How could this piece of information solve my problems? This little sentence cannot really answer all of life’s possible dilemmas, can it?

I am walking home on the unusually dark street. I am only used to seeing it in the brightness of day, when the flowers are in stark contrast to the shortly trimmed grass and the voices of other kids fill the air with their sweet, bell-like melody. It has been a long, long day at my best friend’s house. We have played hide and seek for hours, we have painted suns with her new water colors. But it is late now and my big brown eyes are almost closing. As always, I do not want to admit that I am tired. It seems shameful and boring. Only old people get tired! To the bouncy, curious 6 year-old that I am, sleep is the ultimate waste of time, especially when constant adventure is waiting around every corner.

It would have probably seemed frightening to see the neighborhood so empty, so suspiciously silent if I had to walk home by myself. My excessively wild imagination would have made me shudder at the thought of all the horrific monsters, dragons, witches and ghosts whispering and quietly planning their evil moves in the darkness. But I am not alone. A strong, tall man is walking next to me, holding my little hand. Dad. He is there to guide me through the summer evening. His presence makes the place seem warm and inviting. The dim lights coming out of the windows of the houses around me appear to soften the atmosphere, making the moment almost dream-like.

I suddenly remember a very important question I wanted to ask him. I have been wondering about it all afternoon but the logic of it seemed to be beyond me. It is undoubtedly an adult matter. I turn up to gaze at his friendly round face and ask with urgency:

“Dad, which side is better, the left or the right? I can’t decide which one is my favorite.”
He smiles from under his black moustache and wisely answers, his green eyes sparkling:
“The left of course. It’s where your heart is.”

Adults have it so easy. They simply have all the answers. Of course the left side is the best one! I nod, completely agreeing and feeling overwhelmed with my father’s undeniable expertise at life. I am also a bit disappointed that I did not reach the conclusion myself. I wish I was like him.
…

From that day on, I had no doubts. Every time I had to choose between turning left or right at an unfamiliar cross roads, I chose left. Every time my best friend wanted me to choose in which of her two clenched fists she had hidden a candy, I chose the left one. I never doubted my dad’s conclusion for a second. Choices, choices… who said they were so difficult?

My father died shortly after that walk. Nobody warned me that my source of endless adult wisdom would abandon me and my beautiful mother so abruptly. I did not manage to ask him even one hundredth of my questions. I could not ask him why boys were so annoying at kindergarten or why my first grade teacher had such an enormous belly. I knew he would have had the explanation. He would have dispersed the fog of my confusion in an instant.

Later, my questions changed but I still wished my dad were there to help me with the riddles. Why were boys even more annoying as I got older? How could I heal my broken heart? The more I grew, the harder the questions became. Why did he have to leave so early? Would he be proud of me? Was I making the right choices? Did I choose the right university? What would he think of my boyfriend? I had the feeling he might not have had all the answers. I was starting to realize that nobody does. But I wanted to ask him all the same.

I had so many questions but so few memories. The more time passed, the less I remembered. I remembered he was so fun, that he would play with me and a balloon in the living room until it was time to go to bed (and even a little longer when my mom wasn’t watching). He liked to fish; it was his passion. He had many friends, and our apartment was always full of smiling, warm people.

With time, however, I started forgetting these memories. I forgot the important details – I no longer remembered his smell, his voice. The most difficult was that I did not have any recollection of his words to me. I craved to know his opinion, to have his advice, to feel him guiding me once again. But the only real memory I had of his wisdom was the short little answer to my silly childish question. The left side was better because my heart was there.

How could this piece of information solve my problems? This little sentence couldn’t really answer all of life’s possible dilemmas, could it? It couldn’t tell me how my father first knew he was in love with my mom. I will never know that. It could’t tell me if he would approve of me studying abroad. Had I wasted my time with my dad on a meaningless, pathetic little discussion …

Forgetful creatures we humans are. If we live abroad long enough we could forget our own language, they say. I’ve also heard that, once vested with too much power, some people forget where they came from. This is a dangerous kind of amnesia. It can, of course, be a good thing – they say forgetting helps you heal faster, helps you deal with loss and pain. This, they say, is the good kind of forgetfulness. In my case, loss and pain did not disappear with time. Only memories.

This stupid human nature tricked me – I suffered the worst kind of amnesia – I was forgetting my father. It felt like I was being unfairly robbed of the little I had left from him. As a teenager, I tried to rebel against this stupid memory loss. I wanted to simply turn off all my thoughts about him, I excluded him from all conversations; I would not say the word ‘dad’ – I just skipped it. But it didn’t help. Late at night, I kept looking at pictures of him from our summer vacations together, hoping a memory would jump at me and help me get to know him better. But it never did.

The only real memory I had left was the silly conversation in the evening street. It was perhaps quite illogical of me but with time, I grew to believe that my precious recollection could, in fact, guide me through life. I chose to make the best of what I had left. My only memory of my father’s words became my life motto. ‘Follow your heart.’ It might sound cliche but I sure did not take it from the movies. It’s true that he never really said that to me. But I believe he meant it. I believe that if he could sit with the already grown-up me tonight for a cup of hot chocolate by the fire, he would tell me exactly that: to follow my heart. His moustache would be gray or even white, but his sparkly green eyes would be the same. He would tell me to follow my heart. After all, he was a wise man, how could he not agree?

This motto helped me finally answer my endless questions. It wasn’t my father doing all the work for me. I had to solve the puzzle myself. I simply followed my heart. I followed my heart when I chose to study law – I wanted to fight for justice. I followed my heart when I chose to go abroad – I wanted to help my inspiring mother have a better life. My heart took me places that were not easy. I had to learn to survive on my own among strangers and build my life from scratch. It was scary and it made me doubt my heart. My human nature had a tendency to betray, and this made me fear, and fear made me weak. But my heart never disappointed me. I stuck with it and it brought me to magical kingdoms filled with love, compassion and friendship. I will follow it again and again, and I will not hesitate. I have learned to trust it, because it knows best. And I know my father would approve. After all, he is also in my heart. He is still holding my hand, guiding me through the darkness with a smile under his moustache. And he would be proud of me.

I don’t really need to know all the answers. Nobody ever does. Some people know too much and yet they are not happy. Plus, where is the thrill of knowing everything? Where is the adventure? I am blessed to have what I have: my family, my friends, my love and my precious memory to show me the way. Supposing I have inherited my father’s wisdom (and I like to think that I did), I should be alright. Don’t worry about me.

An ascetic is steadfast in fulfilling his or her responsibilities, is not defeated by misfortune, and avoids the traps of sin and evil encountered during the journey. With the exception of unbelief and misguidance, an ascetic is pleased with how the Creator decides to treat him or her, seeks to attain God’s pleasure and the eternal abode through the blessings and bounties that He bestows, and directs others to the absolute Truth. In the ear of his or her heart, the Divine announcement is echoed: Say: The enjoyment of this world is short; and the Hereafter is better for him who obeys God’s commandments in fear of Him (4:77). The command: Seek the abode of the Hereafter in that which God has given you, and forget not your portion of the world (28:77) radiates itself through all the cells of his or her brain. The Divine warning: This life of the world is but a pastime and a game, but the home of the Hereafter, that is Life if they but knew (29:64) penetrates his or her innermost senses.

Some have described asceticism as observing the rules of Shari‘a, even in moments of depression and especially during financial difficulties, and living for others or considering their well-being and happiness while enjoying well-being and comfort. Others have defined it as thankfulness for God’s bounties and fulfilling the accompanying obligations, and refraining from hoarding money and goods (except for the intention to serve, exalt, and promote Islam).

Such renowned Sufi leaders as Sufyan al-Thawri regarded asceticism as the action of a heart dedicated to God’s approval and pleasure and closed to worldly ambitions, rather than as being content with simple food and clothes. According to these Sufis, there are three signs of a true ascetic: feeling no joy at worldly things acquired or grief over worldly things missed, feeling no pleasure when praised or displeasure when criticized or blamed, and preferring to serve God over everything else.

Like fear and hope, asceticism is an action of the heart; however, asceticism differs in that it affects one’s acts and is displayed through them. Whether consciously or unconsciously, a true ascetic tries to follow the rules of asceticism in all acts, such as eating and drinking, going to bed and getting up, talking and keeping silent, and remaining in retreat or with people. An ascetic shows no inclination toward worldly attractions. Rumi expresses this in the following apt words:

What is the world? It is heedlessness of God;
Not clothes, nor silver coin, nor children, nor women.
If you have worldly possessions in the name of God,
Then the Messenger said: How fine is the property a righteous man has!
The water in a ship causes it to sink,
While the water under it causes it to float.

Possessing worldly means or wealth is not contrary to asceticism-if the owner can control his or her possessions and is not overpowered by them. Nevertheless, the Glory of Humanity, upon him be peace and blessings, the truest ascetic in all respects, chose to live as the poorest of his people, for he had to set the most excellent example for his community-especially for those charged with spreading the truth. Thus, he would not lead others to think that the sacred mission of Prophethood could be abused to earn worldly advantage.

He also had to follow his predecessors, who proclaimed: My reward is only due from God (10:72; 11:29), and to set an example for those future scholars who would convey his Message. For these and similar other reasons, he led an austere life. How beautiful are the following couplets by Busayri, which express how the Prophet preserved his innocence and indifference, even at the time of absolute need and poverty:

Not to feel hunger, he wound a girdle around his belly
Over the stones pressing upon his blessed stomach.
Huge mountains wishing themselves gold offered themselves to him,
But he-that noble man-remained indifferent to them.
His urgent needs decisively showed his asceticism,
For those needs were not able to impair his innocence.
How could needs have been able to invite to the world the one
But for whom the world would not have come into being out of non-existence?

There are many beautiful sayings on asceticism. The following, with which we conclude this topic, belongs to ‘Ali, the fourth Caliph and cousin of the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings:

The soul weeps in desire of the world despite the fact that
It knows salvation lies in renouncing it and what is in it.
A man will have no abode to dwell in after his death
Except that which he builds before he dies.
Our goods-we hoard them to bequeath to heirs;
Our houses-we build them to be ruined by time.
There are many towns built and then ruined;
Their builders-death has come upon them.
Every soul-even if it somehow fears death,
It cherishes ambitions to strengthen its desire to live.
Man exhibits his ambitions but time obliterates them;
Man’s soul multiplies them but death puts an end to them.

O God! Show us the truth as being true and enable us to follow it. Show us falsehood as being false, and provide us with the means to refrain from it. Amen, O Most Compassionate of the Compassionate.

The universe is just such a painting for us to observe, but it is not less complicated than the Mona Lisa. Innumerable galaxies ornamented by millions of stars and planets, the entire cosmos displays a panorama that can be perceived in two ways: 1) a colossal space filled with darkness of which only a minute portion can be illuminated by the human mind, 2) a work of art by an artist who wants Himself to be known and appreciated through studying His art. The first approach is from the standpoint of our self-ego who wants absolute freedom and who thinks his mind is the one and only guide for encrypting the “codes” of human existence. This approach provides its traveler with a dim torch of light and leads to an end where one sinks into even more darkness than before; each new discovery is doomed to be followed by things that are more complicated.

The second approach relies more on an “authorized guide.” The traveler of this second approach does not deny the human mind but enjoys it as a divine blessing given for his service in order to discover the cosmos. It is not an ultimate reliance on the mind but rather as a means to appreciate life and to choose right from wrong.

God Almighty did not leave us in this complicated universe alone. He simply did not push us into a mysterious cruel life which eventually comes to an end under the soil or in the crematorium. He sent messengers to every people and books to follow. After the Torah, the Psalms, and the Gospels, the Qur’an was sent to the Prophet Muhammad as the final word of God, a guide to follow and to learn the purpose of life. The Lead Article, an abbreviated version of Gulen’s introduction to a new translation of the Qur’an, provides an extensive analysis of this Holy Book of Islam. Buti explores further on the poverty of human mind which cannot perceive the whole picture, but only single portions of it. “Partial knowledge can never convince the mind and appease the soul, except if it comes after having achieved an overall comprehensive knowledge that encompasses the structure of all existence: humanity, universe, life, and the relationship between them.”

Another decoding comes from Omer Ikramoglu. He discusses the accelerated expansion of the universe with a reference to a Qur’anic verse Dhariyat 51:47.

How Muslims see Jesus

All Muslims are required to believe in God’s Prophets and Messengers. As we read in Qur’an 2:136: Say, O Muslims: We believe in God, and the revelation given to us, and to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes; that given to Moses and Jesus; and that given to (all) Prophets from their Lord. We make no difference between them, and we submit to God (in Islam). Qur’an 3:84 and 4:163 convey the same idea.

Muslims believe that 124,000 or 224,000 Prophets have been sent to humanity. The Qur’an mentions 28 of them by name. In this context, it sometimes points out those Prophets who possess a great importance for humanity. One of these is Jesus. His relationship with the Holy Spirit is mentioned specifically, as is what such others as Zechariah and John endured from their communities: We gave Moses the Book and followed him up with a succession of messengers. We gave Jesus son of Mary clear (signs) and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. Is it that whenever a Messenger comes to you with (a message) that you dislike, you become puffed up with pride? You call some imposters and kill others (2:87). This matter is also discussed in 2:253.

His birth, life, and death

Of the few differences between the core beliefs of Islam and Christianity, the nature of Jesus seems to be the most serious one. Below are several Qur’anic passages in full.

Mention Mary in the Book, when she drew aside from her family to an eastern place. She took a veil (to screen herself) from them. We sent Our spirit to her in the form of a well-formed man. She said: I seek refuge in the Beneficent God, if you guard (against evil). He said: I am only a messenger of your Lord. I give to you a pure son. She asked: How can I have a son, as no man has touched me and I have been chaste? He said: Even so. Your Lord says: It is easy for Me, and that We may make him a sign to humanity and a mercy from Us. It is a matter decreed.’ So she conceived him and withdrew to a remote place. The throes (of childbirth) compelled her to go to the trunk of a palm tree. She exclaimed: If only I had died before this and been forgotten! (The child) called out to her from beneath her: Do not grieve, for your Lord has caused a stream to flow beneath you. Shake the trunk of the palm tree, and it will drop fresh ripe dates on you. So eat and drink and refresh the eye. If you see anyone, say: I’ve vowed a fast to the Beneficent God and will speak to nobody today.’ She came to her people with him, carrying him. They said: O Mary, you have done something strange. O sister of Aaron, your father was not a bad man and your mother was not unchaste. But she pointed to him. They asked: How should we speak to a child in the cradle? He (Jesus) replied: I am a servant of God, Who has given me the Book and made me a Prophet. He has made me blessed wherever I may be, has enjoined on me prayer and poor-rate so long as I live, and to be dutiful toward my mother. He has not made me insolent, unblessed. Peace on me on the day I was born, on the day I die, and on the day I am raised to life. Such is Jesus, son of Mary. (This is) the saying of truth about which they dispute. (19:16-36).

And when the angels said: O Mary, God has chosen and purified you, and chosen you above all women. O Mary, obey your Lord, humble yourself, and bow down with those who bow. This news concerns matters of the Unseen that We reveal to you (O Muhammad). You were not with them when they cast pens (to decide) which one would be responsible for Mary, nor were you there when they argued among themselves. When the angels said: O Mary, God gives you good news with a Word from Him (of one) whose name is the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, worthy of regard in this world and the hereafter and of those made near (to God). He shall speak to the people while in the cradle and when of old age, and (shall be) one of the good ones. She exclaimed: My Lord! No man has touched me, so how will I give birth to a son? He said: Even so, God creates what He pleases. When He has decreed a matter, He only says to it, be’ and it is. He will teach him the Book, the wisdom, the Torah, and the Gospels. (He will make him) an apostle to the Children of Israel. (Jesus will tell them:) I have come to you with a sign from your Lord. Out of dust I make for you a figure in the form of a bird. I breathe into it and, by God’s Will it becomes a bird. I heal the blind and the leprous, and bring the dead to life with God Will. I inform you of what you should eat and what you should store in your houses. There is a sign in this for you, if you are believers. I verify that which is before me of the Torah and allow you part of that which has been forbidden to you. I have come to you with a sign from your Lord, so be careful of (your duty to) God and obey me. God is my Lord and your Lord, so serve Him. This is the right path. But when Jesus perceived their unbelief, he asked: Who will help me in God’s way? The disciples said: We are helpers (in the way) of God. We believe in God and bear witness that we submit. Our Lord, we believe in what You have revealed and follow the apostle, so write us among those who bear witness. They planned and God planned, and God is the best planner. When God said: O Jesus, I am going to terminate the period of your stay (on Earth), cause you to ascend to Me, purify you of those who disbelieve, and make those who follow you victorious over those who do not believe until the Day of Resurrection. You will return to Me, and I will decide between you concerning that in which you differed. As for the non-believers, I will chastise them severely in this world and the hereafter, and they shall have no helpers. As for those who believe and do good deeds, He will pay them fully their rewards. God does not love the unjust. We recite this to you (O Muhammad) of the communications and the wise reminder. The likeness of Jesus with God is as the likeness of Adam. He created him from dust and then said Be’ and he was. (This is) the truth from your Lord, so be not of the disputers. But whoever disputes with you in this matter after what has come to you of knowledge, say: Let’s call our sons and your sons, our women and your women, and our near people and your near people, and pray earnestly that God curse the liars. This is the true explanation, and there is no god but God. Most surely God is Mighty, Wise (3:42-62).

Because they broke their covenant, rejected God’s communications, wrongfully killed the Prophets, and said: Our hearts are covered, God set a seal upon them owing to their unbelief. Only a few will believe. And for their unbelief and slandering Mary. And their saying: We killed the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, the Apostle of God. But they neither killed or crucified him, but it appeared to them (that they had done so). Those who differ therein are only in a doubt about it. They have no knowledge about it but only follow a conjecture. They did not kill him, for God raised him to Himself. God is Mighty, Wise. (4:155-58)

Jesus’ true nature

The following verses show that the Bible and the Qur’an use similar terms when describing Jesus: son of Mary, the Messiah, an apostle of Allah (in which it differs from Christianity), His Word which He communicated to Mary, a spirit from Him, and a mercy from Him. For example: Mary the daughter of Imran, who guarded her chastity. We breathed into (her) of Our Spirit, and she testified to the truth of her Lord’s Words and His Revelations and was one of the devout (servants) (66:12). Here are God’s tidings to Mary about her son: Behold! The angels said: O Mary, God gives you glad tidings of a Word from Him. His name will be the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary (3:45).

In the following verses, God tells Jesus about himself and his mission: I [Jesus] have come to you [the Children of Israel] with a sign from your Lord. Out of dust I make for you a figure in the form of a bird. I breathe into it and, by God’s Will, it becomes a bird. I heal the blind and the leprous, and bring the dead to life with God Will. I inform you of what you should eat and what you should store in your houses. There is a sign in this for you, if you are believers (3:48-49). See also 5:110. Significantly, the miracles of his forming a bird-like figure from dust and its coming to life by God’s Will, as well as telling people what they have in their houses, are not mentioned in the Bible. In 61:6, we also read: And remember, Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Children of Israel, I am God’s Messenger (sent) to you, confirming the Torah (Law) (that came) before me. I give glad tidings of a Messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad. But when he came to them with clear signs, they said: This is clear sorcery!’ See also 5:46 and 43:63.

The following verse is also remarkable: The likeness of Jesus with God is as the likeness of Adam. He created him from dust and then said Be and he was (3:59). And lastly we have the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary is only an apostle of God and His Word that He communicated to Mary and a spirit from Him(4:171).

His resurrection

Muslims also are waiting for Jesus to return to the world. Many sayings of the Prophet indicate that Jesus must return as a king to this world before the Last Day can come. The following verse can be considered in this context: (Jesus) shall be a sign (for the coming of) the Hour (of Judgment). So have no doubt about the (Hour), but follow Me. This is a Straight Way (43:61). Another one, mentioned earlier, mentions his coming implicitly: You spoke to the people in childhood and in maturity (5:110). His speaking in both childhood and maturity is generally interpreted as in his first and second visit to this world. And lastly: Peace on me on the day I was born, on the day I die, and on the day I am raised to life (19:35). 

Conclusion

In the two parts of this article, I have presented Islam’s fundamental approach to Christianity. This should be considered the main approach, as all claims are stated parallel to Qur’anic verses. Based on my studies of comparative religion, I conclude that the Qur’an and the Bible have many parallel concepts.

How do we answer the following valid questions: What does the Qur’an offer? Can Islam and Christianity be combined to defeat unbelief and our current social problems? I do not mean that these two religions should be mixed, as has happened in the past, but that we should accept their common principles. In other words, we should use their combined power to oppose enmity, intolerance, and the lack of dialogue, love, and hope in our personal lives and society; the crushing of civilizations and the effects of materialism on our communities, religions, cultures, and young people; and the lack of faith, immorality, and other social problems.

The Qur’an suggests several things to Muslims and Christians. For example, it tells the Muslims: Do not dispute with the People of the Book except by what is best, except for those who act unjustly, and say: We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you, our God and your God is One, and we submit to Him (29:46); Those to whom We have given the Book rejoice in what has been revealed to you. Some confederates deny part of it. Say: I am only commanded to serve God and not associate anything with Him. I invite (you) to Him, and to Him is my return (13:36); and: If they dispute with you, say: I have submitted myself entirely to God and (so has) everyone who follows me. Ask those who have been given the Book and the unlearned people: Do you submit yourselves? If they submit, they are following the right way, If they turn back, you are responsible only for delivering the message. God sees the servants (3:20).

The Qur’an expects the Christians to accept Muhammad’s messengership and the Qur’an. This does not mean that they must convert to Islam, for all that is required is acceptance, just as Muslims accept Jesus and the Book given to him. For example: O People of the Book, do not exceed the limits in your religion or speak (lies) against God. Rather, (speak) the truth. The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, is only God’s apostle and His Word that He communicated to Mary and a Spirit from Him. So believe in God and His apostles. Do not say three, but desist, for that is better for you. God is only one God. Far be it from His Glory to have a son. Whatever is in the heavens and in Earth is His. God is sufficient for a Protector (4:171). See also 19:35-36.

The next verse talks to those who believe in the previous Books: O believers, be careful of (your duty to) God and believe in His Apostle. He will give you two portions of His mercy, make for you a light with which you will walk, and forgive you. God is Forgiving, Merciful (57:28). We can read two portions of His mercy as being a reward for both of the Prophets that they follow.

Other verses ask and require them to reconsider the signs in their Books: O People of the Book, why don’t you believe in the communications of God while you witness (them)? (3:70) and: Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own (scriptures), the Law (Torah) and the Gospels, for He commands them (to do) what is just and forbids them (to do) what is evil. He allows them to do what is good (and pure) and prohibits them from what is bad (and impure). He releases them from their heavy burdens and the yokes that are upon them. These are the people who believe in him, honor him, help him, and follow the Light sent down with him. They will prosper (7:157).

The Qur’an makes two more offers to the People of the Book. The following verse is probably the last offer, if the ones mentioned above were rejected: Say: O People of the Book, come to an equitable proposition between us and you that we will serve only God and will associate nothing with Him, and (that) some of us will not take others for lords besides God. If they turn back, say: Bear witness that we are Muslims’ (3:64). In this ultimate offer, no Prophets are mentioned. Since everything is secondary when compared to belief in God, the Qur’an shows its flexibility in all matters except serving only God, associating nothing or no one with him, and not setting up lords besides Him.

Another original offer is to establish dialogue by cooperating or gathering around Abraham’s religion: Who has a better religion than he who submits himself entirely to God? He is the doer of good (to others) and follows the faith of Abraham, the upright one, whom God took as a friend (4:125). 

Suggested Reading List

• Gulen, M. Fethullah. Prophet Muhammad: Aspects of his Life, The Fountain, 2000. Gulen’s Essentials of the Islamic Faith is also a good source of related information.
• Hasan, Ahmad (trans.). Sunan Abu Dawud, book 36 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).
• Khan, M. Muhsin (trans.). Sahih Bukhari, books 55 and 56 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).
• Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. Risale-i Nur Collection: The Letters. The Nineteenth Letter: Sixteenth Sign. Konak-Izmir, Turkey: Kaynak AS, 1998. (Online at www.nur.org or www.risale-inur.com). Related topics are discussed throughout the entire collection.
• Siddiqui, Abdul Hamid (trans.). Sahih Muslim, books 30, 31, and 41 (Online at www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah).

For Muslims, it is now the Hajj season, a grand reflection of humanity’s unity and devotion to their Creator. Although countless authors have analyzed it, one point stands out: Hagar, a wife of Prophet Abraham and left by him in the desert with her infant son, ran between the hills of Safa and Marwah to find water. Muslims would be well advised to remember this as they jog between these two hills, as the Qur’an tells us to improve our lot through work, not through talking and complaining.

This is also a time of great importance for all Fountain staff members, for it is our tenth-year anniversary! As we launch into our eleventh year, we pledge to continue our mission: to work for interfaith dialogue, encourage individual and civilizational tolerance, and show the relevance of religious values and belief to modern life. Along with your continued active support and trust, which has helped us reach this milestone, we know that the Fountain’s articles will continue to improve and reach an ever-larger audience with its message that ‘yes, all of us really can live in peace if we treat each other with respect and dignity.’

In this issue, in honor of International Women’s Day, our feature article discusses how the monotheistic religions’ legal codes traditionally viewed women. The author provides a detailed study based upon a close reading of the Torah, the Bible, and the Qur’an. What he found might surprise you.

We also present several scientific articles on defining intelligence, attempts to formulate a ‘theory of everything,’ and how modern scientific discoveries are providing proof of God’s Existence. In the interest of sparking discussion, we offer articles on Christianity, Islam in the eyes of non-Muslims, an imaginary dialogue on democracy, and what could happen if human consciousness were transplanted. We also have our regular spiritual articles and one on a Chinese Muslim admiral who, before Columbus, led naval expeditions that dwarfed those of the later European explorers.

As technology makes physical distance ever more irrelevant and allows more people to travel, we need to understand that we also must globalize our minds and worldviews in order to contribute to humanity’s and society’s betterment on an ever-larger scale. The Qur’an tells us to plant a tree even on the Last Day. Just like Hagar in the desert, we must act instead of complain.

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Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattentiveness, impulsivity, and excessive activity (DSM IV; American Psychiatric Association 1994), and has a prevalence rate of 3 percent to 5 percent (Pelham, Wheeler, and Chronis 1998). Children with ADHD also have a high risk of experiencing academic (Henker and Whalen 1989) and social problems in school (Landau and Milich 1988).

ADHD is one of the most prominent expressions used in schools to describe children who do not stay put,” meaning that they have too much energy and excitement during class and recess time. Although these observations could be the results of teacher or staff misperceptions, they also may be symptoms of ADHD, childhood depression, or consequences of an unstructured environment. In most cases, behavior that differs from peers is a combination of the above factors.

However, sometimes we have to identify those with ADHD to serve them appropriately via proper individualized programs and possibly medicine. Longitudinal studies suggest that such children are likely to experience problems related to social functioning at an early age and throughout adolescence and into adulthood (Weiss and Hechtman 1986). These problems can be seen in various situations (e.g., home, school, community), across people (e.g., parents, siblings, teachers, peers) and activities (e.g., academic work, play, recreation) (Carey 1996).

For example, Fischer et al. (1993) studied the behavioral ratings of 108 children meeting research diagnostic criteria for hyperactivity, as well as a control sample of 61 children. They ranged in age of 4 to 12, and were followed over 8 years into adolescence and young adulthood. Those diagnosed as hyperactive remained more deviant in the ratings than the control children during follow-up observations. A decline in deviant behavior was observed for individual children, although the end results were still more deviant than those of the control children.

Hansen, Weiss, and Last’s (1999) more recent longitudinal study produced some encouraging results. This study compared the psychosocial functioning in 18 young adult men who had been diagnosed with ADHD 10 years ago. Their average age at the time of follow-up was 21. The researchers matched their subjects with 18 male controls who had never had any kind of psychiatric illness.

Through the use of interviews to assess subjects’ educational, occupational, residential and marital status, as well as use of mental health services and psychological status (experience of depression, anxiety, drugs and alcohol problems), they discovered that young adults with ADHD were significantly more likely than control subjects to be using mental health services, report psychological problems, and have fathered children. School dropout rates were higher for subjects with ADHD; however, they were likely to attain a graduate equivalency diploma. Men with ADHD had higher rates of trouble with the law; however, they did not differ significantly from controls in terms of current legal problems.

This study gives hope for the future of young adults with ADHD, as they appear to have overcome the various educational and legal difficulties experienced during high school. In the area of psychological functioning, results are consistent with the findings of other longitudinal studies. In general, though, the above studies indicate that we should expect the children with ADHD to continue to have problems in the social domain, since they remained at a disadvantaged state in psychological functioning and still rated behaviorally as being deviant after 8 and 10 years.

Peer relationships

The longitudinal study of Cowen et al. (1973) demonstrates the link between early peer problems and later maladjustment. In this study, children were asked to nominate their peers according to both positive and negative qualifications. Negative nominations of third-grade class peers were found to be the best predictor of psychiatric problems when a follow-up was conducted when the children were 11 to 13 years old. This result indicates the seriousness and consistency of problems experienced in peer relationships as early as 9 years of age.

In addition, peer rejection has been found to correlate with premature dropping out of school, juvenile delinquency, job termination, poor military performance, police contact, and psychiatric hospitalization (Parker and Asher 1987).

However, the difference between correlation and causation needs to be considered when interpreting these studies. In their chapter of Assessment of Children’s Social Status and Peer Relations (1990), Landau and Milich emphasize that linkages found between peer rejection and later difficulties are correlational, and not causal.

Generalization of social skills training programs

There are many social skills training programs designed to increase peer acceptance. Some of the most common are ACCEPTS (not an acronym), ACCESS (not an acronym), Skillstreaming, Think Aloud, ASSET (not an acronym), RECESS (Reprogramming Environmental Contingencies for Effective Social Skills), and PEERS (Procedures for Establishing Effective Peer Relationship Skills) (DuPaul and Eckert 1994). Although these programs are taught as solutions to peer relationship problems, teaching children in isolation and then expecting them to perform successfully in real life is usually not a successful strategy.

DuPaul and Eckert reviewed the literature and found a total of only seven studies that had used commercially available social skills training programs that considered generalizing skills to real-life situations. To assess the generalization over time, those seven studies did follow up assessments 1 to 3 months after treatment ended. The authors concluded this period too brief to be able to assert that intervention is generalized. They stress the effects of treatment being more prominent in those studies using multiple strategies to promote generalization. Among those strategies, teaching social skills within a real environment seemed to be the most fruitful one.

The generalization issues of social skills trainings also are discussed by Carey and Stoner (1994). They suggest considering a technology of applied behavioral analysis and application of strategies to ensure the maintenance of newly learned behaviors reinforced by natural contingencies In this context, applied behavioral analysis is defined as studying what happens in the environment before, during, and after the problematic behaviors’ occurrence, and then rearranging the environmental factors to promote the desired behaviors and suppress the problematic behaviors.

Another similar discussion is found in Moore (1994). She argues that behaviors which are not functional for the child, will not generalize. The behavior’s functionality is defined as how much the behaviors are linked to socially meaningful outcomes or elicit natural reinforcements from the environment. She further states that an increase in social interaction and eliminating negative behaviors do not ensure peer acceptance. Instead, documenting concomitant increases in positive, reinforcing, pro-social behaviors, which have been linked to peer acceptance, popularity, and friendship, was suggested. She also mentions the importance of designing interventions for particular children in particular settings, rather than using a one-size-fits-all program.

Most recently Sheridan, Hungelmann, and Maughan (1999) explained the contextualized framework for the purpose of linking assessment to intervention and generalization planning. They state that identifying target behaviors that are critical for a child to socialize successfully is poorly understood. In other words, behaviors that predict positive social status in immediate social context are unclear, although clinicians and researchers often assume that the skills being taught in structured settings are those that are relevant in places and at times that extend beyond training. However, little empirical research has been done on whether these skills are actually important for children’s abilities to develop and maintain social relationships (Sheridan et al. 1999).

According to Sheridan et al., two methods can be used to select meaningful target skills. The first one is to normatively compare the target child with children considered socially adjusted. This involves listing the behaviors believed to increase peer acceptance and decrease rejection, and comparing the rating of each child in the peer group. This social comparison method allows researchers to determine whether the child’s behavior following intervention is similar to the peers’ behavior.

The second method is template matching, or identifying relevant and meaningful social behaviors based on input from significant others and peers by asking them to identify the most important behaviors for them in a particular social context. Sheridan et al. emphasize doing direct observations of socially desirable behaviors, recording the narrative descriptions, and then collecting them from the social recipients. Then the intervention would focus on decreasing the discrepancy between the template and the target child’s behaviors, utilizing the qualities listed in the template as the intervention’s objectives.

What are the social dynamics?

Hymel (1986) demonstrated that children interpret identical actions in different ways, depending on their liking of the actor. They tend to credit liked peers for positive behavior, and make excuses rather than blame them for negative behavior. Moreover, for children who are disliked, positive behavior is perceived as a result of unstable causes that are unlikely to recur. Children were found to be not so eager to change their perceptions of disliked peers or to expect more positive behaviors from them in the future when they notice behavioral improvements.

In 1949, 24 boys from similar backgrounds were brought to an isolated site to test two hypotheses:

1. When individuals having no established relationships are brought together to interact in group activities with common goals, they produce a group structure with hierarchical statuses and roles.

2. If those artificially formed groups are brought into a functional relationship under conditions of competition and group frustration, reciprocal hostile attitudes and actions will arise across groups.

The results obtained through direct observations of the children’s behavior confirmed those two hypotheses. The study was replicated later with the addition of a new component. Superordinate goals that could be accomplished only by the cooperation of both groups were induced to reduce inter-group tension and integrate the two hostile groups. Sheriff and Harvey reduced the inter-group tension and formed a new group by integrating the two groups back together by creating a problem that would affect both of them negatively.

Conclusion

The above-mentioned empirical studies calls for a reconsideration of the issue, and possibly the addition of new conditions: Children with ADHD are likely to be rejected by their peers and therefore will drop out of school and will be in trouble with law, unless more effective programs specializing in manipulating social dynamics are developed, along with equipping children with ADHD with the necessary social behaviors by using direct instruction and guided practice.

References

• Achenbach, T. M. Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: Univ. of Vermont: 1991.
• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
• Bloom, M., J. Fischer, and J. G. Orme. Evaluating Practice: Guidelines for the Accountable Professional. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1999
• Carey, S. P. and G. Stoner. Contextual Considerations in Social Skills Instruction. School Psychology Quarterly 9 (1994): 137-41.
• Carey, J. P. Training Parents To Arrange and Monitor Peer Social Activities for Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of Oregon, 1996.
• Cowen, E. et al. Long-term Follow-up of Early Detected Vulnerable Children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 41 (1973): 438-46.
• DuPaul, G. J. and T. L. Eckert. The Effects of Social Skills Curricula: Now You See Them, Now You Don’t. School Psychology Quarterly 9 (1994): 113-32.
• Fischer, M. et al. The Stability of Dimensions of Behavior in ADHD and Normal Children over an
• 8-year Follow-up. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 21, no. 3 (1993): 315-37.
• Hansen, C., D. Weiss, and C. G. Last. ADHD Boys in Young Adulthood: Psychosocial Adjustment. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38:2 (1999): 165-71.
• Henker, B. and C. K. Whalen. Hyperactivity and Attention Deficits. American Psychologist 44 (1989): 216-23.
• Hook, C. L. and G. J. DuPaul. Parent Tutoring for Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Effects on Reading Performance at Home and School. School Psychology Review 28, no. 1 (1999): 60-75.
• Hymel, S. Interpretations of Peer Behavior: Affective Bias in Childhood and Adolescents. Child Development 57 (1986): 431-45.
• Landau, S. and R. Milich. Social Communication Patterns of Attention-deficit Disordered Boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 16 (1988): 69-81.
• Assessment of Children’s Social Status and Peer Relations. In Through the Eyes of the Child, edited by A. M. La Greca. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 1990, 259-91.
• Moore, Lisa A. The Effects of Social Skills Curricula: Were They Apparent Initially? School Psychology Quarterly (1994): 9.
• Parker, J. G. and Asher, S. R. Peer Relations and Later Personal Development: Are Low Accepted Children At Risk? Psychological Bulletin 102 (1987): 357-89.
• Pelham, W. E. Jr., T. Wheeler, and A. Chronis. Empirically Supported Psychosocial Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, no. 2 (1998): 190-205.
• Sheridan, S. M., A. Hungelmann, and D. P. Maughan A Contextualized Framework for Social Skills Assessment, Intervention, and Generalization. School Psychology Review 28, no. 1 (1999): 84-103.
• Sheriff, Muzafer and O. J. Harvey. Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman, OK: Institute of Group Relations, 1961.
• Weiss, G. and L. Hechtman. Hyperactive Children Grown Up. New York: Guilford Press: 1986.
• White, Karen J., K. Jones, and Michelle D. Sherman. Reputation Information and Teacher Feedback: Their Influences on Children’s Perceptions of Behavior Problem Peers. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 17, no. 1 (1998): 11-37.