Athlete’s foot is a frequent infection that millions of people suffer from annually. I once had it during my military service where we had to wear boots almost an entire day. Once during a noon intercession, I performed my ablutions to pray and I placed my feet under the sunlight to dry them. I was also hoping that ultraviolet rays from the sun would be good for the infection. Soon, flies swarmed in between my toes. When I could not bear the excessive itching, I tried to kill the flies until I was stopped by a friend who reminded me of the great sage Bediuzzaman’s comments where he called flies “cleaning workers.” At that time, I also remembered Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) words on flies. So, I patiently endured the nuisance, and repeated the same procedure for the next three or four days. Eventually, my feet were healed and there was no trace of the fungi.

In one of his very interesting hadiths, the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, is reported to have said the following about flies: “If a fly falls into your drink, dip it into your drink, then throw it away, for on one of its wings is a disease, and on the other is a cure. It dips the wing with the disease to protect itself” [1]. This hadith has been a reason for much controversy mainly due to germ disease theory.  According to Jonathan C. Brown, “even before modern medicine, the Hadith of the Fly was raising skeptical eyebrows and prompting Sunni defensiveness as early as the writings of Ibn Qutayba (d. 276/889)” [2]. Brown also mentions that this hadith “could be false or it could be true, since scientists used the flesh of a snake to help prepare antidotes to its poison” [3].

Before the microscope was invented it was impossible to define microbes or talk about the anatomy or microbiology of flies as we can today. However, the introduction of experimentation and observation as an important scientific method with the Renaissance served as a turning point in Western scientific revolution. Thus, the “proof-based medicine” conception that relies on experimentation and observation emerged as a precursor to today’s medicinal and scientific research. The importance of perceptions that rely on causes relating to the material world in persuading the human mind cannot be denied. It is harder to make people believe in something unless they are provided with concrete results that appeal to our five senses. We should not rush to deny any claim solely based upon our preconceptions and prior knowledge without doing any research about it; rather, we should pass our judgment on it after experimentation and observation.

Some people may automatically reject the idea that when a fly falls in our food or drink that we should immerse this microbe-carrying insect completely and they may say that this would not eliminate the microbes. Indeed, it may sound reasonable to assume that this disgusting insect that feeds on all sorts of dirt would cause only diseases. If you have an ample supply of food or water and if you do not have the stomach for it, you can of course refrain from eating or drinking such a food or drink. But, you can hardly advise someone who has very little water or food in a desert or at the time of famine to throw away what they have because of a fly.

We should examine different types of flies in laboratory settings using the method of experimentation and observation. First of all, it is very difficult to prove that someone can contract an illness from eating food in which a fly had fallen into although he or she had immersed that fly completely in that food. If it is proven that someone becomes ill due to a fly’s alighting in their food, then strong objections can be raised. If it is said that there many diseases caused by flies, no one will deny it. The point is not whether flies carry germs, but whether this advice for being protected from the germs carried by flies is correct or not. As a matter of fact, the advice by the Prophet seeks to protect us from diseases that may be caused by germs carried by flies. The great scholar Bediuzzaman’s words on flies also give us an alternative perspective to consider about these “tiny birds”:

“…Flies are dutiful about cleaning away noxious substances or germs that cause disease. By sucking up and absorbing harmful germs, they destroy them, and they cause noxious or poisonous substances to change into other harmless forms, thus preventing the spread of many contagious diseases. A sign that they are both laborers for health and cleansing operatives and chemists, serving many instances of wisdom, is the fact that they exist in extremely great numbers. For the things that are valuable and beneficial are multiplied.” [4]

The hadith of the Prophet and Bediuzzaman’s commentary encourage us to explore more about flies and whether they can be a source of healing in any way.

Flies are very ubiquitous on earth. There are approximately 125,000 species of flies, but only ten species live in our homes and are of concern to us. They feed on garbage and organic waste materials that act as a breeding ground for microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The female fly lays down more than 100 eggs in the dung of some animals or in garbage. After one day, the larva emerges to feed on the surrounding organic materials. In two weeks, they become full-grown flies. In four generations, one female fly can lay 1.5 million eggs, but fortunately the majority die due to weather circumstances or become food for birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other insects. A fly can live for 60 days at most.

Given the ecological balance in nature, one comes to accept that there should be species that will remove all sorts of organic waste, garbage, dead animals or plants, and similar things by eating them. Houseflies feed on the rotting corpses of animals while female horseflies suck blood. How can flies, which act as health workers that are charged with the duty of cleaning the world, digest so many diverse amounts of garbage and waste?

Flies get their nourishment differently from other animals. What other animals do for digestion is done by flies outside their bodies. They do not have teeth-like structures in their mouths in order to chew solid, dry food and therefore have to turn such food into liquid form or split it into 0.45-mm or smaller pieces. In this liquid form, flies can easily suck up their food using their suitably shaped mouths. To do this, flies vomit a saliva-like liquid, containing enzymes and acids, and that disintegrates the solid food into something that can easily be digested in a couple of seconds. In this process, some of the microbes in that waste food can be disintegrated while the rest will be sent to the stomach.

These foods and microbes taken inside in the form of vomit are sent to a sac called a “crop” if they are not small enough to go through the digestive tract. Flies produce fresh saliva regularly during which the vomit moves between their mouths and crops. Eventually, the sufficiently liquefied food is sent to the stomach which contains enzymes and acidic content as well as partially disintegrated microorganisms.

What does scientific research tell us?

Based on the theory that flies must have remarkable antimicrobial defenses and resistance to survive the bacteria from rotting dung, meat, and fruit, a team at the department of biological sciences at Macquarie University in Australia set out to identify those antibacterial properties.

“Our research is a small part of a global research effort for new antibiotics, but we are looking where we believe no one has looked before,” said Joanne Clarke, who presented the group’s findings at the Australian Society for Microbiology Conference in Melbourne.

Clarke’s research showed that flies produce their own antibiotics, and this was tested on four different fly species. Such research may lead to better treatments for human infections from Escherichia coli and other virulent bacteria even, perhaps, Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).

Upon preliminary results, a global pharmaceutical company decided to support the research over the next six months by trying to isolate antibiotic compounds from the material collected from the flies. The research team is trying to identify the specific antibacterial compounds. As antibiotics that will eventually be invented and chemically synthesized come from the body surface of flies, not from other fungi or bacteria, it is believed that any gene that gives resistance to microbes will not be easily transferred to pathogens and the new antibiotic form will have longer and more effective treatment duration [5].

Later, Russian doctors had developed interest in this topic and observed that flies contain many substances that can be more effective than traditional medications and certain fly larvae have very strong therapeutic effects [6].

Noting that flies should be kept away from hospitals, Professor Juan Alvarez Bravo at the University of Tokyo expressed his support for such research, saying, “But soon we will witness a rapid treatment for many diseases, which consists of extracts from flies” [7].

Some researchers at Auburn University of the United States discovered a protein in the fly’s saliva which can accelerate the lengthy process of healing wounds and chronic skin cracking. Entomologists Ed and Mary Cupp managed to isolate the protein which houseflies inject into their prey to increase blood flow in the skin of their prey. Mary Cupp and surgeon Steven Swaim demonstrated that surgical incisions, skin ulceration, and diabetic foot lesions treated with solutions that combine antibiotics and this protein heal faster and stronger than incisions treated with antibiotics alone [8, 9].

In another study, it was found that epithelial cells forming the inner layers of the front and back intestines of the fly protect it from the bacteria it swallows thanks to a special cuticular lining, and in this way, bacteria never directly touch the intestinal epithelium and cannot give any damage to it. In this study, it was noted that people nurtured a radical approach to flies and that fly control has been abused for the sake of human health, suggesting that flies may be the source of novel germicides that make use of their antimicrobial digestive enzymes, lysozyme, and antimicrobial peptides [10].

Viruses cause many diseases in cattle, sheep, and birds. These diseases include encephalitis, aphthous fever (foot and mouth diseases), and duck plague which can be transferred to people through infected animals. Some crops such as potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, and sugarcane can also be destroyed by viral infections.

Flies carry the viruses of many diseases which are consequently transferred to man’s food, drink, and body. Of these viral diseases are common flu, measles, mumps, chickenpox, warts, yellow fever, infectious liver diseases, some cases of paralysis, some types of cancer, and some chronic diseases of the central nervous system.

El-Naggar, Zaghloul, from Egypt, indicates that some of the disease-causing viruses may directly infect living beings and cause damage to their cells, while there is a type of virus which infects bacteria cells known as “bacteriophage.” These viruses, which can kill the bacteria they infect in a short time, are known as “virulent bacteriophage.” Those viruses that do not kill the bacteria they infect are called “temperate bacteriophage” [11].

After a bacteriophage infects a bacterium, more than 100 viruses are released from that bacterium and each of these viruses can infect new bacteria. The spreading of infection may continue until all vulnerable bacteria cells die. After it was discovered that bacteriophages are parasites of bacteria, they started to be used in treating the diseases caused by bacteria. However, their use in this manner declined after the discovery of antibiotics. Yet, the interest in phage treatment was revived after the emergence of bacterial resistance to antibiotics [12].

Researchers from Stanford University announced that they found a substance in flies that can improve the human immune system [13].

The work by Rehab Mohammed Atta from the Microbiology and Immunology Department, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt, is quite remarkable [14]. In this research, the extracts taken separately from the left and right wings of flies were used against the bacteria and fungi calculated on nutrient “agar” media in the laboratory. It was demonstrated there was both bacterial and fungal growth for the left wing extract plates while no bacterial or fungal growth was reported for the right ones.

Given the fact that the garbage and rotting corpses on which flies feed from contain numerous dangerous bacteria, it is quite reasonable that it contains antibacterial materials necessary for its survival. In this case, the fly’s needs might be of service as sources of antibiotics that can prevent epidemics among human beings, and this may be the reason why they were created in the first place: not to be a source of nuisance but a source of healing for us.

Aj-Taili, et al., from the department of medical microbiology, Qassim University in Saudi Arabia, conducted an experiment using water, honey, and various fruit juices in different cups. They found no germ in the solution in which the whole body of fly was immersed while the solution in which only one wing of the fly was dipped indicated the presence of germs [15].

In sum, we can say that antibacterial materials produced in the bodies of flies protect them against the microbes in their environments and that these microbes can prevent epidemics among human beings. At the very least, this topic deserves in-depth research. Atta’s study confirms the virtue of the hadith that says, “The best way to release this vital antidote is to dip the fly in a liquid because these substances are concentrated on the outer surface of the fly body and wing.” Abduldaem al-Kaheel refers to this study in his website: “This is logical because the fly has a lot of harmful bacteria on the outside of her body and therefore in order to continue in her life, it should also carry anti-bacterial materials; these materials were furnished by God to protect it from viruses and diseases.” In the light of these studies, the need for conducting more research for obtaining antibiotics from the right wing of the fly is clear [16].

References

1. Abu Dawud, At’imah, 49. Also see Bukhari, Tib, 57, Bed’u al-Khalk 17; Ibn Majah, Tib, 31, Nasa’i, Far’, 11.
2. Brown, Jonathan A. C. 2009. Hadith: Muhammad’s Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World, p. 264.
3. Ibid. p. 255.
4. Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2008. The Gleams. The Light, Inc. p. 376.
5. Danny Kingsley, ABC Science Online, 1 October 2002, The new buzz on antibiotics. Clarke, J., Gillings, M. and Beattie, A. (2002). Hypothesis-driven drug discovery. Microbiology Australia, pp. 8–10.
6. Petersburg State University, (2006). The fly effect: Russian Scientists Invent new medicine with the help of flies.
7. Bravo, J. A. (1994). The ointment in the fly: antibiotics. New antibiotic derived from a common fly. The Economist (US).
8. Ed and Mary Cupp (2005). Protein in Fly Saliva Speeds Healing of Incisions Wounds. Auburn University. R Am Ex Ars Medica, Inc., 7:23.
9. Protein in Fly Saliva Speeds Healing of Incisions, Wounds 20-Jan-2005. www.newswise.com/articles/protein-in-fly-saliva-speeds-healing-of-incisions-wounds
10. Nayduch, D. and Burrus, R.G. (2017). Flourishing in Filth: House Fly–Microbe Interactions Across Life History. Special Collection: Filth Fly–Microbe Interactions. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 2017, Vol. 110, No. 1.
11. El-Naggar, Zaghloul, (2010). Housefly Falls into One’s Drink! 09 September 2010. www.quranandscience.com/quran-science/sunnah-science/204-housefly-falls-into-ones-drink-274
12. Aydogan, D.Y., Hadimli, H.H. (2016). Bakteriyofaj Tedavisi (Bacteriophage Treatment), Etlik Vet. Mikrobiyol. Derg.; 27 (1): 38–47.
13. Stanford University Medical Center, 2007. Fruit Fly Insight Could Lead to New Vaccines. Science Daily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/03/070308220904.htm
14. Atta, R. M. (2014): Microbiological Studies on Fly Wings (Musca domestica) Where Disease and Treat. World Journal of Medical Sciences 11 (4): 486–489.
15. Aj-Taili, S.I., A.A.R. Al-Misnid and K.D. Al-Uteybi, (2002). Wing One and the Other Disease Carrying the Cure. Qassim University. Danny Kingsley.
16. Abduldaem al-Kaheel, 1995. New facts: fly have a cure, www.kaheel7.com/eng.

Think of yourself as a desert ant. You leave your nest to search for food early in the morning in the deserts of Tunisia, except you do not know where to find food. You, therefore, walk randomly in the desert in a circuitous outward path from your nest until you find food. If you would find food, how do you get it back to your home? How do you go back without having left for yourself any traces or signs in the wasteland, without knowing where you located, and most importantly, without ending up stranded in the scorching heat of the desert? Could you accomplish coming back each day with food? Well, desert ants can.

To find out how ants can do this, scientists observed their behavior, and surprisingly they have found that ants did not follow back on the same trail they randomly took after they left their nests. Instead, ants took a direct route as if they already knew where the nest exactly located. How do these ants find the closest way and shortest distance to their nest from their current locations? Former studies had found that red and forest ants secrete a chemical substance to mark their paths. They leave a trail of chemical scents or visual traces behind them—like leaving a trail of breadcrumbs to help you find your way home. However, the structure of desert sands and conditions are not consonant with containing chemicals that will carry an odor or leave visual cues. Even if such markings have made, it is hard to guarantee that they will remain intact long enough considering the harsh conditions of the desert. As in Hansel and Gretel fairy tale kids who could not return home for the breadcrumbs they had left on the trail eaten by birds. Therefore, these desert ants must be equipped with another cognitive mechanism so that they can return to their nests before succumbing to the midday heat.  

Black desert ants (Cataglyphis fortis) emerge from their nests in the heat of desert sand, which rises to 70 degrees with the rise of the morning sun, to search for the remains of other insects that were not as heat resistant as they are. They can only survive for one hour on the hot sand and under the blazing sun, which means that within an hour, they must find their food and bring it back home without getting lost. The journey is quite arduous and dangerous each day. If the slightest confusion occurs and they are not able to return to their nest in time, then it could cost them their lives.

Scientists conducted a series of research in the scorching deserts of Tunisia to find out how desert ants take their food to their nests in the shortest route possible. Researchers first determined an anthill and plotted the terrain around it to set up a coordinate plane. They observed that the ants left their nests very early in the morning to begin their daily search for food, and many of them eventually found grubs that had been planted by the scientists. However, researchers moved the ants to locations that they had not previously been to after the ant began carrying the food back to their nests. The attempt was to understand whether there was a “sign placement system” within the ants. This system would encourage the ant to find its last known location, in this instance where it had picked up, then find its way back home. However, the ant instead began heading directly to its nest. It was as if the ant determined its position concerning its nest and set off for it immediately. This experiment was repeated on many ants numerous times and with the same consistent results. The ants, as soon as they had placed on the ground, moved to the nest relative to there. With a wondrous intrinsic coding of some neurons in their nervous systems, they traveled the distance between their new location and the nest in the shortest way possible. In addition to this, the margin of error was very nominal; they found their nests with a ten percent error in the average distance of 500-meters and with an error of only two degrees in angle. Additionally, a fascinating discovery revealed that the ants could calculate errors in their navigation systems. As they approach their destination, they would make adjustments if they need to by moving back and forth in parallel lines to reach the nest with minimum error.

Scientists determined that desert ants have about a thousand lenses in their compound eyes (remember that a human eye has only one lens) and 80 lenses in each of their eyes that can detect polarized light that comes from different points in the sky. Polarized light occurs when sunlight enters the atmosphere of Earth, hits air molecules and other particles, and then scatters in all directions. This dispersion leads to polarization, and the light that starts to vibrate in many planes begins to vibrate in only one plane. Therefore, the strongest of them is a distinct polarization that always makes a 90-degree angle towards the sun. The lens system in the eyes of desert ants uses this polarization to form a kind of Sky Map. These ants will occasionally stop and robotically move their heads while returning to their nest. This brief period allows the ants to make this sky map by surveying the sky and making a mental note of its layout. Researchers believe that ants can then calculate the direction that they need to travel to return to their nest. They repeat this movement along the way to continually update their sky maps. If they cannot find their home, then they utilize a patterned search method with a set of circular motions. It means that each ant knows how far it is from their nest at every point of their journey.

Then, how do ants find their direction to the nest? Perhaps they were guided by the position of the sun in the sky is. To test this hypothesis, researchers placed a set of mirrors to make ants perceive the sun in a different state than where it ordinarily would be. It observed that the ants changed their directions according to the new state of the sun. However, this finding raised another question; researchers wondered how the time of day would affect the ants since the sun moves across the sky during the day. However, this finding raised another question; researchers wondered how the time of day would affect the ants since the sun moves across the sky during the day.

In another part of the experiment, the researchers caught the ants after they found the bait, closed a box over them, and kept them inside the box for several hours so that they could not see the sun and its movements. It expected that the ants would have trouble finding their way back after they were released since a long time had passed, and the sun was in a drastically different position in the sky. However, they once again returned home by using the shortest distance possible. It understood that the desert ants were aware that time was passing even though they could not see the sun.

We now understand that ants determine their direction home by using the sun, but we still do not know how they figure out the distance they must travel to return to their nest. Researchers have developed three hypotheses to explore this phenomenon. The first hypothesis was the energy hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the ants were able to know how much energy they needed on the way back by calculating it they had spent until they reached their food. The depletion of their energy meant the end of their journey. An ant loaded with extra weights to test this hypothesis as soon as it reached its food. The scientists thought that if their body weight increased, then they would not be able to strike reach the nest since they would spend more energy on the return trip. However, in this case, it did not affect the ants, and they returned home in the shortest way possible regardless of their weight.

The second hypothesis was the optical-flow hypothesis. In this hypothesis, it believed that the ants had visual memory, and this was how they remembered the way back. To prove this, scientists prevented the ants from seeing their surroundings by blindfolding the ants when they found their food source. However, the blindfold did not prevent the ants from obtaining the shortest distance back home. As a follow-up to this experiment, the researchers placed an extensive television screen in front of the ants showing an endless desert on the television screen to make the ants feel as if they had crossed the entire desert in this simulation. They used various types of simulations, but the result did not change; the ants found their way.

The last test involved the pedometer hypothesis. It surmised that ants could be counting their steps to determine how far they had traveled. To test whether they were doing so, researchers attached stilts made of hair strands to the legs of one group of ants after they found the food. As their legs now extended, they could move with longer scale steps. Another group of ants had their legs cut below the knee, thus shortened to increase the number of steps needed to walk the required distance back. They then observed the return journey of both groups of ants. The results were astounding; the ants with shorter legs had concluded their course before reaching the nest, while the ants with longer legs ended up passing the nest. Thus, it understood that the ants counted their steps according to the distance they traveled.

The findings reveal that the ants are created with an internal system that keeps track of the steps they take and re-calibrates itself on the way back. People make these complex calculations with measuring instruments and by knowing the laws of trigonometry. However, these small creatures find their way directly back without using any tools or computer applications. They do not use their perception to find direction, and they do not use any other directional methods because they all remember direction and distance as they move forward. If you look at this situation, what would be your simplest explanation? You can only have one definition: These little creatures can measure distances and angles precisely by applying mathematical calculations and trigonometry within their conditions. Since the first day of their existence, these creatures show only a few of the shreds of evidence of the divine power created them out of nothing with wondrous systems and superior abilities in their bodies.

I have put my trust in God, my Lord, and your Lord. No living creature is there, but He holds it by its forelock and keeps it under His complete control. Undoubtedly, my Lord is on a straight path (He governs all that exists and carries out His decrees rightly and with absolute justice). (Surah Hud, 56)

Life is in the center of existence, and food is in the center of life. All living things are in pursuit of their sustenance to continue their lives. Failing this pursuit means the end of it all. Yet, it is not only the lack or scarcity of food, but also its abuse that is a major cause for disorders. Consuming food without any criteria of lawfulness, or with no heed to virtues like contentedness or gratitude, but with greed and wastefulness, leads to many health problems – mental and physical – at both individual and societal levels. Among these problems are many notorious eating disorders such as obesity, anorexia, and bulimia nervosa. Illnesses that relate to overeating, such as obesity, are now beginning to be considered as food addictions, even as a type of substance abuse, in some medical literature [1].

One serious consequence of eating and food addictions is a clinical condition that is called “metabolic syndrome” (MetS). Characterized by multiple cardiovascular disease risk factors such as obesity and high blood pressure, this syndrome has been recognized as a crucial public health problem worldwide. Characteristics such as geography, race, age and gender are influential in the frequency of the disease, which spreads daily as a pandemic that affects approximately 20-30% of the global adult population [2]. Among US adults aged 18 years or older, the prevalence of metabolic syndrome rose by more than 35% from 1988–1994 to 2007–2012, increasing from 25.3% to 34.2% [3].

First described by Dr. Gerald Reaven, MD, in 1988, metabolic syndrome is also referred to as “insulin resistance syndrome,” “deadly quartet,” and “civilization syndrome” [4]. In 2001, the Adult Treatment Panel (NCEP-ATP III) defined metabolic syndrome in adults as the combination of central obesity (waist circumference >102 cm in men, >88 cm in women), hypertriglyceridemia (>150 mg/dl), low HDL (<40 mg/dl in men, <50 mg/dl in women), hypertension (blood pressure> 130-85 mm-Hg), and hyperglycemia (fasting blood sugar >110 mg/dl). In 2005, the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) published a global guideline describing different thresholds for different ethnic groups. According to this guideline, the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome should be based upon central obesity and high triglyceride, low HDL, high blood pressure, and high fasting glucose. The IDF also reported that the presence of at least two factors sufficed for diagnosing anyone as a patient of metabolic syndrome.

as one of the likely pathological findings in metabolic syndrome, central obesity is observed in one in three adults. Hypertension, another crucial factor, is generally acknowledged to be originating from insulin resistance in metabolic syndrome, but the actual features of its development mechanism still remains controversial. Global awareness about hypertension, its treatment, and how to control it is low, and there are significant differences in between people worldwide. A National Health Examination Survey (NHANES) spanning 2011-2014 revealed that 34% of US adults aged 20 years and older are hypertensive and NHANES 2013-2014 data showed that 15.9% of these hypertensive adults are unaware they are hypertensive [5].

Dyslipidemia, which increases as a result of central obesity and insulin resistance in patients with metabolic syndrome, is characterized by low HDL cholesterol and high triglycerides, the most crucial factors that increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. In one study done in 2008, the average total cholesterol levels for American men and women were found to be 197 mg/dl [6].

The presence of overt diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance (fasting blood sugar above 110 mg/dl) indicates the first step of the diagnostic criteria of the metabolic syndrome, and insulin resistance is not sought for further. People diagnosed with metabolic syndrome are 2.34 times more likely to contract diabetes [7]. A 2011 study conducted in America reported that roughly half of all adults have impaired glucose metabolism as a result of type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and prediabetes. Diabetes has been a prevalent global ailment similar to asthma, autoimmune diseases, and cancer [6].

Insulin resistance, which can be observed in metabolic syndrome, increases the risk of cardiovascular disease by 2.35 times, deaths by cardiovascular disease by 2.40 times, risk of myocardial infarction by 1.99 times, and stroke by 2.27 times, as independent of other risk factors. However, the presence of metabolic syndrome, not obesity, increases the risk of cardiovascular disease [7]. Another significant result is that women with metabolic syndrome have a higher risk of cardiovascular disease than men. Women are more likely to have central obesity than men, have a different cholesterol profile, and higher triglyceride levels that cause more coronary artery disease, while polycystic ovary syndrome, hormone support therapies, and pregnancy diabetes pose additional risk for women [8]. Fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, chronic kidney disease, polycystic ovary syndrome, gout, dementia, and decreased cognitive functions are more common in individuals with metabolic syndrome than the normal population [7].

Treatment of Metabolic Syndrome

Since metabolic syndrome is caused by environmental and genetic factors, and is appearing in people with increasing frequency, the best treatment approaches involve a well-regulated lifestyle, with the main objective being to prevent diabetes and cardiovascular diseases that cause fatal or disabling conditions. Weight loss that results from an appropriate nutrition and exercise program has a corrective effect on almost all disorders observed in metabolic syndrome.

In the treatment of metabolic syndrome, prevention of central obesity seems to be a priority solution. This can be achieved by a lifestyle planning that provides and maintains a 7-10% reduction in total body weight by limiting caloric intake and increasing physical activity. Even methods that increase weekly physical activity by 150-300 minutes and provide only a 5-7% reduction in body weight are considered sufficient to correct the metabolic syndrome. This has especially been reported to have a positive effect on lipid disorders, glucose intolerance, and hypertension, with a 58% reduction in the risk of diabetes with additional lifestyle changes [9].

Since a well-regulated diet is one of the focal points of life style change for people with metabolic syndrome, dietary models that are limited to saturated fats and cholesterol, rich in complex carbohydrates, based upon an abundant consumption of fruits and vegetables, and a restricted use of salt (for those with hypertension) are strongly recommended.

Even though the traditional Mediterranean diet is lauded as one of the vibrant treatment options in the prevention of coronary heart disease and metabolic syndrome, it is not sufficient to correct the metabolic syndrome unless the diet is in tandem with significant weight loss [10]. According to numerous studies, increasing the consumption of nutrients such as fish, vegetables, fruits, dried legumes, and unrefined grains that are rich in olive oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants reduce the risk of coronary diseases and death. It goes without saying, that smoking and alcohol use may increase cardiovascular, metabolic and hepatic complications in patients with metabolic syndrome.

Patients with metabolic syndrome should have their blood lipids checked annually, and should be determined to keep low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol lower than 100 mg/dL, high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol higher than 40 mg/dL, and triglyceride levels lower than 150 mg/dL. Diabetic patients should set their blood pressure target as lower than 130/80 mm-Hg. Changes in lifestyle such as regular exercise and a controlled diet are extremely vital. The use of low-dose aspirin to prevent complications in patients with coronary artery disease is also among treatment recommendations.

The basic sustenance that is provided to us in the form of fruits, animals, grains, and other bounties is such a precious, rich and full-fledged treasure, for which we should be grateful for. However, gluttony and wastefulness pave the way for thanklessness, disease, and even conflicts with the wisdom in the universe.

Almost all living beings are engaged in the pursuit of sustenance and revolve around this goal. We humans have been equipped with the ability to taste and appreciate all kinds of food, and can draw an appreciation for the Divine through these gifts. Just as everything revolves around sustenance, thankfulness has been placed in the center of sustenance. That is, gratitude should be at the center of all sustenance. Through gratitude, we live healthier physical, spiritual, and mental lives.

Notes

1. Meule A, Rezori V, Blechert J. Food addiction and bulimia nervosa. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2014;22:331–337.
2. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome pandemic. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008; 28: 629-36.
3. Moore JX, Chaudhary N, Akinyemiju T. Metabolic Syndrome Prevalence by Race/Ethnicity and Sex in the United States, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–2012. Prev Chronic Dis 2017;14:160287
4. Alberti KG, Zimmet PZ. Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation. Diabet Med 1998;15:539-53.
5. Alexander, Matthew R.; Eric H. Yang. “What is the prevalence of hypertension (high blood pressure) awareness of in the US?” https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/241381-overview#a2
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Fact Sheet: National Estimates and General Information on Diabetes and Prediabetes in the United States, 2011. Atlanta, GA, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011.
7. Balcı M.K, Metabolik Sendrom, Türkiye Klinikleri J Med Sci 2008;28:102-106.
8. Mottillo S, Filion KB, Genest J, Joseph L, Pilote L, Poirier P. The metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010; 56: 1113-32
9. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, et al; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 393-403
10. Carbonneau É1, Royer MM2, Richard C3, Couture P4, Desroches S5, Lemieux S6, Lamarche B7. Effects of the Mediterranean Diet before and after Weight Loss on Eating Behavioral Traits in Men with Metabolic Syndrome. Nutrients. 2017 Mar 19;9(3).

Gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is among the most common chronic diseases in the Western world, affecting up to 30% of the general population in Europe and the US. It is a condition which develops when the acidic contents of the stomach flow backwards into the esophagus and cause what’s known as heartburn. While most patients respond well to the standard therapy of proton pump inhibitors which block acid-secreting cells in the stomach, we are still trying to understand the molecular reasons why 30-40% of reflux patients do not respond adequately to acid-suppressant therapy. Not only does GERD have a significant negative impact on health-related quality of life, but the over-subscription of ineffective drugs causes a significant economic burden on healthcare.

Heartburn is the most noticeable and troublesome symptom of GERD. From what we currently understand about the pathophysiology of the disease, we know that the reflux of acid evokes different types of pain, but the basic mechanisms and pathways by which this pain is generated is incompletely understood. The junction between the esophagus and stomach is structurally and functionally designed in a way to ensure that any acid secreted in the gastrointestinal tract flows towards the stomach, and not up onto the lining of the esophagus. This function is served by the muscle structure sitting at this junction, called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES), which ensures that the ingested food following a meal does not reflux. However, there are several factors which can make the LES’s job more difficult. One of the most obvious factors includes the excessive consumption of food, particularly during the later hours of the day. There is convincing evidence that 90% of reflux episodes occur post-prandially, due to minor elevations of intragastric pressure which causes the LES to relax and therefore allow the reflux of acid. In more advanced cases of reflux disease, acid pockets form at the gastroesophageal junction where unbuffered acid collects into a reservoir. When the LES fails in this setting, there is reflux of a higher volume of acid.

Focusing on the microscopic structure of the esophagus and stomach, we can see a minute yet essential difference between the linings of these two gastrointestinal organs. The esophagus has a stratified squamous epithelial lining, which acts as a tight protective barrier against food but is readily damaged when exposed to a chemical environment. On the other hand, the stomach is lined by tall columnar epithelium, which is designed to withstand very low pH and high levels of proteolytic activity. Our gastrointestinal tract (and the human body in its entirety) is perfectly designed to carry out the specific role of transporting food from the oral cavity from the esophagus to the stomach, where it is digested for our nourishment. It is oftentimes our greediness and overindulgence which disrupt the perfect order of our anatomy at a molecular level, resulting in the macroscopic changes we see at endoscopy and the symptomatic discomfort we feel from the painful circumstances of reflux. 

The stomach is our center of nourishment. Given that every food particle has the purpose of nourishing the cells of our body, why do we so commonly make the mistake of eating excessively, nocturnally, and quickly? Fatty foods influence the relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter, along with alcohol, coffee, and acidic drinks. Large meals and rapid food intake distend the stomach, increase intragastric pressure and facilitating the reflux of acid from the stomach. Given these, it is plain to see that, in most cases, simple lifestyle changes can prevent the development of such chronic and discomforting diseases. The following verse in the Holy Qur’an offers a short but very effective prescription: “Eat and drink, but do not be wasteful” (7:31).

The philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (Avicenna) summarized the science of medicine as follows: “Eat little when you eat, and after eating do not eat again for a certain period of time; health lies in digestion. There is nothing heavier for the body to tolerate than putting food after food in the stomach.” Frugality in eating is also echoed in the teachings of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, who famously said “There is no vessel which the son of Adam can fill more evil than his stomach, for it is sufficient for him to take a few mouthfuls in order to straighten his back; but if he must, then fill one-third with food, one-third with drink, and one-third with air” (Tirmidhi).

The lifestyle factors that are strongly associated with GERD are obesity and smoking. In the 30-40% of GERD patients who do not respond to acid-suppressant therapy, simple lifestyle changes such as cutting out acidic drinks and eating more slowly, and not after 7 pm have been effective alternative treatments. While our understanding of molecular pain mechanisms of the esophagus need further improvement, the simple act of making minor changes in our eating habits can ensure that the anatomy and function of our gastrointestinal tract remains optimal.

It is widely accepted in modern culture that people should eat three meals: breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Nutritionists generally recommend adding two snacks (one in the morning and the other in the afternoon) to help control appetite.

Interestingly, the practice of eating three meals a day is a recent phenomenon. Ancient Romans had only one meal, which they usually had at about four in the afternoon, and they believed it was unhealthy to eat more than once a day. What the Romans ate in the morning and at noon was very light and fast [1]. Later, rules in monasteries affected people’s behavior around food and drink.

During the industrial revolution, breakfast gained importance; workers needed food before work. And dinner didn’t become popular – at least in its current form – until the prevalence of artificial lighting made it possible to eat before dawn and after dusk [2]. The understanding that eating three meals a day is a healthy choice stems from a combination of belief, culture, and early epidemiological studies [3].

There are studies suggesting that having a regular eating habit positively impacts health, regardless of frequency of meals. On the other hand, in a recent and comprehensive study by Kahleova et al., which studied 50,660 adult members of churches in the USA and Canada, it was found that eating one or two meals a day caused lower weight than eating three meals, and also a relatively lower body-mass index (BMI) which got even lower as overnight fasts got longer [4]. The authors state that the positive effects of such a diet are caused by a combination of timing, meal frequency, and overnight fasting, as well as having less frequent meals coupled with precise timing. These results indicate that eating one or two meals is better than eating three or more.

The Prophet’s example

The Prophet Muhammad’s, peace be upon him, recommendations and behaviors lend support to modern medical studies in the area of nutrition, as in many others. He would eat no more than two meals and ensure that one of the meals should consist of light food (such as dates). The Prophet recommended that dinner be eaten, even if it was only a small meal. “Do not leave dinner, even if it is only a handful of dates, because abandoning it makes one weak” (Sunan Ibn Majah).

He defined dinner as the second and last meal of the day, and that it should be eaten after dusk or immediately after the evening prayer.

The Prophet set so many examples about nutrition. He highlighted the dangers of obesity, stating that “What I fear most about my community are developing a belly, oversleeping and idling.” This was centuries ago; nowadays, obesity is an epidemic raging across the world, and its prevalence has almost doubled in more than 70 countries since 1980. In 2015, a total of 107.7 million children and 603.7 million adults were obese [5]. Seventy-five percent of the world’s population is overweight. Obesity, along with dyslipidemia and hypertension, is one of the major factors in cardiovascular diseases. Studies have shown that exercise, as well as meal timing and frequency, are quite effective in weight control [6].

As for table manners, the Prophet said, “The human does not fill any container that is worse than his stomach,” and, “It is sufficient for the son of Adam to eat what will support his back.” Throughout his 63-year-long life, the Prophet never left the table on a full stomach or ate before getting hungry; he recommended that food should not be swallowed without chewing, a practice he maintained. By refusing to sit at tables where there were several types of food, our Prophet was occasionally unable to find anything to eat. There is also no information that our Prophet ever had lunch.

The Prophet’s insistence on fewer meals looks very wise. Not only does eating fewer meals lead to lower incidences of obesity; if it includes a reduction in carbohydrate intake, it can also lead to decreases in total and LDL (bad) cholesterol levels [7]. Considering meal frequency and timing, it is crucial which meals are maintained. In general, breakfast-eaters tend to run a lower risk of weight gain than non-breakfast-eaters – and a significantly lower risk of heart disease [4].

Current studies indicate that food content has as much impact on blood lipids and insulin as meal frequency. Although we cannot fully explain the effects of a single factor on physical health, we are pretty much sure that meal frequencies are closely related to meal timing and which kind of foods are eaten.

The Prophet’s main requirement of food was that it should be lawful and clean, as well as beneficial for the body. His two meals consisted of breakfast and dinner, as is recommended by modern medicine. In a nutshell, the amount of intake and eating etiquette recommended by our Prophet is allocating “one third of the stomach for food, one-third for drink, and one-third for air” (Tirmidhi, Zuhd, 47) and completing meals without getting full. Increasingly, science suggests this may have been good advice!

References

1. Flandrin, J.-L.; Montanari, M. Storia dell’alimentazione; Laterza: Bari, Italy, 2003. 2.Affinita, A.; Catalani, L.; Cecchetto, G.; De Lorenzo, G.; Dilillo, D.; Donegani, G.; Fransos, L.; Lucidi, F.; Mameli, C.; Manna, E.; et al. Breakfast: A multidisciplinary approach. Ital. J. Pediatr. 2013, 39, 44.
2. Potter, C.; Griggs, R.L.; Brunstrom, J.M.; Rogers, P.J. Breaking the fast: Meal patterns and beliefs about healthy eating style are associated with adherence to intermittent fasting diets. Appetite 2018, 133, 32–39.
3. Kahleova, H.; Lloren, J.I.; Mashchak, A.; Hill, M.; Fraser, G.E. Meal frequency and timing are associated with changes in body mass index in adventist health study 2. J. Nutr. 2017, 147, 1722–1728
4. Collaborators, G.B.D.O.; Afshin, A.; Forouzanfar, M.H.; Reitsma, M.B.; Sur, P.; Estep, K.; Lee, A.; Marczak, L.; Mokdad, A.H.; Moradi-Lakeh, M.; et al. Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries over 25 years. N. Engl. J. Med. 2017, 377, 13–27.
5. Paoli, A.; Moro, T.; Marcolin, G.; Neri, M.; Bianco, A.; Palma, A.; Grimaldi, K. High-intensity interval resistance training (hirt) influences resting energy expenditure and respiratory ratio in non-dieting individuals. J. Transl. Med. 2012, 10, 237.
6. McGrath, S.A.; Gibney, M.J. The effects of altered frequency of eating on plasma lipids in free-living healthy males on normal self-selected diets. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994, 48, 402–407.

We eat, sleep, and go to the bathroom. Yet, we never think about how all these physical needs are processed in the systems of our body when they are functioning normally.

Yes, our bodies are created with perfect systems by which our all kinds of needs are met. The digestive system is one of them. Our intestines are key elements of this system, so much so that asking someone “How are your intestines?” would be as comprehensive as asking “How are you?”

Digestive system

Food is critical to life. A human being can bear hunger for one month at most and can only endure a few days of drought. Thus, eating and drinking is crucial.

Foods as we eat them are not convenient for use by the cells. Food must be broken down into smaller pieces. This process begins in the mouth and ends at the anus, and it is called digestion.

The main task of our stomach and intestines is digestion. The teeth, salivary glands, the tongue, and the gullet – as well as swallowing – are essential secondary elements. Additionally, if the pancreas or liver fall ill, it can paralyze the whole system. While also working with the circulatory system, kidneys have the task of reabsorbing useful substances like glucose, amino acids, and water.

Our digestive system works together with the urinary system and the digestive organs like a factory. How these parts work together is still not fully understood, but more detailed research has been performed and revealed more secrets of the digestive system. By means of every discovery, it is realized that this perfect creation has a more intricate structure than is known.

The brain in the intestine

There are more neurons in our intestines than in our spinal cord and the intestines are created in a way that can move independently from the central nervous system. They have their own nervous system, known as enteric nervous system (ENS), which is also called the “second brain. “Within those yards of tubing lies a complex web of microcircuitry driven by more neurotransmitters and neuromodulators than can be found anywhere else in the peripheral nervous system. These allow the ENS to perform many of its tasks in the absence of central nervous system (CNS) control…” [1]. Thus, “… isolated segments of intestine can independently coordinate propulsive movements and propel content without any neural connections to the brain or spinal cord [2].

The intestines take action when food comes into the stomach. This movement is known as colonic migrating motor complexes (CMMC), and it moves the substances that cannot be digested, like bone and fiber. According to neurophysiologist Nick Spencer et al, “The gut wall contains a complete network of intrinsic nerves capable of propelling contents along the bowel, without any requirement of nerves originating in the brain or spinal cord” [3].

Eat different types of food

70% of our immune system cells are in our intestines. A big part of the approximately 38 trillion bacteria in our body are in our intestines, and they are useful; they have a big role in digesting food. Different groups of bacteria feed on different types of food; so for intestinal flora it is very important to have a variety of food on our table. For the ideal day on a plate Dr. Megan Rossi recommends people should “aim for at least 30 different plant species per week.” “The reason for this is that each plant contains different types of fibres and phytochemicals (the super healthy components of plants) that feed different good bacteria. The more plant variety, the more variety of gut bacteria – which is associated with health and happiness” [4].

Pets in our body

For Dr. Megan Rossi, “microbes are like our pets, so you have to take care of them and feed them” [5].

Of course, germ flora in our body is not just limited to the ones in the intestines. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi in our body are nearly scattered throughout the whole body. These living things produce pellicle on our head skin, irritate the gaps between our toes, live on our skin, are on duty among our teeth, and have ecosystems and assigned positions convenient to them. According to the situation, they keep their living spaces healthy or unhealthy. Although they number 50 trillion, they are approximately 200 grams of our body weight.  

Useful microbes

An average size human adult houses about 10¹² bacteria on the skin, 10¹⁰ in the mouth, and 10¹⁴ in the gastrointestinal tract [6].

These microorganisms are useful microbes with duties in our body. The harmless flora of microbes is generally present on the skin, mouth, teeth, nose, throat, and bowel and genital areas. There isn’t normal flora in internal organs except the large bowel. Internal organs have no microbes. If we look closely, flora is inserted in every part of our body which is dirty and has contact with the outer environment. If it was not for the useful flora, microorganisms causing illness would settle instead. Only intestinal bacteria are permanent microbes which are useful. For example, vitamin K plays a part in a crucial event like blood clotting and is produced in the intestine.

Control your stress

Research has revealed that mental and psychological stress affects the health of the intestines. Serotonin is produced automatically in case of need, and 85% of it is produced in the digestive tract. Stress suppresses the level of serotonin produced. Psychological illnesses are associated with low levels of serotonin.

Studies have shown that relaxing practices like meditation for 15-20 minutes can be good for health and reduce stress. At this point, daily prayers are a kind of therapy. Other ways to stay healthy include: avoiding things like alcohol and caffeine, and sleeping well.

Our body has ways of telling us when it’s not healthy. For instance, we can learn the digestive tract isn’t healthy if we have to use the toilet more than three times a day and fewer than three times a week.

References

1. Gershon, Michael D. “The Enteric Nervous System: A Second Brain.” Pdfs.semanticscholar.org.
2. Spencer et al. 2018. “Identification of a Rhythmic Firing Pattern in the Enteric Nervous System That Generates Rhythmic Electrical Activity in Smooth Muscle.” http://www.jneurosci.org/content/38/24/5507
3. http://www.flinders.edu.au/neuroscience/lab_visceral.html
4. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-5543159/Doctor-debunks-myths-surrounding-gut-health-say-surprise-you.html
5. https://navva.org/brazil/health/why-the-bowel-is-considered-our-39-2nd-brain-39-and-other-5-amazing-facts-about-the-organ-news/
6. http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/normalflora_3.html

Popcorn crowding all around,
Hot air blows them round and round,
Yellow corn kernels poppity pop,
One after another, when will they stop?
Whirling, swirling the popcorn pops,
In a bowl they quickly drop,
Fluffy popcorn, grab a bunch,
Light and tasty, eat them crunch.”
James Hörner

Popcorn is one of the most nutritious and economical foods available. You can see people enjoying huge buckets of popcorn at movie theaters, amusement parks, festivals, games… basically, anywhere associated with fun. How all this popcorn craziness started in the first place is uncertain and the exact birthplace of corn (Zea mays ssp. mays, maize) is not very clear either. According to Lance Gibson and Garren Benson of Iowa State University, Department of Agronomy archeological evidence shows corn has been in the Western Hemisphere for at least 80,000 years. Corn pollen samples were obtained from drill cores 200 feet below Mexico City. Radiocarbon dating revealed that the corncobs found in the bat caves in New Mexico were 5,600 years old [3].
Scholars agree that, thousands of years ago, maize was domesticated from a Mexican grass called teosinte (Zea mays spp. parviglumis). They know this mostly due to 1958 Nobel Prize winner George W. Beadle’s extensive genetic studies. It was not easy for him to convince others that teosinte, a wild grass with just a dozen dark kernels in a seed coat that was hard as a stone, was domesticated and turned into juicy and soft corn by early cultivators, who worked like agriculturalists and geneticists thousands of years ago [4]. Their extraordinary selective breeding effort, talent, and patience generated today’s corn, which has more than 500 different uses, including industrial ones [3].

Most of the world’s popcorn is grown in the United States’ corn belt of Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, and Ohio. Each spring, farmers use a corn planter to place the seeds about 1½ inches deep and 6 inches apart in the soil. That’s nearly 28,000 seeds per acre [5].

According to DuPont Pioneer, a large U.S. producer of hybrid seeds for agriculture, maize is a warm-season crop, so germination and emergence are optimal when soil temperatures are approximately 85 to 90 degrees F; cool conditions during planting impose significant stress on corn emergence and seedling health. Elwynn Taylor and Roger Elmore, from the Department of Agronomy of Iowa State University, say that “Corn typically requires 90 to 120 Growing Degree Days (GDD) from planting to emergence.”

Anatomy and reproduction of corn

A typical corn plant is often 2.5 m (8 ft.) in height, though some natural strains can grow 12 m (40 ft.) high [6]. Corn produces individual male (tassel) and female (ear) flowering parts on the same plant, unlike all other major grain crops. The immature ear consists of a cob, eggs that develop into kernels after pollination, and silks. From each egg, a hair-like structure called a silk grows and eventually emerges from the tip of the husk, which is a group of leaves attached to the shank that encloses the entire ear [7]. Approximately 1,000 individual spikelets form on each tassel and each one holds two florets (small flowers making up a composite flower head) encased in two large glumes (husks of grain), and each floret has three anthers hanging from the tassel during pollination (pollen bearing parts) [8]. Each tassel contains from 2 to 25 million pollen grains, and pollen grains released from tassels can travel as far as 1⁄2 mile (800 m) in 2 minutes with only a 15 mph wind [7]. When pollen falls on the silk’s fine, sticky hairs, which serve to catch and anchor pollen grains, it hydrates and a pollen tube, including two male gametes (mature sexual reproductive cells) from a single pollen grain emerges and grows down to the egg, with a growth rate of some 0.5 cm/h. Male gametes fertilize two female gametes, the egg and central cells, resulting in the formation of the embryo and endosperm, together called a kernel. The average ear of corn has approximately 400 to 600 kernels. Approximately 83% of the mature kernel is endosperm composed of about 88% starch and 8% protein [9], and functions as a key carbon and nutrient source during germination and early seedling growth. Other than endosperm and embryo (germ), a corn kernel also includes pericarp (bran) and the tip. During the industrial processing of corn, the endosperm is separated from the other parts, and the germ and pericarp are generally used for oil extraction and animal feed, due to the high density of nutrients, particularly lipids, proteins, and fibers [10].

We’ve learned corn’s anatomy, but now the really important question: How does corn pop when it is exposed to heat? How does the yellow, hard kernel turn into a puffy, delicious, white, tender flake?

When the kernel is heated, the moisture inside it turns to steam, and because the pericarp is hard, pressure builds up within the kernel, so each kernel becomes like a pressure cooker. The starch in the endosperm becomes soft like gelatin and the moisture vaporizes until the pressure in the kernel reaches 135 pounds per square inch. The pressure increases until the pericarp breaks and the gelatinized starch granules puff out, thus the kernel turns inside out. Consequently, the starch or endosperm forms the white part of the popped kernel, while the pericarp is the darker, flaky bit at the center of the kernel [5].

Because corn is not only a staple crop but also important for many industrial uses, including biofuel or biodegradable plastic production, it is of great interest to scientists, mainly plant geneticists. Corn has a large genome of about 2.4 gigabases, with 10 chromosomes (n=10). The total genetic length of these chromosomes is roughly 1500cM (centimorgan, distance between chromosome positions). The complete genome sequence of Zea mays cv. B73 was published in 2009 by the Maize Genome Sequencing Project which was funded by the National Science Foundation [11]. This was very exciting for maize researchers and breeders. However, it has also reignited the debate over food safety and scientific responsibility. In the summer of 2012, large quantities of Monsanto’s genetically modified organism (GMO) sweet corn appeared on grocery store shelves and roadside produce stands. GMO sweet corn is genetically engineered to be herbicide resistant (Roundup Ready) and to produce its own insecticide (Bt Toxin). Furthermore, in 2013, Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids, called DroughtGard. The developers of GMO foods claim that they help combat the world’s malnutrition and starvation problems, whereas antiGMO groups battle against them, thinking they are dangerous, since their effects are not well studied. Many studies show genetically modified foods are safe for human consumption; however, it is broadly accepted that the long-term health effects are unknown. The Food and Drug Administration generally recognizes these foods as safe, and the World Health Organization has said no ill health effects have resulted on the international market [12].

Genetically modified or not, corn is the most-produced grain worldwide and provides about 21 percent of human nutrition across the globe. It is involved in just about every aspect of our lives [13], including our movie nights, holidays, or other fun social activities.

References

1. http://www.canteach.ca/elementary/songspoems94.html
2. http://www.popcorn.org/EncyclopediaPopcornica/WelcometoPopcornica/IndustryFacts/tabid/108/Default.aspx
3. http://agron-www.agron.iastate.edu/Courses/agron212/readings/corn_history.htm
4. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=0
5. http://www.popcorn.org/ForTeachers/TeachingGuide/FromSeedtoSnack/tabid/87/Default.aspx
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize
7. http://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=1075412493&topicorder=3&maxto=12&minto=1
8. http://www.agry.purdue.edu/ext/corn/news/timeless/Tassels.html
9. Glover DV, Mertz ET (1987) Corn. In RA Olson, KJ Frey, eds, Nutritional Quality of Cereal Grains: Genetic and Agronomic Improvement. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, pp 183-336
10. Naves MMV, Castro MVL, Mendonca AL, Santos GG, Silva MS (2011) Corn germ with pericarp in relation to whole corn: nutrient contents, food and protein efficiency, and protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score. Ciênc. Tecnol. Aliment., Campinas, 31(1): 264-269

The energy we need for our organs to function and to survive our daily activities comes from the foods we eat. A “calorie” is the energy value of a food. One calorie is defined as the approximate amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius.

The caloric values of foods are generally known. Food packages bear information about these values, and in some places, the law requires restaurants to list the nutritional values of their meals. However, what is not commonly known is that not everyone receives the same number of calories from the same food. The way the food is prepared or processed influences its chemical structure, and therefore the number of calories it contains. When nutrients pass through the digestive tract, they also undergo a transformation. Billions of bacteria created to help digestion “use up” some of the food’s energy. However, every person has a different digestive system; the precise number of bacteria in each person’s body varies.

For such reasons, people receive different amounts of calories from food, even if they have eaten the same kind of food – and the exact same amount. Calorie calculations without taking these differences into consideration might be mistaken. Even nutritionists cannot calculate definite calorie values without such information. As such, one may not be able to lose weight merely by choosing foods after looking at the information written on packaging.

To begin explaining this, let’s look at how the process of energy consumption works. It starts with the enzymes in our mouth, stomach, and intestines, which are responsible for breaking down complex food molecules into basic building blocks like sugar and amino acids. These building blocks are borne into our cells by means of capillaries. As a result of some chemical processes within the cell, they transform into energy, which is used for carrying out ordinary, everyday actions. The extra calories are stored for later use.

The factors that affect caloric calculations

The calculation of foods’ caloric values began in the 19th century. Scientists developed an approach to approximate the caloric value in one gram of oil, protein, or carbohydrate. Accordingly, a gram of oil gave 9 kilocalories, a gram of carbohydrate or protein gave 4 kcal, and one gram of fibered food gave 2 kcal.

It is not sound logic to assume an average caloric value for foods. The enzymes of the human digestive system are created in such a way that they cannot break fibers down to smaller molecules. These fibers are disposed of when we go to the toilet.

We also eat the bodies, leaves, or roots of hundreds of different plants, be they vegetables or fruits. The cell walls in the body and leaves of some plants are more resistant to digestion than others. In fact, the soundness of the cell walls may vary in different parts of the same plant. Old leaves have more resistant cell walls in comparison to young ones. Generally speaking, if the cells walls are weak, caloric intake will be higher.

The effect of cooking also varies depending on the plant. For example, while the cells of plants like spinach and zucchini are easily broken down, when a plant like water chestnut is cooked, its cells gain a more resistant form. The foods that are not broken down because of their sound cell walls are thrown from our body without proper digestion; thus, it is not possible to absorb all of their calories.

Peanuts, almonds and other types of nuts are digested in a slower and more difficult fashion in comparison to other foods that contain the same level of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. In one study, it turned out that people who ate almonds only got 129 calories, although the packaging claimed they contained 170 calories. Researchers stated that in order to find out the real caloric value of a given food, it is necessary to measure the amount of calories in the urine and waste matter from the bodies of people who have followed the same diet.

There are also explicit differences between foods that can be completely digested. Certain foods, such as honey, are broken down in our stomachs right away. They then join our blood circulation by easily passing through the intestinal walls. For the digestion of fats and proteins however, five-times more energy is required. Proteins need to be broken into amino acids by enzymes so that the energy in them can be used. This point is not taken into consideration when calculating the caloric value written on food packages.

Some foods cause the immune system to be activated because of the pathogenic microorganisms in them. For example, a rarely done piece of meat is a potential danger to our intestinal microorganisms. Even if the immune system does not attack the pathogens in the foods we eat, they still head for the guts in order to recognize whether the alien substance is benign or harmful, and this consumes high amounts of energy. There is no serious study on how many calories the immune system needs to identify an alien substance and, if necessary, neutralize it.

In a research conducted in 2010, one group of people were given sandwiches made from bran bread and cheddar cheese, whereas the others were given sandwiches made from processed cheese and white bread (600-800 kcal). In spite of having consumed the same amount of sandwich, those who ate the sandwiches made from the bran bread and cedar cheese spent twice as much energy in digestion. Therefore, those who consumed the bran bread received 10% fewer calories in comparison to the others. The amount of calories received from foods differs on account of genetic, anatomic, and metabolic differences.

These difference have a serious effect on human nutrition. For example, there can be racial and ethnic differences when it comes to the length of a person’s intestine. At the beginning of the 1900s, it was recognized that Russians have an average intestinal length 57 cm longer than those of people from Poland. On account of this difference, Russians will obtain more calories in comparison to Polish people who consume the same amount of food.

The amount of enzymes secreted in every person also differs according to both genetic differences, and age. For example, while a glass of milk is a source of high energy to some – particularly children – it is not the same for others. Most adult bodies do not secrete the enzyme of lactase, which breaks down the lactose sugars found in milk.

People also have different types of bacteria colonies. Predominantly, two bacteria colonies (bacteroidete and firmicute) are found in human intestines. Research has indicated that there are more intense populations of firmicute in the intestines of obese people. Accordingly, having more than the necessary amount of bacteria in the body increases food digestion and thus causes the body to absorb more food. If these foods supply more energy than the body needs, they are stored as fat.

Some microorganisms are only seen in some people. For example, since Japanese people often consume algae, some microorganisms in their intestines are equipped with the genetic information to code the enzymes responsible for breaking down and digesting algae. This is an adaptive trait humans have: if our intestines stop being suitable for environments for such bacteria to breakdown fibrous foods, our calorie intake will be low, because of the fact that hard nutrients, such as celery or carrots, will not be digested properly.

In recent years, it has been explicitly shown that how food is prepared alters the number of calories the human body can extract from it. Therefore, as the human body digests processed foods rather easily, they provide much energy with little effort from the digestive system. Processed foods also cause the diminishing of the intestinal microorganisms which digest fibrous foods.

On the other hand, as the body extracts more vitamins and nutrients from vegetables, nuts, and whole grains, these all help to maintain the number of beneficial bacteria in our intestines. Those who wish to follow a healthy diet and lessen their caloric intake from nutrients should not eat processed, fried, and well-done foods. Instead, they should eat raw or boiled foods which contain bran and fibers.

As shown, a healthy diet, does not just depend on the type of food, but how that food is cooked, whether it was pre-processed or not, and whether it is swallowed after being chewed well or not. Our health further depends on the diversity and balance of our intestinal microorganisms and flora. It should be noted that without taking into consideration these factors affecting our caloric intake, the benefit of exercise and sports will also be limited.

Our body is perfectly coordinated to regulate our blood sugar level. But when our insulin levels are artificially altered, serious diseases can occur.

The human body needs energy. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is to each cell in the body what gasoline is to a car. This energy is stored inside the bonds of the three phosphate molecules attached to an adenosine nucleotide. The light energy that exists in the sun’s rays is converted into chemical energy, stored in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats through the photosynthetic reactions taking place in the chloroplasts of plants. Molecules of chemical energy are broken down in the mitochondria organelle of the cells in order to utilize their energy for ATP synthesis. This chemical energy (ATP) derived from nutrients is used by the eyes to see, the ears to hear, the hands to grab, the feet to walk, the heart to pump blood, the stomach to digest foods, the kidneys to filter blood, red blood cells to carry oxygen, white blood cells to fight germs, and the brain to think, memorize, and remember.

ATP is primarily synthesized from glucose – commonly known as blood sugar (glycolysis) – in approximately 100 trillion cells in our body. Glucose means fast energy. A sensitive metabolic balance is established (homeostasis) to maintain a blood glucose concentration in between 70-100 mg/dl for a nonstop energy flow and to prevent any cellular damage. If this balance is thrown out of order, many medical problems will ensue, primarily cardio-vascular diseases. How is the homeostatic balance of blood sugar maintained in healthy people?

Maintenance of blood sugar balance

The blood sugar balance is provided by the assistance and cooperation of the pancreas, liver, fat tissue, muscle tissue, the brain, the digestive system, and the kidneys. The chiefs of the orchestra here are the insulin and glucagon hormones synthesized in the pancreas, which operate in great harmony and yet have opposite functions. Insulin is in charge of dropping blood sugar; however glucagon increases it.  

The fine balance of blood sugar is conserved before we sense it for various energy situations such as exercise, sleep, or various energy intake cases such as overeating or skipping a meal. The real hunger is the 8-10 hour long “night fasting” period. During this time, since there is no food intake, the glucose that cells require for energy production is obtained from reserves in the liver. Thus, cells get their energy and blood sugar levels are kept at normal levels. If there is no additional food intake and the fasting time becomes longer, the glycogen reserves of the liver get consumed within 10-18 hours and necessary energy is obtained from fats and proteins. However, real fullness corresponds to a period of 4-6 hours “after meal.” During this time, the complex and macro size carbohydrates are converted to glucose in the liver and this glucose is stored as glycogen. Because the glucose storage capacity of the liver, which has numerous tasks, is limited, the excess glucose is stored by conversion into fatty acids. The unspent excess calories from three meals eaten in five hour intervals will be stored in either the liver or as fat tissue during the 12-18 hour long fullness period. The utilization of fats stored in the humps of camels which form by food intake to compensate for their energy and water needs during long desert travel can be given as an example of this.

In fact, when we say “I am hungry,” we acknowledge that the time has come to resupply our ATP reserves of nearly 100 trillion cells. The most important stimulator for the secretion of insulin from the pancreas is glucose. With the first bite, the readied insulin reserves of the pancreas are released into the bloodstream. This event, which takes place approximately within the first 6-10 minutes, is called the first-phase insulin response. With the language of reduced glucagon as a result of increased insulin, the message that it is no longer necessary to release glucose into the blood is transmitted to the liver. The blood sugar levels increase with continuing food intake (hyperglycemia) and this information is relayed to the pancreas through hormones secreted by intestinal cells. As directed by this signal, the proper insulin amount necessary for blood sugar levels is secreted into the bloodstream from the pancreas. This is called the late-phase insulin response.

The tasks of insulin

Cells are in need of insulin to uptake glucose into capillary vessels. Insulin binds itself to its specific receptor on the membrane of a cell, conducting its message, especially to muscle tissue. It’s saying, “The glucose food that you need is brought here by the blood vessels, and you can retrieve it.” After receiving the message inside the cell, GLUT (glucose transporters) molecules, which are in charge of glucose intake and are stored in the cytoplasmic vesicle pool, are carried to the cellular surface. Molecular gates are established once these molecules merge with the cellular membrane for the entrance of glucose through it. Glucose is inserted into the cell via this gate. The retired GLUTs are collected back in the cytoplasmic pools after cellular energy demand is met.

While these events are taking place, commands are given to the liver to prepare for the load of glucose arriving from the intestines and for adipose tissue to store the excess fat. These meticulous processes last for approximately two hours. The blood sugar level recedes back to its normal limits, but the activities of the liver and the adipose tissue continue at a rapid pace. If overeating occurs, the liver cannot take such a load. This can cause a delay in its functions, which will cause the body to feel tired.

The insulin and glucagon hormones have a half life of 3-5 minutes and are rendered ineffective in the liver and kidneys once they conclude their tasks. Thus, the body prevents lower blood sugar levels because of high insulin concentrations (hypoglycemia) or because of higher glucagon levels; it also prevents higher blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia).

The disruption of the blood sugar balance

Diabetes is the chronic observation of blood sugar above normal limits. This happens when the insulin hormone levels secreted from the pancreas are reduced and not able to carry out their function. There might be genetic factors present that contribute to diabetes; however, stress, a lack of exercise, obesity, and the consumption of processed foods containing elevated levels of carbohydrates often lead to the onset of diabetes in adults. The fine balance in between the liver, pancreas, muscles, and fat tissue can be disrupted by the following reasons:

1. If the number of cells in charge of insulin production in the pancreas decreases, sufficient insulin cannot be produced.
2. The message of insulin cannot be retrieved completely because of a disruption occurring at the receptors where insulin binds on cells, or due to lower numbers.
3. There may be a problem with reactions regarding GLUT production in accordance with the internal message retrieved upon bondage of insulin to the receptors.
4. During fullness, if the necessary suppression of glucagon production in pancreatic cells is not adequate, the glucose release from the liver continues.
5. The secretion of late-phase insulin response hormones in charge of pancreatic stimulation from the intestines is reduced.
6. Emptiness of the stomach is delayed, and a longer absorption time of nutrients occurs.
7. The appetite center is over stimulated and the urge to eat increases.

If the reasons above take place, then the blood sugar level is above normal. Normal blood sugar drops below 140 mg/dl two hours after a meal in healthy people, whereas this cannot be maintained in diabetic patients.

An iron pipe with salty sea water running through it for years is similar to a capillary vessel that has blood with high sugar levels inside it in terms of the damage that they undergo. Once hypertension and cholesterol joins diabetes, the heart, eyes, and kidneys will not function properly. These organs are great blessings granted to our body which we often appreciate only once we lose them. Therefore we must follow an intermediate path in eating and drinking, just as in every situation, avoiding excess.

Flies have two wings that are capable of moving independently from each other; these wings go back and forth on a single axis during flight. Technically, the unequal angles of the wings to the abdominal region could have prevented flight. Yet in the case of flies, this abnormal situation is not a hindrance and results in a harmonious wing stroke.

Let’s bring our palms together over our head and then lower them near our legs. How many times can we make this movement in a second? Let’s say two, three, or maybe four times if we are really quick. Flies have the ability to stroke their wings hundreds of times in just a second. There are benefits associated with this series of movements. The surface of the wings and the rear section of the head are equipped with sensitive hairs that are in charge of registering air currents and mechanical pressures and conducting relevant flight data to the brain. The unwanted effects of air currents towards the body surface and wings during the flight are detected via these hairs that house receptors. Thus, the wings are controlled according to the signals arriving from the brain. Therefore, a fly can feel an air curtain (like an insect screen) against it instantly and often times flies away. Sometimes, they also stroke their wings hundreds of times per second to avoid the negative effects of air resistance on the wings. Without these receptors and serial wing movements, the air current would stick to the wing’s surface and would not let the fly, well, fly.

Is it a fly or a plane?

We sometimes witness comparisons between the flight specifications of planes and flies. However, it is a great injustice to the fly to be put in the same basket as a plane. The products of modern technology, such as a plane, are invented after drawing inspiration from the meaningful skills of animals like a fly. It is not possible to build planes with a wing width smaller than 15 centimeters; there are disadvantages to wings smaller than that in terms of generating lift. On the other hand, flies have much smaller and more fragile wing structures (relative to their bodies) and can maintain their flight in a perfect fashion. When a fly extends its rear legs, covered with hairs designed especially for cleaning the wings, and sweeps them over its wings, doesn’t this suggest a fly is more impressive than a plane?

It challenges mountaineers!

A fly challenges mountain climbers by easily moving on the four walls and ceiling of a room – and even on slippery surfaces like glass. What is its secret?

Its ability to stand or walk on the ceiling without being defeated by gravity is possible via some of its organs. The final sections of fly’s legs are like hooks and the tip of this hook is equipped with suction pads. When flies touch a surface, a sticky fluid is secreted from the suction pads. Flies can remain suspended on the ceiling with the help of this fluid. When it approaches the ceiling, extends its legs to the front and flips towards the opposite direction of its approach, it sticks to the ceiling on its abdomen.

The grand architecture in the eye of the fly

Can you complete a jigsaw puzzle of 8000 pieces in a second without any missing pieces? It seems impossible, but let’s accept that you have. Can you fit this puzzle into an area that’s just a couple of square millimeters? It’s not possible for a man of intelligence to pass this test. However, the fly completes this miraculous task every time it uses its eyes in our rooms. We are unaware of the fact that the fly, which draws patterns of colors under the sun light, has such amazing eyes. Its eye is created to contain nearly 8000 ommatidium, which function almost as small eyes. Different areas can be seen via each ommatidium and once images are put together in the brain, the whole picture forms. Through these tiny eyes, shaped as hexagons that resemble honey combs, a fly can see as close as 2 mm – and can even see behind its body! Because of the wise hexagonal design, the ommatidia are placed in the most economical way possible; there are no missing spaces which could cause a lack of clarity. The optical speed of a fly’s eye is nearly 4-10 times faster than the human eye. Flies can see the ultraviolet section of the light spectrum and this allows them to evade predators easily in dim environments. Every time a fly uses its eyes, it’s as if it gives the message, “Look at how miraculously I’ve been created. Do you think that my creation could have been in vain?” Such complexity is an inspiration to scientists as they try to develop new technologies.

One of the features of flies that surprises scientists most is the way they use a neural network of a very limited number of neurons to perform so many complex movements. Biologist Michael Dickinson expresses his astonishment as to how a neural system of such small scale can accomplish all of these features.

Do not ever kill a fly!

Flies consume plenty of energy during flight. A regular supply of oxygen is needed to compensate for the energy they use. Air is inhaled via a constriction of the abdominal muscles when the fly lands on a surface. However, during the flight, air enters via the serial movements of the wings. Air that enters through the openings of the chitin layer surrounding the fly is transported to cells via small channels.

Flies locate their food via their smell receptors. Thus, a fly in the air easily lands on the food source that it detects. The taste organ detects whether the food is an ideal source or not. Usually, their choices of food are human foods, waste remains, and dirt. There are two tubes located in the mouth of the house fly. It sucks liquid food with one of the tubes; saliva containing enzymes is secreted on the food source with the other hose so that digestion is facilitated. A fly secretes plenty of saliva in order to liquefy the solid foods it prefers.

Flies that use dirt and waste as a nutritional source are considered as disease contracting pests. However, this is a major fallacy. Flies are actually the health officers of the ecosystem. They turn microorganisms ineffective as they take in their food; the digestive enzymes that they carry play role in completing this important task. Due to this important task, it should be remembered that killing a fly is very unfortunate. Great scholar, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, notes that flies are assigned to terminate unhealthy microorganisms and materials.

Scientists led by Prof. Andy Beattie have noticed that flies are resistant to all kinds of dirt, including from meat and manure. He said that these organisms should be super resistant to infections, otherwise they could not survive and that our work to gain antibiotics from them has been partially successful. In fact, studies focused on obtaining antibiotics from flies started in the past century. English and Swedish scientists isolated certain antibiotics from flies in 1930 and 1947. Efforts to isolate antibiotics from flies continue today.

Reproduction in black flies!

Black flies reproduce quickly. In suitable humidity and temperature, eggs start to hatch in just 10 hours. Larvae feed on liquid materials, though they need bacteria living on solid food to convert it into liquid form. Therefore, an acid is secreted inside the digestive track of the fly that can terminate most of the bacteria. Thus, the insect becomes free of bacteria, ready to fly. One fly can lay more than 100 eggs at one time and between 600 and 1000 in their lifetime. They can lay eggs again after just three days.

When looking at the information we have, it’s clear that flies are acrobatic flight masters with mind blowing features. We should abandon the negativity towards flies and contemplate the perfection of creation by considering their many remarkable skills – and working to discover even more secrets about them.