. All living things are in pursuit of their sustenance to continue their lives. Failing this pursuit means the end of it all. Yet, it is not only the lack or scarcity of food, but also its abuse that is a major cause for disorders. Consuming food without any criteria of lawfulness, or with no heed to virtues like contentedness or gratitude, but with greed and wastefulness, leads to many health problems – mental and physical – at both individual and societal levels. Among these problems are many notorious eating disorders such as obesity, anorexia, and bulimia nervosa. Illnesses that relate to overeating, such as obesity, are now beginning to be considered as food addictions, even as a type of substance abuse, in some medical literature [1].

One serious consequence of eating and food addictions is a clinical condition that is called “metabolic syndrome” (MetS). Characterized by multiple cardiovascular disease risk factors such as obesity and high blood pressure, this syndrome has been recognized as a crucial public health problem worldwide. Characteristics such as geography, race, age and gender are influential in the frequency of the disease, which spreads daily as a pandemic that affects approximately 20-30% of the global adult population [2]. Among US adults aged 18 years or older, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome rose by more than 35% from 1988–1994 to 2007–2012, increasing from 25.3% to 34.2% [3].

First described by Dr. Gerald Reaven, MD, in 1988, metabolic syndrome is also referred to as “insulin resistance syndrome,” “deadly quartet,” and “civilization syndrome” [4]. In 2001, the Adult Treatment Panel (NCEP-ATP III) defined metabolic syndrome in adults as the combination of central obesity (waist circumference >102 cm in men, >88 cm in women), hypertriglyceridemia (>150 mg/dl), low HDL (<40 mg/dl in men, <50 mg/dl in women), hypertension (blood pressure> 130-85 mm-Hg), and hyperglycemia (fasting blood sugar >110 mg/dl). In 2005, the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) published a global guideline describing different thresholds for different ethnic groups. According to this guideline, the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome should be based upon central obesity and high triglyceride, low HDL, high blood pressure, and high fasting glucose. The IDF also reported that the presence of at least two factors sufficed for diagnosing anyone as a patient of metabolic syndrome.

as one of the likely pathological findings in metabolic syndrome, central obesity is observed in one in three adults. Hypertension, another crucial factor, is generally acknowledged to be originating from insulin resistance in metabolic syndrome, but the actual features of its development mechanism still remains controversial. Global awareness about hypertension, its treatment, and how to control it is low, and there are significant differences in between people worldwide. A National Health Examination Survey (NHANES) spanning 2011-2014 revealed that 34% of US adults aged 20 years and older are hypertensive and NHANES 2013-2014 data showed that 15.9% of these hypertensive adults are unaware they are hypertensive [5].

Dyslipidemia, which increases as a result of central obesity and insulin resistance in patients with metabolic syndrome, is characterized by low HDL cholesterol and high triglycerides, the most crucial factors that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. In one study done in 2008, the average total cholesterol levels for American men and women were found to be 197 mg/dl [6].

The presence of overt diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance (fasting blood sugar above 110 mg/dl) indicates the first step of the diagnostic criteria of the metabolic syndrome, and insulin resistance is not sought for further. People diagnosed with metabolic syndrome are 2.34 times more likely to contract diabetes [7]. A 2011 study conducted in America reported that roughly half of all adults have impaired glucose metabolism as a result of type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and prediabetes. Diabetes has been a prevalent global ailment similar to asthma, autoimmune diseases, and cancer [6].

Insulin resistance, which can be observed in metabolic syndrome, increases the risk of cardiovascular disease by 2.35 times, deaths by cardiovascular disease by 2.40 times, risk of myocardial infarction by 1.99 times, and stroke by 2.27 times, as independent of other risk factors. However, the presence of metabolic syndrome, not obesity, increases the risk of cardiovascular disease [7]. Another significant result is that women with metabolic syndrome have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease than men. Women are more likely to have central obesity than men, have a different cholesterol profile, and higher triglyceride levels that cause more coronary artery disease, while polycystic ovary syndrome, hormone support therapies, and pregnancy diabetes pose additional risk for women [8]. Fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, chronic kidney disease, polycystic ovary syndrome, gout, dementia, and decreased cognitive functions are more common in individuals with metabolic syndrome than the normal population [7].

Treatment of Metabolic Syndrome

Since metabolic syndrome is caused by environmental and genetic factors, and is appearing in people with increasing frequency, the best treatment approaches involve a well-regulated lifestyle, with the main objective being to prevent diabetes and cardiovascular diseases that cause fatal or disabling conditions. Weight loss that results from an appropriate nutrition and exercise program has a corrective effect on almost all disorders observed in metabolic syndrome.

In the treatment of metabolic syndrome, prevention of central obesity seems to be a priority solution. This can be achieved by a lifestyle planning that provides and maintains a 7-10% reduction in total body weight by limiting caloric intake and increasing physical activity. Even methods that increase weekly physical activity by 150-300 minutes and provide only a 5-7% reduction in body weight are considered sufficient to correct the metabolic syndrome. This has especially been reported to have a positive effect on lipid disorders, glucose intolerance, and hypertension, with a 58% reduction in the risk of diabetes with additional lifestyle changes [9].

Since a well-regulated diet is one of the focal points of life style change for people with metabolic syndrome, dietary models that are limited to saturated fats and cholesterol, rich in complex carbohydrates, based upon an abundant consumption of fruits and vegetables, and a restricted use of salt (for those with hypertension) are strongly recommended.

Even though the traditional Mediterranean diet is lauded as one of the vibrant treatment options in the prevention of coronary heart disease and metabolic syndrome, it is not sufficient to correct the metabolic syndrome unless the diet is in tandem with significant weight loss [10]. According to numerous studies, increasing the consumption of nutrients such as fish, vegetables, fruits, dried legumes, and unrefined grains that are rich in olive oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants reduce the risk of coronary diseases and death. It goes without saying, that smoking and alcohol use may increase cardiovascular, metabolic and hepatic complications in patients with metabolic syndrome.

Patients with metabolic syndrome should have their blood lipids checked annually, and should be determined to keep low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol lower than 100 mg/dL, high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol higher than 40 mg/dL, and triglyceride levels lower than 150 mg/dL. Diabetic patients should set their blood pressure target as lower than 130/80 mm-Hg. Changes in lifestyle such as regular exercise and a controlled diet are extremely vital. The use of low-dose aspirin to prevent complications in patients with coronary artery disease is also among treatment recommendations.

The basic sustenance that is provided to us in the form of fruits, animals, grains, and other bounties is such a precious, rich and full-fledged treasure, for which we should be grateful for. However, gluttony and wastefulness pave the way for thanklessness, disease, and even conflicts with the wisdom in the universe.

Almost all living beings are engaged in the pursuit of sustenance and revolve around this goal. We humans have been equipped with the ability to taste and appreciate all kinds of food, and can draw an appreciation for the Divine through these gifts. Just as everything revolves around sustenance, thankfulness has been placed in the center of sustenance. That is, gratitude should be at the center of all sustenance. Through gratitude, we live healthier physical, spiritual, and mental lives.

Notes

1. Meule A, Rezori V, Blechert J. Food addiction and bulimia nervosa. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2014;22:331–337.
2. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome pandemic. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008; 28: 629-36.
3. Moore JX, Chaudhary N, Akinyemiju T. Metabolic Syndrome Prevalence by Race/Ethnicity and Sex in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–2012. Prev Chronic Dis 2017;14:160287
4. Alberti KG, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabet Med 1998;15:539-53.
5. Alexander, Matthew R.; Eric H. Yang. “What is the prevalence of hypertension (high blood pressure) awareness of in the US?” https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/241381-overview#a2
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Fact Sheet: National Estimates and General Information on Diabetes and Prediabetes in the United States, 2011. Atlanta, GA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011.
7. Balcı M.K, Metabolik Sendrom, Türkiye Klinikleri J Med Sci 2008;28:102-106.
8. Mottillo S, Filion KB, Genest J, Joseph L, Pilote L, Poirier P. The metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010; 56: 1113-32
9. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, et al; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 393-403
10. Carbonneau É1, Royer MM2, Richard C3, Couture P4, Desroches S5, Lemieux S6, Lamarche B7. Effects of the Mediterranean Diet before and after Weight Loss on Eating Behavioral Traits in Men with Metabolic Syndrome. Nutrients. 2017 Mar 19;9(3).

Gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is among the most common chronic diseases in the Western world, affecting up to 30% of the general population in Europe and the US. It is a condition which develops when the acidic contents of the stomach flow backwards into the esophagus and cause what’s known as heartburn. While most patients respond well to the standard therapy of proton pump inhibitors which block acid-secreting cells in the stomach, we are still trying to understand the molecular reasons why 30-40% of reflux patients do not respond adequately to acid-suppressant therapy. Not only does GERD have a significant negative impact on health-related quality of life, but the over-subscription of ineffective drugs causes a significant economic burden on healthcare.

Heartburn is the most noticeable and troublesome symptom of GERD. From what we currently understand about the pathophysiology of the disease, we know that the reflux of acid evokes different types of pain, but the basic mechanisms and pathways by which this pain is generated is incompletely understood. The junction between the esophagus and stomach is structurally and functionally designed in a way to ensure that any acid secreted in the gastrointestinal tract flows towards the stomach, and not up onto the lining of the esophagus. This function is served by the muscle structure sitting at this junction, called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES), which ensures that the ingested food following a meal does not reflux. However, there are several factors which can make the LES’s job more difficult. One of the most obvious factors includes the excessive consumption of food, particularly during the later hours of the day. There is convincing evidence that 90% of reflux episodes occur post-prandially, due to minor elevations of intragastric pressure which causes the LES to relax and therefore allow the reflux of acid. In more advanced cases of reflux disease, acid pockets form at the gastroesophageal junction where unbuffered acid collects into a reservoir. When the LES fails in this setting, there is reflux of a higher volume of acid.

Focusing on the microscopic structure of the esophagus and stomach, we can see a minute yet essential difference between the linings of these two gastrointestinal organs. The esophagus has a stratified squamous epithelial lining, which acts as a tight protective barrier against food but is readily damaged when exposed to a chemical environment. On the other hand, the stomach is lined by tall columnar epithelium, which is designed to withstand very low pH and high levels of proteolytic activity. Our gastrointestinal tract (and the human body in its entirety) is perfectly designed to carry out the specific role of transporting food from the oral cavity from the esophagus to the stomach, where it is digested for our nourishment. It is oftentimes our greediness and overindulgence which disrupt the perfect order of our anatomy at a molecular level, resulting in the macroscopic changes we see at endoscopy and the symptomatic discomfort we feel from the painful circumstances of reflux. 

The stomach is our center of nourishment. Given that every food particle has the purpose of nourishing the cells of our body, why do we so commonly make the mistake of eating excessively, nocturnally, and quickly? Fatty foods influence the relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter, along with alcohol, coffee, and acidic drinks. Large meals and rapid food intake distend the stomach, increase intragastric pressure and facilitating the reflux of acid from the stomach. Given these, it is plain to see that, in most cases, simple lifestyle changes can prevent the development of such chronic and discomforting diseases. The following verse in the Holy Qur’an offers a short but very effective prescription: “Eat and drink, but do not be wasteful” (7:31).

The philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (Avicenna) summarized the science of medicine as follows: “Eat little when you eat, and after eating do not eat again for a certain period of time; health lies in digestion. There is nothing heavier for the body to tolerate than putting food after food in the stomach.” Frugality in eating is also echoed in the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, who famously said “There is no vessel which the son of Adam can fill more evil than his stomach, for it is sufficient for him to take a few mouthfuls in order to straighten his back; but if he must, then fill one-third with food, one-third with drink, and one-third with air” (Tirmidhi).

The lifestyle factors that are strongly associated with GERD are obesity and smoking. In the 30-40% of GERD patients who do not respond to acid-suppressant therapy, simple lifestyle changes such as cutting out acidic drinks and eating more slowly, and not after 7 pm have been effective alternative treatments. While our understanding of molecular pain mechanisms of the esophagus need further improvement, the simple act of making minor changes in our eating habits can ensure that the anatomy and function of our gastrointestinal tract remains optimal.

“Curiosity is the wick in the candle of learning”
William A. Ward

When I visited my family last time, I realized that my two-year old nephew, who could not speak fluently and knew only a few words, wanted to learn about everything he saw. For instance, while I was using an iPhone, he wanted me to show him how to unlock its screen. I taught him how; he tried to use it and started asking questions about the applications: What is that? What is it doing? In fact, he sometimes couldn’t speak, but he implied what he wanted to ask. Moreover, he could easily learn and repeat what I said and did.

He is a curious bundle of joy, and so are most toddlers. I believe that if toddlers – who are usually defined as being between the ages of one and three – don’t lose their curiosity, each of them will grow into accomplished members of our future’s intellectual society.

Curiosity: What is it?

Curiosity basically means a desire to know or learn. Dr. Reiss states that curiosity is one of the 16 basic desires which guide human behaviors, and comes from the need to learn^[1]. Curiosity triggers various questions about events around us, and in a broader perspective, about the universe. The interaction between the desire to learn and the universe usually brings about scientific development. So, curiosity is the key to learning and science. And talking about children, curiosity is imperative to their learning.

“What is that?” is a phrase that is usually heard from a toddler who can speak at least a few words. Toddlers have a great curiosity to understand what happens around them. They are new in this world and everything grabs their attention. Because of this curiosity, they want to learn. According to Bruce Perry, there is a big learning cycle [2], which starts with curiosity and exploration, and goes on to discovery, pleasure, repetition, mastery, new skills, confidence, self esteem, security and more exploration. While one of the main characteristics of mankind is learning by curiosity early in his life, as time passes, his curiosity fades. What causes this change? Why does it fade away? Can it be delayed? What can be done to invigorate his passion for learning, exploring and discovering if it fades? How can schools, as a secondary environment for learning after the family, be designed so that the initial curiosity is not lost?

Why does curiosity fade?

The eagerness of children to scientifically understand the world is restrained by various factors. These factors vary due to the complex nature of human beings and the environment they live in. The three significant and common factors are fear, disapproval, and absence^[2].

One of the common factors is fear that can arise implicitly or explicitly. The definition of fear is “a distressing emotion aroused by impending danger, evil, pain, etc., whether the threat is real or imagined; the feeling or condition of being afraid”^[3]. It causes uncomfortable conditions for people. When experiencing fear, a human cannot act normally until either the fear subsides or he deals with the cause of the fear. For example, parenting styles, events that cause internal family distress, violence, a teacher’s disciplinary style, restrictions, rules, and an unhealthy classroom environment can be some of the reasons behind fear. Human curiosity is fostered by healthy, comfortable environments^[4].

The second factor behind fading curiosity is disapproval. If a child is raised by phrases that start with “don’t,” he will learn not to do things. He will not be eager to attempt to learn new, different ways. For instance: If a child is raised by saying don’t do this, don’t do that, don’t get dirty, don’t take that apart, don’t touch, don’t, don’t, and don’t… To learn, they need to try these things. These attempts can be wrong or not essential, but children achieve a great sense of learning by doing.

The last, but certainly not least factor, of losing curiosity is absence. The meaning of absence is that the child has no sense of safety and opportunity to share new discoveries. The existence of caring people around them provides the optimal environment for exploration, discovering new things and increasing the capacity of sharing one’s discoveries. This is because of the sense of safety.

Invigorating faded curiosity

In terms of renewing curiosity for a child who has lost his passion for examination and critical observation of the world, we can start by eliminating the reasons for faded curiosity: fear, disapproval and absence. Eliminating these factors will give children a chance to reconstruct their passion, safety, and courage to repair their lost and curiosity to learn.

One who is responsible for a child needs to recognize individual differences in them, and to encourage their unique kinds of curiosity. Each individual is recognized as a different world; therefore, each individual has his or her own unique framework about the world. In some points, there can be similar and overlapping ideas but it does not mean their conceptual framework is the same. Curiosity triggers them to enhance their conceptual framework by learning with understanding. So we need to let them run after their different styles of learning, which will help them to advance in a discipline without enforcement. By doing so, children feel free to choose their area of interest and with a strong sense of their curiosity, they will move forward in that discipline.

At this point, we come up with a question: what can be done for timid children? Being timid does not mean that they are not curious. They just require more encouragement and reinforcement to feel safe and familiar with situations.

Generally, parents or teachers assume that some creative attempts of children are failures; thus, we need to redefine “failure.” If a child wants to learn to jump rope, which is not an easy task for younger children, he or she can do it hundreds of times, and trip every one of them. On one hand, this can be defined as failure; on the other hand, parents can think that it is a determination to reach success and that these trials and trips are necessary to develop that skill.

Another mistake, which can hinder a child’s curiosity, is that parents mostly make a judgment about a child’s larger personality rather than their specific behaviors. If we continue on the same example: jump rope, to encourage and reinforce them to learn, we can judge their behavior and lead them how to overcome it rather than critiquing their personality.

New approaches in the scientific environment in Curiosity is a common topic, not only for children but also within scientific communities. Through curiosity, human beings start to understand the universe and realize its wonderful and unique design. When you scientifically dig deeper into the environment and the world, your astonishment will increase about how perfectly designed things are. For instance: while I was watching a documentary, a man was interested in cobra snakes, and he dedicated 40 years of his life to exploring snake’s hidden and mysterious world. He was still so excited about talking about snakes and the details of their life; moreover, he mentioned that he needed to do more exploration to master his knowledge about snakes. You can easily catch the point: 40 years to explore only snakes, but it is not enough.

To raise a scientifically literate generation, to make them well skilled in understanding the world and willing to explore the world and universe, just like the man who is interested in snakes, the classroom environment needs to change. There should be a focus on the students and their learning with understanding, rather than being teacher-centered and based on rote learning. The United States and other countries have passed various reform acts in education to have more student-centered classrooms and better environments for learning with understanding. The most popular term in reform acts is inquiry. Although a century has passed since first appearance of the term “inquiry” in the science-education literature, there is no compromise on inquiry; you can find a lot of definition and different types of inquiry.

Inquiry-Based Learning

In a general perspective, inquiry is not only a method to teaching science, but also a result of teaching science. Learners have hands-on and minds-on activities both during the process, and after teaching and learning; learners should be able to imply new situations of scientific inquiry in their daily life. The inquiry should start with curiosity and a question about phenomena. Curiosity and the questioning phase start with some awareness of phenomena, and continue with experiments, research, observations, designs, and so on. Moreover, according to previous activities, students have some evidence, results, or assumptions to answer the initial questions, then give an explanation in keeping with his or her findings. Students need to make a comparison between his or her answers, peers, and the larger scientific literature, and also be able to justify their findings and answers.

After this process, the student learns both the scientific concepts and scientific process, and, as a member of a scientifically-literate society, uses it in new conditions in daily life. This process is a kind of imitation of what scientists do in their research. Moreover, these activities provide high retention later in the learning process. Increasing average retention rates would make students more proficient with science, keep them familiar with scientific content, and the scientific method; thus, they may keep their curiosity vigorous to sustain their scientific readings and investigations. By doing so, little students are going to be little scientists based on the strength of their curiosity.

To sum it up, curiosity is a significant factor for learning and science; it’s an essential part of human behavior. Most of the explorations, inventions and discoveries originate with curiosity. But curiosity is not a static power; most of us can lose our curiosity about the universe and the world because of various reasons, including fear, disapproval, and absence. To invigorate faded curiosity we need to eliminate the factors that are the reason for such lapses. Moreover, parents and teachers should be careful about individual differences, and we need to redefine the term “failure.” Finally, curiosity is the feature of scientific communities that are eager to understand the world and the universe. If their scientific method, which is known as “learning with inquiry,” can be applied in the classroom, children can follow the mysteries of the world and universe. Throughout little students’ journey, and during their studies, curiosity, as a wick in a candle, will enlighten our world. Let them to keep their candle sparkling!

References

1- Reiss, Steven (March 5, 2002). Who am I? The 16 Basic Desires that Motivate Our Actions and Define Our Personalities. Berkley Trade. ISBN 978-0425183403.

2- Perry, Bruce Duncan. http://teacher.scholastic.com/professional/bruceperry/curiosity.htm

3- http://dictionary.reference.com/

4- Berlyne, D. E. 1960. Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity. New York: McGrawhill.

If we consider human nature as a book, the encoded information contained within, together with all the elements of inner and outer environments (bio-psycho-socio-cultural), becomes meaningful and functional. This is because each book has a visible structure composed of letters (semiotic DNA sequence) and a manifested meaning (semantic web) in a particular environment. From this point of view, genes should not be seen as mandatory codes, but should be considered as similar to the art of marbling (or ebru, which is the making of different patterns on a fluid by small vibrations of the ink droplets), for they are created by the united effect of various dynamic forces, and can only be understood accordingly. Human willpower and responsibility will also gain meaning and value when they are analyzed within the framework of the reaction intervals presented within the motifs of human nature which are shaped by the mutual effects genes and cultural factors have on each other. In this sense, human nature and culture should be evaluated together. We can organize the factors that determine human behavior and manners under three main titles – genetic, physicochemical environment, and psycho-socio-cultural factors. We can only speculate statistically as to how large or small a role each factor plays in development.

Behaviors like an inclination to crime, having intimate feelings for same sex individuals, cognitive and sensory sharpness, a desire for excitement and risk, or an inclination to addiction cannot be described by one or two genes. For instance, there are many factors (environment, genes) involved in acts of violence. However, one missing and insufficient factor can trigger violence. For instance, the Monoamine oxidase A enzyme is encoded by the MAO-A gene; this enzyme is in charge of degrading neurotransmitter molecules such as dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine (these enable signaling between nerve cells). Depending on the mutations or polymorphisms of this gene, if the enzyme cannot function sufficiently, these individuals display an inclination towards violence and aggressive behavior. But if the person is aware of the situation and gets educational support from others, this behavior can be controlled.

Similarly, every person has a variable degree of genes that put them at risk for cancer. If these genes are activated via environmental factors – such as smoking, poor nutrition, mutagens, carcinogens – cancer may develop. On the other hand, if a person is lacking the cancer-causing genes or has low inclination towards cancer, such a person may not get cancer, even if he or she is a smoker. Similar statements can be made for genes associated with addictions, sexual perversions, and violent tendencies. More significantly, we can produce more value and meaning out of behavior-related genes when we evaluate them according to their context, position, and other factors, along with their relations to other genes. That is to say, there is a complicated network of factors that shape behavior. That’s why a DNA sequence alone cannot determine, all by itself, the development of emotions and manners, skills, and personality. In other words, phenotype can never be predicted 100% just by the interpretation of genetic information.

Brain and personality development is a multi-faceted, exposome mystery. From the start of pregnancy, especially throughout the preschool era, everything one is exposed to, and the way those events shape one’s nature, is called exposome. This can include subconscious events, for all sorts of personal history plays a role in such development. The connections of 1011 neuron cells that exist in an average human brain are not only determined by genes. Human DNA contains 6.2 x 109 nucleotide (letter), or information. Reading and using this raw information depends on many factors. Neurons can establish new connections via internal and external stimuli, while on the other hand, the number of neuron cells and connection networks can be changed by the neurochemical substances and hormones that they synthesize. All of the information required to define fine details in the motifs and connections of brain cells is not present in the genome. Mere environmental factors are not enough to complement this missing information.

Aside from these, many factors play a role in brain development and function. When the ends of axons and dendrites extend, they do so by recognizing nanomolecules that guide them all the way to the target organ or region. They happen to make minor changes and deviations during this extension. These changes are extreme enough that this extension is part deterministic and part trial and error. They reach the target through a statistically systemic algorithm but with a certainty less than 100%. Axons that are extended from eyes to the brain have a 1% possibility of taking a wrong turn at optic chiasm, and therefore not reaching the brain or arriving at the wrong region of it. However, there are also signalization systems built in our brains that recognize and correct these errors. If axons cannot receive the correct signals from target neurons, they get degraded. And sometimes a neuron of the axon terminates itself. These observations clearly show that brain development does not take place by a molecular program that is predetermined down to the minutest details but rather through a flexible program open to changes and errors.

This flexible program is explained by materialistic philosophy as “chance,” which basically means being in the right place at the right time to encounter the right factors. The same program, in religious literature, is explained by factors known as fate, kismet, destiny, divine blessing, and grant. Aside from that, there are also certain uncontrollable activations and a genetic background in the brain that are involved before we start a conscious action. From this perspective, motifs generated by biological and genetic inclinations set the infrastructure for the freedom of decision making and self-determination. Since our thoughts, emotions, and acts are formed within the neurogenetic and neurochemical construct of the brain, the motif that is created by the background here generates inclinations for specific acts and behaviors. In other words, events that take place in our brain chemistry during the fetal period and early childhood years are significant determinants of human development. The human brain can function in a state with willpower and consciousness, but can also function automatically, without consciousness. Briefly, it is through our genes that the framework of what we can achieve, our reaction intervals and threshold values are determined, and the possibility of an act is indicated. But the boundaries of the final decision are determined via statistical possibilities as a result of a person’s interaction with their environment. Therefore the boundary is not determined in a mandatory fashion, but via external dynamics (like manners, beliefs, or moral nourishment).

Human willpower is our capacity and strength to make free decisions and selections under the effects of spiritual, genetic, and environmental frameworks (endophenotype). The decisions and selections cannot take place independently from the sources nourishing one’s metaphysical world, cultural circles, or from the impact of neurochemicals in the brain and our hormones. “God burdens no soul except within its capacity” (2:286) is a sign of mercy and compassion from the Qur’an, indicating that the field of action and boundaries of the human willpower are determined based on multiple factors and wise causes. Producing customized religious rulings according to one’s natural strengths and weaknesses is also a very meaningful legal action in Islamic law. It is, in a sense, an acknowledgement that everyone has trials and experiences that are different than others’.

Humans have responsibilities within defined, limited conditions, and they can only make decisions within those permissible intervals of conditions and the constraints of their natural dispositions. If we can analyze human actions in a model that looks into their dispositions, cultural environments, genetic inclinations, and spiritual and moral nourishment, then we can attain better results in the education and character development of human beings.

Each factor mentioned above affects the child’s sexual separation and differentiation to various degrees. Misbehaviors during sexual development may emerge as a result of a complex mosaic of biological, psychological, sociocultural factors. There is not a complete consensus around the main reasons for this, yet each researcher favors one factor in the light of their expertise and ideological choices. However, objective observations and research point out that the quality of relationship between the parents and children is very influential in this matter. The display of unhealthy sexual inclinations stems from a negative background where there is not enough parent-child relationships to help the child develop. In families of children with strange sexual behaviors, a suppressive, excessively controlling model of mother and a distant, aggressive model of a father who resorts to violence are often found to exist. That is why many problems with intimacy and sex that occur later in life can be viewed as a developmental ailment and a problem of insufficient parental communication rather than a mandatory genetic phenomenon.

Various problems can arise when healthy differentiation and separation do not take place during a child’s development. A child, in the beginning, is like a part of the mother. If differentiated by detachment from the mother, and from her compassion and care, a child struggles to develop a healthy sense of ego. Such a child becomes inclined to develop a personality that is dependent, passive, and lacking sufficient confidence.

Research clearly states that each child is born with different inclinations and threshold values that are determined genetically and hormonally for each of his or her possible characters and behaviors. These potential inclinations and threshold values can surface depending on internal and external stimuli and educational styles. Even though both genders carry hormones belonging to each other naturally, during development one steps forward upon expression of encoded gender genes. When it comes to displaying sexual abnormalities, everybody is, genetically speaking, a dry log or a wet log. A dry log can easily catch fire, a wet one does not. However, it is the responsibility of society and parents to provide a spark-free environment for the dry log. Spiritual and biological nourishment during the developmental process are found to be significantly influential in diseases and aging, in disorders of character development, and in anomalies in sexual behaviors. When proper measures are taken timely, via suitable environments and educational modes, the possible surfacing of behavioral pathologies may be prevented or reduced for children potentially at risk. Through correct guidance and education, the expression and regulation of genes can be altered and managed, controlling these naturally present inclinations.

Cezmi Aydin is a freelance writer in natural sciences.

References

• Alper, Joseph S. (1998). “Genes, free will, and criminal responsibility.” Soc. Sci. Med. Vol. 46, No. 12, pp. 1599 1611
• Meyer, Lia Midori Nascimento, Gilberto Cafezeiro Bomfim, Charbel Nino El-Hani. 2011. “How to Understand the Gene in the Twenty-First Century?” Sci & Educ. DOI 10.1007/s11191-011-9390-z
• Levitt, Mairi and Neil Manson. 2007. “My Genes Made Me Do It? The Implications of Behavioural Genetics for Responsibility and Blame.” Health Care Anal. 15, pp. 33–40.
• Richardson, Brian. 2011. “What’s wrong with me? Coming to terms with same sex attraction.” Nursing Children 24 and Young People. October 2011. Volume 23. Number 8. pp. 22-24.
• William J. Jenkins. 2010. “Can Anyone Tell Me Why I’m Gay? What Research Suggests Regarding The Origins of Sexual Orientation.” North American Journal of Psychology, 2010, Vol. 12, No. 2. pp. 279-296.
• Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten. 2010. “Genes, memes, and the Chinese concept of wen: toward a nature/culture model of genetics.” Philosophy East & West Vol. 60, No. 2. April 2010. University of Hawaii Press, pp. 167–186.

What are complex systems?

If there are multiple elements (variables/factors) interacting with each other in the creation of an event or a being, this structure is called a “Complex System.” For example, in the air system, air and water molecules are a factor. Plants and animals in an ecosystem can also be considered as a factor. These are interconnected to one another in a way hard to imagine and have impacts on each other. Systems with these specifications display complex situations throughout time. For example in the medical field, a disease is described multi-factorial if many factors (causes) take part in its development. However in the past, these laws, specifications, and progress-dependent patterns of the multifactor diseases had to be overlooked due to the lack of a suitable paradigm to study with. But today, with the complex system paradigm, we have a greater access to the inner dynamics of these multi-factor diseases.

Multi-factor systems in terms of structure and function exhibit complex features during the process. Thus, complicated features of a complex system have been found to be dependent on the “Force Law” when investigated with the complex system paradigm. They also establish the basis for principles and laws that are occurring coincidentally. According to the Force Law, in all complex systems, small scale changes occur in greater numbers, and larger scale changes happen less often. This state corresponds to the same direct line, when plotted on the x-y plane logarithmically with scale of changes versus chances of events being created. This indeed results in the stability of the system in the macroscale and yet reveals the variability and instability of the microscale. In other words, the state of the macrosystem is put forth momentarily by selection among many micro incidents, which, for believers, is an indication of an ultimate Divine will in possession of infinite power. The information level, energy and interaction strength of such events or beings plays a great role in the possible selection of micro incidents in the grand scheme of causes.

Complex systems that become visible via space-time river also enters a dynamic cycle which is composed of sub-critical, critical, and super critical states. In this way, events and existence become subjected to newer manifestations or degrees of glory, as for believers, life and existence are artworks of God and His Divine attributes in the visible universe, which resembles a drawing board. Living things display an adaptive and dynamic character along with being a complex system. Healthy processes in the human body display adaptive dynamic complex system properties yet exhibit complex behaviors that bring system down like cancer as well. The medical world in recent years have been referring to cancer more so than before because of undetermined factors in its development, hardships encountered during diagnosis and treatment; as cancer is a multi-factored disease, it is necessary to look at cancer with the complexity lens.

The science of complex systems which studies multidimensional and multifactor relations states that in each complex system there are common features, and that these features can also be observed in cancer just like in all other scientific fields and in all scales. The following will focus on the subject since cancer makes a good metaphor in understanding complex systems of behavior.

In complex systems, a whole system means more than the total value of its factors. This principle emphasizes that properties of events and beings that are the sum of many separate factors do not exist in separate units or tend to disappearas each part is handled more individually. The deduction-reduction examples of a peacock coming out of an egg, a tree growing from a seed, and water that consists of various elements are used as metaphors to explain matters that pertain to belief and bear complex system properties. There are many genetic, epigenetic, metabolic, internal and external factors in ontogeny of cancer, however it only develops with the interaction of these elements and differentiates from regular cells. According to widely accepted views, in order for a cell to become cancerous, it is not enough for it to undergo many genetic mutations on its own. The few mutations that take place in a specific order alongside other epigenetic factors could lead to a tumor and cause a “system death” which means much more than the total value of components. That is why death occurs systematically in humans-cell death, tissue death, organ death, system death (excretion and transport) and death of organism.

All complex systems not only have a specific perimeter but they also remain a part of this boundary. This feature brings attention to the fact that there is even a relation between the Sun and and eye of a mosquito. Cancer starts out with a single cell made up of specific inner parameters, in a particular placement within a tissue. It is not possible for a cancerous cell to proliferate for a long time and cause the death of an individual all by itself. It can cause death as a result of communication with surrounding cells, conversion of these into cancerous types, and dispersion through blood vessels into other organs.

Inhibition or the delay of these stages makes up the most significant strategic approaches of the therapy. Because of this, while a cancerous cell is programmed to change its surrounding it also begins utilizing the nutrient sources of surrounding live cells for itself, as if trying to resolve an optimization problem, and causes disruption in the system by displacing other cells with an uncontrolled proliferation potential. This incident points out that there is no such thing as a “minor” in complex systems.

In complex systems, the more diversity exists within a system, the more powerful the system becomes. This principle brings attention to maintenance contingency and sustainability of the system and the conditions that pertain to it, for the lifespan of complex systems correlates directly with the abundance and diversity encompassed in it. This viewpoint could be observed in the case of a normal cell turning malignant. A mature tumor is a group of differentiated cell types that can provide interaction with neighboring cells through intra- and inter-cellular structures (matrix). That is why one of the characteristics of cancer is progress-dependent heterogenity at a cellular level. Because of this reason, although there is only one cancerous cell at the beginning, it can divide into different populations in time. Each population can be considered as an independent (sub-population) population since each has a specific genetic composition. This diversity is one of the major sources of problems in cancer treatment.

A continued relationship of factors with each other in a complex system has critical importance regarding system survival. Metastasis of a tumor not only depends on relations with surrounding cells but at the same time relies on the stimulation of blood vessel synthesis factors (angiogenesis). Two events are required for the dispersal of cancer cells freely; the first is the reduced interaction with other cancer cells. This can be possible with regulation of cell-to-cell connection molecules (adhesion). Second is the formation of new blood vessels via stimulation to connect with the bloodstream from the vicinity of the tumor. Finally, cancer cells that have reached their target of joining the blood stream should be able to leave the circulation, penetrate the new tissue, and manage to grow again. Metastasis is a situation for cancer cells to regulate limiting factors according to their new conditions to survive.

Behaviors in complex systems which display more features (emergent situation) that are not present in the units or even in the total value of constituents are plentiful and complicated, yet principles as causes behind these rich motifs are simple and determine the function of the system. Cancer disease arises from the execution of three simple basic principles of interaction, proliferation, and dispersion in cancerous cells. Interaction, proliferation, and dispersion do result in a healthy cell if it happens properly in the correct place, time, and dosage; otherwise it results in a cancerous cell. These three principles can cause cancer as a complex system disease or a healthy life which also displays characters of a complex system. Critical factors that control the management of these principles are location, position, timing, and dosage.

In complex systems, minor scale changes in initial conditions can lead to major effects after a certain amount of time, like a small snowball getting bigger as it rolls. Metaphorically, this situation is called the “butterfly effect” which assumes the possibility of a hurricane in one part of the world resulting from a complex chain of events starting with the strokes of a butterfly in another far corner of the world. Most of the adaptive complex systems are called “self-organized systems” in the scientific jargon, however these may exhibit such behaviors that are hard to overlook and believers would attribute to Divine guidance rather than to their so-called self-organization capacity. These systems organized with Divine guidance reach a “critical state” at the end. One of the models that were developed to explain this critical state is called the “sand pile model.” The system is named sub-critical when sand particles start to pile up on a surface, since at this stage the system is not affected from the fall of the next sand particle. As sand particles pile up, they reach a critical state in which every new particle added to the pile can lead to one of the following: 1. Nothing will happen; this is called the super-critical state. Particle can stay on top or roll down to the bottom of the pile. 2. Particles that hit the top of the pile affect other particles and can cause a small avalanche. 3. Sand pieces hit the top and cause some displacement of other particles. These displaced particles successively can cause a bigger avalanche.

This bigger avalanche again restores the system back into a sub-critical level. All complex systems arrive at these stations of sub-critical, critical, super-critical and again sub-critical successively in the flow of time. At each station they are dressed with a form of existence corresponding to a different macroscopic situation. So the outcome of the next situation is contingent on the mean average of microstates and thus points to a manipulator, who wills it to be that way. As a result, a minor event can lead to a “point of no return,” a stage called catastrophe, a super-critical state. These stages result in the continuum of the universe as it transforms and renews itself. A cancer cell also stops by the above mentioned stations and step by step, like a snowball turning into an avalanche, it can impact the whole body after reaching the super-critical stage, and lead to death. That is why early diagnosis (made during sub-critical or critical level) increases the chances of treatment, yet late diagnosis (at super-critical level) decreases therapy outcomes.

There is no hierarchical chain of command or control of causes on each other in complex systems. In other words, not only is there not a single factor in control of the system, but also a great number of factors function in a nonlinear mode of interaction. The development and progression of cancer as a complex system is controlled through interaction of internal and external factors, genetic, epigenetic, physical and metaphysical, tangible and intangible elements. Initial conditions that prepare the basis for cancer progress does exist in human genome, for genes that play a role whether in development, suppression, or regulation of cancer are built in the human genomic library from the beginning. Embryonic development is maintained with proper activation of these regulatory genes in the correct time and place during pregnancy. However, same genes may initiate cancer if not properly expressed in the right time, place, and level after birth. Moreover, all the factors that the zygote is left exposed to during its interaction with the surroundings leave a mark (memory) on the system. This is called “system exposition.”

Exposition forms microstates that will lead to positive/negative development of the organism through interaction with genetic and epigenetic memory of the system. That is why programmed cell death is put in place to eliminate damaged and dysfunctional cells that form in the system.

Cancer, as a consequence of progress-dependent corresponding interaction of genome and system exposition, is a system that can display chaotic behavior. Because of this, spiritual factors as well as physical ones may cause a “butterfly effect” in development of cancer and there is no single center of command that is designed to control each of these in the causation chain. This being the case, one cannot help but wonder how causes can comply with the force law of all complex systems and that they share common features without a hierarchical command on each other.

Each complex system is composed of holographic sub-systems. The human body is an ecosystem of various systems placed within each other. The well-being of the ecosystem depends on proper interaction and health of these sub-systems. A tumor can be considered as a local ecosystem (sub-system) where various species and clones exist in a human ecosystem. While each tumor grows, there are living and dead clone populations in it. One billion elements exist in a tumor as small as 1 cm3 (1 gr). If we omit cell death, this corresponds to the 35th generation of an abnormal cell. Ten more generations later this reaches one trillion cells. This way, a population that started out with a single cell exceeds the total number of humans ever lived throughout history. So, human death with cancer starts with the disruption of one single cell. Once reached a super critical stage, system death occurs when the cancer branches out via blood circulation and disperses into various organs, leading to disconnection between them.

Cancerous cell reminds us that there are no minor events in the universe and points out that the health of our social and spiritual world takes shape according to the rules of complex systems. As a side thought, we may easily infer from cancer that underestimating any seemingly minor misbehavior or a sin and failure of immediate action to make up for it may lead to undesired consequences in our social and spiritual lives. It is also significant to be aware that we do not have an absolute control over our future and we cannot determine whether we will attain healing or not; however we can and we should try with science to elucidate some of the tangible causes of the disease and can point out some possible ways of treatment.

The miracle of life appears in the form of a baby which develops from a fertilized ovule (zygote) following millions of other events. This series of events, which is almost always the same for every fetus, can be grouped as reproduction, differentiation, and development. The zygote completes its development in the womb; postnatal growth can continue until 20 years of age. Even though every event during the baby’s development seems to take place with chaotic reactions, harmony and order are there for us to discover. One of these astonishing events is the perfectly symmetric growth of the fetus/baby. Most organs in the human body appear in pairs and are symmetric. Babies are born with 300 bones; however, some bones later fuse with other bones, leaving only 208 bones in the adult human. It is still a mystery how long bones such as the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, and tibia are able to grow on both sides of the human body in a symmetrical manner.

Mechanisms that control growth in organs

In vertebrates, both internal developmental programs and the external factors which stimulate or inhibit growth play a role in the ultimate size of an organ. But the relative effects of these two mechanisms can vary significantly in different organs. When pieces of spleen from an embryo that is at a later stage of growth are transplanted to a newly developing embryo, each new piece grows, but not to the size of the original spleen. The total weight of all the transplanted spleen pieces is equal to a normal spleen’s weight. When the spleen reaches a certain weight, growth inhibiting factors are secreted, which stimulate negative feedback mechanisms that limit growth. When a spleen reaches a certain size, the density of the inhibiting factors increases simultaneously, halting growth. Growth in the liver is controlled by extracellular factors (various substances in the blood, hormones, vitamins, minerals, etc.). When a section is cut off of the liver, the section continues growing and developing until it reaches the size of the original liver. The thymus has a growth process that is executed by a cellular genetic program. When sections of a thymus taken from the embryonic period are injected into developing mouse embryos, every section grows until it reaches the ultimate size.

More evidence of cellular growth programs was acquired via an experiment that was carried out with the salamander genus Ambystoma. When the leg bud of the larger species was injected into the smaller species, it would at first grow slowly, but then it would reach the normal size of its own species (the larger species).

Distinguishing growth and symmetry from one another

Both the arms and legs have long bones. A long bone consists of two parts (diaphysis and epiphysis). The diaphysis is the middle (core) part of the long bone. It consists of hard bone tissue, and is like a tube. The hyaline cartilage-covered joint forms the epiphysis of the long bone. In a growing bone, there is a growth plate (epiphysis plaque) made of hyaline cartilage; this is located between the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The epiphysis plaque causes the bone to grow longer; when growth is complete, the epiphysis plaque ossifies (becomes bone). In other words, growth stops. There are some clues that show the existence of positive feedback mechanisms which control the symmetric and balanced development of the arms and legs while the fetus is still growing. The arms and legs grow due to the development and growth of the plaques located at opposite ends of the long bone. The ultimate size of the arms and legs are proportional to the size of the finger bones (phalanx) and the metacarpus. According to current knowledge, growth in our arms and legs is only controlled by internal growth programs and the active growth of the plaques. We do not yet know the mechanism through which how much the bone must grow and symmetrically with the organ (the other arm or leg) on the other side of the body. But even if this is discovered in the future, we will continue to appreciate the perfect and miraculous aspect of this phenomenon.

In addition, in growth-plaque transplant experiments, the development of the transplanted growth plaque is dependent only on the age and size of the donor. Growth plaques cause the bone to grow, but the plaques themselves remain the same size for years. The cartilage cells they produce (chondrocytes) exchange places with the bone cells (osteocytes) in harmony and without destroying the length of the bone. Cells from different areas of the growth plaque act differently. Stem cells are found on the upper section, near the epiphysis. Immediately above them is an area where cells reproduce very quickly. At the bottom of the epiphysis, the cartilage cells grow up to 4 to 10 times larger than their normal size (hypertrophy). Cell reproduction here is mostly due to hypertrophic chondrocytes. The chondrocytes die and break up, then change places with the bone tissue. The dynamic process of these events in the growth plaque repels it from the bone area, and as a result, the bone grows longer.

Sustained symmetry despite cell sequence and speed of reproduction

The rapid growth rate in the legs and arms during the embryonic period continues to increase until the child is three years of age. This growth rate slows down until the individual reaches adolescence. During the fastest growth period, which is from adolescence to the early 20s, the growth rate rapidly increases. For example, most people who grow between 30 and 37.5 cm during the first two years of life can grow between another 7.5 and 10 cm every year during adolescence. At the onset of adolescence, rapid growth due to a sudden change in the volume of cells is observed. After adolescence a sudden falling off in the speed of growth can be observed due to the effect of hormones on the growth plaques in the spine and other long bones. The growth plaque now fuses with the neighboring cells and growth stops. However, the fusing of the growth plaque is the result of the cessation of growth, not the cause. After growth stops, the growth plaques begin to disappear. When the reproduction potential of the cartilage cells in the growth plaque has been exhausted, the growth plaque begins to disappear.

Growth plaques in different bones can trigger growth at various rates; these rates can differ as much as seven times. In fact, growth plaques on different ends of a bone can have different growth rates, provided that this rate is consistent with the genetic program. The number of cells on the growth line is 40 times more than in other areas. The number of cells produced here can exceed 10,000 cells per day. For symmetric growth between the arms and legs to be sustained, the number of cells in the growth plaque must be the same or very close. Experiments carried out on rats show that eight cartilage cells leave the growth plaque to exchange places with cells above them every day. It can be said that the growth of the bone is caused by the increase of cells in the growth plaque (which sustains its size). The growth rate caused by the growth plaque can be calculated by multiplying the growth plaque’s cell production rate by the average length of all of its cells. Different growth plaques provide different growth rates. This difference can be caused by the difference in the size of the growth plaques, the difference in cell production rates, and/or the difference in the hypertrophy (growth) rate of every cell. The upper growth plaque in the tibia of mice generates 16,400 cells every day; the average life span of these cells is around 30 hours. Can such harmonious, symmetric, and equivalent growth in the arms and legs-despite the large number and variety of cells-be the work of pure coincidence, mindless nature, or unconscious molecules?

Do hormones play a role?

The main molecular players that organize longitudinal growth in bones during childhood are the growth hormone, the thyroid hormone, and corticoids. The sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) are programmed to influence growth during adolescence. Estrogen is the main determiner of characteristics related to increased height and an increase in bone quality, as well as adolescent-related physiology. These hormones are in charge of coordinating growth throughout the body. It is for this reason for women, after the menopause, the production in estrogen decreases and osteoporosis and brittle bones can occur. According to the current view, cartilage cells have a certain genetic reproduction potential, and when this potential finishes, growth stops. The growth rate during the embryonic period is 20 times higher than that of mid-childhood. The growth rate drops greatly during mid-childhood. If we exclude the noticeable increase during adolescence, the cells responsible for growth have begun to age. The bones on opposite sides of the body stay about the same size, despite all of these changes in growth rates. Circulating hormones and neuroendocrinal factors are believed to play important roles in maintaining symmetric growth. But there is no conclusive evidence to support this belief. Even though one can think of factors such as pressure, tension, and sports as helping control harmonious and symmetric growth of bones, no proof has been attained from controlled experiments. As a person ages, a gradual decrease in growth can be observed. Even if a growth plaque is placed into another organism, be it young or old, the growth rate of the bone does not change. This shows that symmetric growth in long bones is controlled by a program that is operated by internal factors, which is also compatible with the genetic program. When chemical-based medication is given to postpone growth, after the medication has been eliminated, the growth plaques grow faster for a short period to compensate for the lost time. These findings show that timing and the location and circumstances of the cell are critical parameters for reproduction. If the cartilage stem cells in the growth plaque have a certain reproduction potential, then it is clear that cartilage cell reproduction stops when growth comes to an end. If growth inhibiting factors slowly accumulate in the growth plaque, this might cause a deceleration of growth over time. Another possibility is some sort of “meter” in the unconscious and mindless stem cells, which keeps track of the number of cell divisions and thus controls aging. The estrogen in our body has a duty of closing down the growth plaques and speeding up the aging of cells. However, we should not forget that estrogen plays the special role of closing down all of the growth plaques at the same time. Estrogen is one of the visible causes of fertility, growth and development, and resilience. Estrogen also represents femininity and fertility at all levels.

When the signals from unconscious cells in the growth plaques and the quite sophisticated interactions among all the factors that influence growth, all of which require an all-encompassing knowledge to be executed, are taken into account, the impeccable genetic programs of different growth plaques on the two sides of the body that leads to the formation of the arms and legs, as if they have been molded in a factory, is absolutely amazing for anyone who reflects upon it.

References

• Wolpert L. (2010).”Unsolved Mystery: Arms and the Man: The Problem of Symmetric Growth.” PLoS Biology. 2010 Vol. 8(9). pp 1-3
• Extremity Development during the Embryonic Period (www.visembryo.com)

It is indeed a tremendous challenge to come to terms with the perplexity of religion and politics in our time. As acts of terrorism are wreaking havoc in many parts of the world, people turn to religion both to find the cause and the healing. Questions abound. Can religion be a source for tolerance and reconciliation in the 21st century, or is it a breeding ground for hatred and violence? Is religion being hijacked from inside by misguided believers and by cynic political extremists? Grand theories of conspiracy against specific religions or political systems instill anxiety among ordinary people.

As the 9/11 tragedy in the USA is indelibly inscribed as a watershed in world history, so will 22.7.2011 for ever be remembered as a massacre that changed Norway. The first was a heinous act of people who misrepresented Islam to punish and humiliate a world power seen to be responsible for the suffering of millions of Muslims around the world. The other was directed against the State itself and the political leadership of Norway, by a person who used Christian imagery to express his hatred of Muslims. The perpetrator sees Norway’s multiculturalism and open society as submission to a dangerous and foreign religion. He saw himself as true crusader for a Christian Europe. I believe it is fair to say that none of the perpetrators of these tragic events genuinely represent the religion they profess. Their unspeakable acts of violence against fellow human beings constitute a crime not only against humanity, but against God under whatever name.

These watershed events are reminders that to unravel the perverse mindset of extremists one has to go beyond personal faith and beliefs and look to other constitutive factors of psychological, social, cultural and political nature. Such factors do not provide an excuse for the horrendous acts of terror, but they indicate the complexity that needs to be addressed in curing this cancer in the body of humanity. But also collective and individual perceptions of oppression, marginalization and disrespect, feed a legitimate sense of loss and betrayal that offers a breeding ground for fanaticism and revenge. No single historic religion is without a history of inbred violence, be it Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, or others.

While the reaction in the USA and some European countries after 9/11 was crusader language and large-scale cancellation of fundamental civil and political rights, the reaction in Norway, eloquently and consistently expressed by the Prime Minister and other political leaders, and hailed by the vast majority of the population, has been to call for an even more inclusive democracy, and more respect of human dignity and human rights for all. The message was clear; the way forward is not revenge, nor curtailing of fundamental freedoms, but increased openness to a more multicultural and multi-religious society. Religious leaders and communities have reacted in unison against the exploitation of their faith and spirituality using hatred and fear. They join the call for tolerance and mutual respect. In all honesty, it has to be added that some pockets of conservative Christians have expressed sympathy for the opinions of the terrorist, although not for his criminal acts. The same goes for some politicians on the far right of the political spectrum.

It is my humble opinion that the reaction of official Norway sets a standard for others to follow in countries where far-right ideologies and fundamentalist religious movements and individuals threaten to destabilize society. A model of reconciled diversity is the only way to the future in our globalized world. This is the message of our youth, those who lost their lives and those who barely escaped. They are the victors. Terrorists will always be the losers. This is the spirit of Norway. The political battle to sustain this legacy will show the strength of our nation.

Dr. Gunnar Stalsett, Bishop emeritus of Oslo
Former Vice Chair of the Nobel Peace Prize committee
Moderator of the European Council of Religious Leaders, Religions for Peace

In general, the most common approach in tissue engineering is to develop tools as needed. Physicians treat patients and define the requirements for a better cure. Then, biologists study the targeted problem and learn what the mechanism is that caused the failure. Later, chemists and materials scientists manufacture the tools needed to treat the problem. Finally, the tools are delivered to doctors to treat the patients. Thus, tissue engineering requires a good understanding of how body parts work and come into existence, and this involves precise and sensitive application. Precise, aware and regular study of the interactions involved in tissues and organs must be practiced by the researchers who are interested in developing techniques for the manufacture of potential body parts. One of the first scientific approaches used for tissue engineering is to simply inject the body with molecules, such as growth factors, which are known to promote organ formation.

The growth factors are naturally occurring proteins which are assigned for cell proliferation and differentiation. Different parts of the body require different types of growth factors to signal to the cells to multiply or to replace the cells which have died or have been damaged. For example, it has been discovered that bone morphogenic proteins are responsible for the beginning of bone cell reproduction. For someone with a fractured bone that can not heal on its own within a reasonable period of time, the injection of bone growth factors to the site can direct the body to where bone cells are needed to be produced to repair the fracture.

In more severe conditions, the body may not receive the signal only with a simple injection of the growth factors. In this case, there is a need for more intricate treatment. Another way to treat organ malfunction starts with the harvesting of cells from the patient. The harvested cells can be multiplied in an artificial scaffold to eventually be implanted into the wound site. Because cells inhabit a different world than we do, we need a way to speak their language. The artificial scaffold should provide everything a cell needs and be able to direct the targeted cells toward the desired purpose. Basic knowledge gained from biology can help us to design potential artificial environments for cells.

A critical challenge in tissue engineering is how to design and make the artificial scaffolds. The cells must be fed through the blood vessel and are grown in the scaffold by the body; the scaffold should be able to communicate with the cells and finally the scaffold should disappear when its mission has been completed. The best example of a perfect scaffold is the natural environment of the cells, the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM provides support and anchorage for the cells and regulates communication between cells. There are various biological signals found in the ECM that help cell survival. For example, proteins called collagens provide mechanical support for cells through adhesive proteins in the ECM and the handles on the cell surface, known as integrins. Cell adhesion is crucial for cell survival and proliferation. Growth factors are also found in the ECM for cell organization. Some growth factors promote blood vessel formation, which can provide nutrients for cells. Therefore, a simple artificial environment should include various biological signals found in the ECM.

Currently, there are natural and synthetic scaffolds that are being used to generate the optimal environment for cells. Natural polymers such as collagen, chitosan or glycosaminoglycans, and synthetic polymers, including polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, polycaprolactone or self-assembled nanofibers, are some of the materials used or considered for scaffold production. Natural polymers can be obtained easily, however biological contamination is a concern since they are produced using components from animals or microorganisms. Synthetic polymers can usually avoid the problem of contamination. Sometimes the ability to process the polymers can be problematic. Researchers have developed self-assembled nanofibers to overcome the problems that arise with synthetic and natural polymers. These nanofibers are composed of small molecules which are programmed to come together under control and to form larger structures. The nanofibers in the solution can form a three-dimensional network and convert into a self-supporting gel which can encapsulate cells as an artificial scaffold. In general, small bioactive molecules can be conjugated to the self-assembled molecules or can be encapsulated in situ in the 3-D network of fibers.

One of the recent uses of tissue engineering is to replace tissue that has been damaged by cancer. Cancer surgery is one of the most challenging types of surgery in that the defective tissue must be reconstructed afterwards. Improvement in surgical technology gives the chance of transferring a tissue from different sites of the body but unfortunately most of the time it is not the same tissue, and does not have the same texture or function. Reconstructing a resected tongue or the feeding tube is possible with the use of skin from the leg or forearm. But this skin does not provide the normal mucosal function, so it does not enable taste or sense to be perceived in the same way nor does it produce mucus in the same way. Together with advances in tissue engineering surgeons have started using the tissue-engineered mucosa of patients to reconstruct the mouth and feeding passage defects, instead of using the skin from chest, leg or forearm skin. These clinical applications of tissue engineering are in their very early stages, but it would not be surprising if we were able to reconstruct a lost organ from a similar one in the future. It would be exciting to be able to replace the tongue of a tongue cancer patient with a brand new tongue grown from his/her own tissues produced in a laboratory. Tasting the same…sensing the same…moving and even articulating the same…instead of having a piece of meat from another part of the body…

Innovative and imaginative work which has been inspired by natural materials demonstrates how the treatment of organ malfunctions is feasible. Efforts in biotechnology to develop tissue-engineered products will benefit many people who are searching for a healthier life. Potentially, in the near future, tissue-engineered products will be more widely used to treat bone fractures, serious skin burns, spinal cord injuries, diabetes, and heart diseases. Before implanting the tissue-engineered products, it is vital that there be extensive testing of the materials to be used. Toxicology and efficacy studies should be performed on the materials to prevent damage to the original healthy cells, and the new cells and regenerated tissue must be compared to original healthy cells and tissue.

Mustafa Guler has a PhD in chemistry. He is currently a research associate at Northwestern University, Chicago, IL. Joseph Coreman is a medical doctor at the Ohio State University Medical College, Columbus, OH.

References

• Khariwala SS, Vivek PP, Lorenz RR, Esclamado RM, Wood B, Strome M, Alam DS. Swallowing outcomes after microvascular head and neck reconstruction: a prospective review of 191 cases. Laryngoscope. 2007 Aug; 117(8):1359-63.
• Sauerbier S, Gutwald R, Wiedmann-Al-Ahmad M, Lauer G, Schmelzeisen R. Clinical application of tissue-engineered transplants. Part I: mucosa. Clin Oral Implants Res. 2006 Dec; 17(6):625-32.
• Hotta T, Yokoo S, Terashi H, Komori T. Clinical and histopathological analysis of healing process of intraoral reconstruction with ex vivo produced oral mucosa equivalent. Kobe J Med Sci. 2007;53(1-2):1-14.
• Ratner, Buddy D. “Biomaterials Science – An Introduction to Materials in Medicine” Elsevier, 2004.
• Lanza, Robert P., Robert S. Langer, William L. Chick, “Principles of Tissue Engineering”, Academic Press, 1997.
• Alberts, Bruce, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, Peter Walter, “Molecular Biology of the Cell” Garland Science, 2002.

A wanted child brings happiness to a family; it is a gift from God. And, of course, every woman who wants to give birth wants to bring up a healthy and beautiful child. Unfortunately, the health index of the modern generation of women at child-bearing age is not very high (there are many chronic diseases, spiritual poverty, with a high vulnerability to different infections due to a variety of reasons). Due to this reason, medical interference in what is a natural process has become more frequent recently. Statistics show that more than 92% of women use different drugs at different stages of pregnancy. The question is to what extent this medication is safe for the future baby. This is a fundamentally important matter to investigate because a pregnant woman taking any chemicals is in essence applying a kind of experiment on her as well as the baby’s health which can have a variety of different consequences.

The problem of medical effects on the development of a fetus has recently become very acute. This is because there are many different medications that are common and easily available nowadays, and they are very often taken without a doctor’s prescription. Unfortunately, the consequences of this fact are not pleasant. Prenatal development is one of the most important and difficult stages in a person’s life. Just in 9 months an ovicell (an egg cell) and a sperm cell form an extremely complex living organism that consists of millions and billions of cells! Moreover, all these cells are combined into tissues, organs and systems that are always interacting. The fetus has a fascinating rate of growth to become a structure with an ever-increasing complexity. In addition, all these processes do not happen chaotically but in a strict order. This order is supplied by two factors: the first is a sound genetic program. It is obtained by the fetus from its parents and the decoding of the genome vividly denotes the existence of Divine Power. The second factor is the state of a maternal organism which supplies everything necessary for the realization of the genetic program and protects the fetus from the negative influence of the environment. In this way the failure of one of the mentioned factors can lead to different deviations and to the disturbance of the development, including the formation of congenital malformations of the fetus and even prenatal death.

The history of medicine shows that medications can be the most harmful etiological factor in relation to the fetus. Today, there are many examples proving this fact. One of the best-known is the thalidomide tragedy which happened in Europe in the 1950-60s. As a result of taking a poorly studied medicine (a light tranquilizer) the children of hundreds (!) of women were born with serious physical defects. Unfortunately, the list of drugs that causes fetal malformation is not short. Nowadays doctors are aware of syndromes caused by hydantoin, warfarin, aminopterin, and many other medications. Each of these has a specific effect on the fetus (mostly leading to serious abnormalities) when taken by a pregnant woman. In the past, people believed that such children were marked by Satan. But nowadays we say that it is the unpredictable effect of the medicine on the realization of the Creator’s program. Medical interference can lead to a disruption in the rate of development and affect the order of differentiation in the tissues and organs of fetus. Moreover, drugs can interrupt the blood circulation in the placenta, change the metabolic process between the fetus and the mother, causing a retardation of intrauterine growth or premature labor, or they can be the reason for a falloff in the health of the child in the first years of life.

The influence of drugs on the fetus depends on different factors, such as the term of gestation at which the drug is administered, the dosage, and the length of time that the medicine is taken, as well as the ways that the drug is excreted, the health of the mother and her inherited sensitivity to medicine, and, of course, the properties of the medicine itself. There are many drugs whose influence on the fetus have not yet been examined, as such research is very difficult, expensive, or in many cases simply impossible. If we understand this, we can see that the outlook for scientific interference in God’s creation of human beings is not good.

You may wonder why the wide-spread usage of medication by pregnant women throughout the whole world has not lead to a continuous increase in congenital malformations if it is really this dangerous. Thanks to a happy concourse of circumstances, this process has not become too wide-spread, as there are many factors that allow the fetus to “escape” medical danger. For example, there may be an inherited insensitivity on the part of the fetus to the influence of different medications, the placenta has its own inherent protective function, the medication may be taken in a small dosage, the developmental stage of the fetus may be at a “non-critical” period, plus many other factors. Doubtless, although this has not been proven, is the fact that the mother has a sincere faith in God and believes in God’s protection of her and her child, which has a positive influence on the development of the fetus.

The initial clustering of embryonic cells and the formation of all the fetus’ organs and systems occur in the first trimester of pregnancy. It is particularly in this period that the fetus is very sensitive to the influence of different factors, including different drugs.

It is quite common that the results of the use of some teratogens¹ by pregnant women, which can have fatal effects, can simply go unnoticed in some cases, resulting in the death of the fetus during the first two weeks of development. In this case, the woman does not even know that she is pregnant. Such cases are not rare (according to some researchers, up to 70% of all pregnancies finish in the early death of the fetus).

What should a pregnant woman do if she is ill or feeling unwell? How can she effectively help herself and minimize the risk of any medications on her baby at the same time? It is never a good idea to self-medicate if you are pregnant, particularly in the case of little-known or untested medications. In any case, it is better to consult an experienced doctor or pharmacist. If for some reason this is impossible, please read the prospectus which is to be found with the medicine carefully. Which dangers the medicine can cause are probably mentioned on the prospectus, and it may be written that the drug should not be used if pregnant. If a drug has been used while being unaware of pregnancy (for example, during the first 2 weeks) then immediately consult a specialist about any possible negative effects there might be for the fetus as soon as you found out that your are pregnant. Going to see your doctor early will allow you the necessary time to avoid any dangers and allow you to arrive at a decision about this pregnancy. If the medicine has been prescribed by a doctor then be sure to ask about possible unwanted side effects for the fetus. Don’t hesitate to ask such questions. If it seems to you that your doctor’s attitude to this question is not serious enough (unfortunately, this happens quite often) then consult a competent specialist (a geneticist or a clinical pharmacist).

If you are just planning your pregnancy, then try to predict all the negative factors beforehand. If you have some chronic diseases which may become acute during the pregnancy, or if you have an allergic predisposition or high sensitivity to acute respiratory diseases, then you should consult a doctor. Preventive methods which have been worked out especially for you minimize the risk of the illness and the risk of using drugs that are potentially harmful to the fetus.

During early stages of ontogenesis the fetus has almost no adaptation mechanisms or specific reactions in its response to the influence of pathogenic agents. Only with time will the fetus’ main organs and systems become mature and the functions of the placenta fully form the morphological and functional backgrounds of the response characteristics peculiar to a new-born baby. We usually say that everything happens according to God’s Will but He has created us for a full, vivid, and creative life. And He wants us to understand and be attentive to the miracle that happens during pregnancy.

Note

1. Agents such as drugs, chemicals and infections that can cause birth defects when a mother is exposed to them during pregnancy.