Spatial dimensions and unseen reality, important in both science and religion, are areas that have perennially fascinated human beings. The quest for truth, in these and other areas, is best realized when both empirical investigations and divine revelations are wisely utilized. The human race lives in and perceives a three-dimensional world, but the existence of at least one additional (unseen) dimension continues to intrigue humankind. Might not time be a fourth dimension, one that continues alongside the spatial dimensions of height, width, and depth? In terms of relativity, all actions take place not only in the three spatial dimensions but also in the fourth dimension of time; this constitutes the space-time concept.

In 1919, the Polish mathematician Theodor Kaluza (1885-1954) advanced the idea that the universe might have more than three spatial dimensions. He reasoned that there might be a curled-up dimension too small to be seen. Attempts to explain this dimension tend to be convoluted, even when accompanied by illustrations, precisely because it is impossible, in our three-dimensional world, to represent anything in more than three dimensions, even in a sculptured object.

Brian Greene (b. 1963)—a Columbia University physicist, and author of The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (Norton, 1999)—not only understands this field of physics, but also has contributed immensely to it. His writing concerning string theory, while admittedly controversial and based on a theory in its formative stages, suggests some interesting perspectives that are being considered. Creative speculation, coupled with critical evaluation, lies at the heart of scientific progress. He spends several pages in his bestseller developing an analogy based on a garden hose stretched across a canyon, with an ant crawling upon it. The hose, which appears different to a human with binoculars than to one without them, and also different to the ant, contains a curled-up space that is invisible to all. To imagine oneself successfully inserting a solid book through a solid mirror is to perceive the illusive fourth dimension. An indirect way to approach the complexity of the fourth dimension is to imagine a world of living things that are, like a drawing on a page, only two-dimensional. Those with 3-D capacity would be able to see a two-D world, but those living in two dimensions would be unable to comprehend the three-dimensional counterpart. The extra dimension that Kaluza worked out involved the amalgamation of electromagnetism and relativity.

What do things look like in a super tiny world with ten dimensions? Imagine a picture (displayed in approximations because it represents a six-dimensional shape on a two-dimensional page) in which a drawing of stairways going nowhere is rolled up into a kind of ball of yarn. The ball shape is no accident, for the additional dimensions posited are curled-up, which renders it as difficult to see as the inside of Greene’s hose stretched across a canyon with a crawling ant on the outside. These six-dimensional spaces exist within the three dimensions we know and see and trust. “String theory” maintains that these gigantically-minute vibrating strings, these multi-dimensional voyagers, actually determine the mass of particles and the charge of forces at the subatomic level, which in turn shapes activity in the real world we inhabit. Obviously, string theory is in its infancy, as is the case with all emerging scientific theories. The general pattern has been that theories partially explain truth, and thereby expand the sum of human knowledge. It is crucial to remember that theories are theories, attempts to advance human knowledge. According to this theoretical perspective, the dimensions beyond 3-D are required for the particular resonances rendered by the strings, similar to how musical resonance varies according to violin wood and shape.

Islamic insights into energy-based, higher-dimensional life forms

Since their genesis, humans have relied on religion to explain things which are true, but nonetheless unseen by the inhabitants of a three-dimensional world. Belief in the unseen, or that which cannot be scientifically proven, is a standard element of religious participation. The Qur’an provides many insights regarding the unseen and the effect of the hidden aspects of reality on human lives. First, it links the creation of life forms to water and other earthy elements: “God created every animal from water” (24:45); “… the heavens and the earth were joined together, then We clove them asunder and We got every living thing out of the water …” (21:30).

The Qur’an also affirms the existence of aspects of creation that are beyond the comprehension of humans: “Glory be to Him Who created the components of couples of every kind: of what the ground caused to grow, of themselves (human beings) and of what you do not know” (36:36). Besides indicating that earthy life forms evolved from water and clay (earthy elements), the Holy Qur’an also mentions another type of life form created from “smokeless fire.” There are 117 identified elements on earth and all the earthy life forms evolved from some combination of these elements, with water playing a fundamental role. While elements have been identified, and are scientifically verifiable, we do not know how many forms of energy exist in the universe, but known forms include electrical, radiant, thermal, sound, motion, gravitational, chemical, nuclear, mechanical, solar, geothermal, hydro, fossil, biomass, wind, and natural gas. Moreover, since, each of these classes of energy has multiple subclasses, it is estimated that there are hundreds of kinds of energy. For example, visible light has various wavelengths representing numerous colors, each representing a different kind of energy within the visible light class. Within light there are spectra that are invisible to us, i.e. UV and IR lights that we utilize for our benefits (taking x-rays and for sterilizing various objects).

If “smokeless fire” is interpreted to refer to a class of energy, then the Holy Qur’an seems to suggest the possibility that certain life forms have arisen from energy sources: “And indeed, We created man from sounding clay of altered black smooth mud. And the jinn, We created aforetime from the smokeless flame of fire” (Qur’an Sura 15, verses 26-27; italics added). It stands to reason that our 3-D-limited vision and linear interpretation of time prevents us from seeing life forms that exceed these dimensions, but many people, from many faiths, have insisted that they have felt their influence.

Based on our knowledge of the speed of light (186,000 miles per second), we would assume that an energy-based life form moving at that speed would clearly be invisible to dimension-limited mortals. Humans cannot see any light beyond a limited visible spectrum, but they can sometimes perceive the effects of such light. Persons who hear their cell phones ring would think it ludicrous to dismiss the existence of sound-causing microwaves on the grounds that they are invisible. Nor would they refuse to acknowledge the heating capacity of microwave ovens simply because they cannot visually perceive the tiny waves. Likewise, x-ray photographs, or sunburned skin, give evidence of that which is unseen but nevertheless real. These effects of energy are routinely felt but not seen. Earlier theoretical postulations and examination have led to developments in these known areas of energy forms. Contemporary theories, including string theories, will, hopefully, result in further breakthroughs.

Perspectives on unembodied entities, often called spirits, abound. They range from deep doctrinal perspectives from theologians to the speculative viewpoints of scholars and persons from all walks of life. What these widely divergent views have in common is their belief in the reality of the unseen, and the idea that the unseen may, under certain conditions, be seen. In Zoroastrianism, the evil spirit Angra Mainyu opposes the leading deity, Ahura Mazda. Descriptions of this evil figure have much in common with the devil or Satan (the counterpart of the Islamic jinn, Iblis), who figures prominently in Judaism and Christianity. In Greek mythology, the Daemones are spirits who influence world conditions. Examples of these numerous spirits, and what they bring to humanity, are Algea (pain), Elpis (hope), Eupheme (praise), Momus (criticism), Nemesis (jealousy), and Phobus (fear) (Theo Greek Mythology: Exploring Mythology in Classical Literature and Art, http://www.theoi.com/greek-mythology/personifications.html). In Hinduism and other religions that teach reincarnation, spirits continue to exist through various iterations of life. Hinduism refers to the soul as the Atman, that spiritual entity that precedes birth and continues after death (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 2, http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/).

Mormons, like Muslims, stress the importance of the Prophet Abraham, peace be upon him, and their “Book of Abraham” (derived from an ancient Egyptian papyrus) reveals that spirits exist prior to gaining a body through mortal birth. These spirits “have no beginning; they existed before, they shall have no end, they shall exist after, for they are … eternal” (Abraham 3:38). Likewise, the Holy Qur’an informs to us that God has created all the souls of humankind before He created Adam and made covenants with them: “When your Lord drew forth the Children of Adam – from their loins – their descendants and made them testify concerning themselves, (saying): ‘Am I not your Lord?’ They said: ‘Yes! We so witness!’ Lest you should say on the Day of Judgment: ‘Of this we were unaware!’” (7:172). Referring to unembodied personages still awaiting birth, Abraham states, “Now the Lord had shown unto me, Abraham, the intelligences that were organized before the world was; and among all these there were many of the noble and great ones” (Abraham 3:22). Abraham learned that he was one of these: “And God . . . stood among those that were spirits, and he saw that they were good; and he said unto me: Abraham, thou art one of them; thou wast chosen before thou wast born” (Abraham 3:23). Christian and Jewish beliefs overlap in the Jewish Tanakh and the Christian Old Testament, which include this teaching from the prophet Jeremiah: “Before I [the Lord] formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee, and I ordained thee a prophet unto the nations” (Jeremiah 1:5). These passages help us understand the views of other religious groups regarding unembodied spirits, a concept that exists prominently, albeit with significant differences, in Islam, which emphasizes jinn.

The Holy Qur’an states that the Creator has made many non-earthy life forms that are energy-based, and capable of changing shape and form. The two life forms described in the Qur’an (in addition to human beings) are angels and jinn. It depicts angels as having originated from light and as lacking free will; they simply obey. It describes the jinn, created from smokeless fire, as preceding the creation of humankind which was made from mud or clay. Both the Qur’an and related Hadith (words and deeds ascribed to the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him) identify the jinn as spirit entities capable of appearing in different forms and of acting according to their own free will to assist humans or lead them astray, as well as to worship God or to deny Him. Islam teaches that the jinns can take the form of various 3-D life forms, including birds, dogs, bees, and humans (Ameen, 2005). In an article describing Islamic medical sciences, Speziale (2003) describes the jinn as “created from fire, who inhabit a subtle world in which mankind is immersed, as into a liquid.” This description corresponds well with Kaluza’s string theory as both deal with a multidimensional world, much of which is beyond our limited sensory perceptions. The Qur’an thus portrays the jinns as occupants of a parallel world of spirits, a doctrinal stance that – as shown above – has its counterpart is many other religions.

The jinn are mentioned in more than forty verses in the Qur’an; one chapter is named (Surat-ul-Jinn) explicitly after them. Further information regarding the jinn, their food, behavior, and capabilities come to us through information regarding the Prophet that has been transmitted over the generations via the Hadith. Among the references to the jinns is the following passage from which we may infer that jinns have the ability and responsibility to choose right over wrong: “‘O you tribes of Jinn and humans, did not messengers come to you from amongst you and relate to you My revelations, and warn you of the meeting of this Day?’ They said: ‘Yes, we bear witness upon ourselves;’ and the worldly life deceived them, and they bore witness on themselves that they were rejecters” (Qur’an Sura 6, Verse 130). A second verse reinforces this conclusion: “I did not create the jinns and the humans except to worship Me alone” (51:55).

The validity of string theory relies on the reality of unseen dimensions, and although we do not purport that the Holy Quran directly endorses this theory, it does support a search for truth. Moreover, a number of Qur’anic passages suggest the reality of more dimensions than meet the human eye, and of human inability to comprehend these additional dimensions: “The seven heavens extol His limitless glory, and the earth, and all that they contain; and there is not a single thing but extols His limitless glory and praise: but you [O men] fail to grasp the manner of their glorifying Him!” (Qur’an Sura 17, verse 44; italics added); “Do you not see how God has created seven heavens in full harmony with one another?” (Qur’an Sura 71, Verse 15; italics added).

Can we see jinns?

As inhabitants of a three-dimensional world, we would presumably be able to see a 2-D world, just as we are able to read the two-dimensional words on these magazine pages. Following this logic, those living in a parallel world, with more dimensions than earth’s inhabitants perceive, would have the capacity to observe 3-D activity while remaining invisible to the lower-dimension world. According to such logic, jinns could see humans but not vice-versa. The Holy Qur’an states, “Lo, he [the devilish Iblis] sees you, he and his tribe, from whence you see him not” (Al-Araaf verse 27). Iblis (the counterpart of Satan, Lucifer, the Devil, etc.) is the leader of the evil jinns.

The following verse from the Qur’an, which sounds like a divine approbation of space exploration, has been intriguing to many: “O assembly of Jinns and Men, if you can penetrate regions of the heavens and the earth, then penetrate them! You will not penetrate them save with a Power” (Qur’an Sura 55, verse 33). The Pakistani Islamic scholar Mawdudi asserts that Qur’anic verses describe the capabilities and limitations of the jinn, specifically their ability to travel rapidly though space: “In surah Al-Hijr: 16-18, surah As-Saaffat: 6-10 and surah Al-Mulka: 5, it has been said that although the jinn can ascend to the heavens, they cannot exceed a certain limit; if they try to ascend beyond that limit and try to hear what goes on in the heavens, they are not allowed to do so, and if they eavesdrop they are driven away by meteorites” (The Alim for Windows).

Ghosts and jinns

Western civilization has generally misunderstood Islamic doctrine concerning jinns and has often erroneously equated ghosts with jinns. In Islam, the jinns are real life forms capable of carrying out behaviors and mental processes. Whereas the ghost of Western traditions tends to be the departed spirit of a deceased mortal; Islam has no such concept per se, but maintains that so-called manifestations of ghosts are nothing more than close encounters with jinns. Countless individuals have insisted that they have seen implausible life forms or other objects that appear to have crossed over into the human dimensions to become visible for a time. Many have affirmed that they have seen loved ones, which they explain as the spirit of the deceased, but Islam would tend to interpret such manifestations as evidence of jinns. Some have gone so far as to maintain that such occurrences are explicable via scientific theory, which may be substantiated by evidence. One theoretical explanation is founded on the presence of energy in human life, and in life from other dimensions. Others have maintained that energy appears when supernatural manifestations occur, including cases of so-called hauntings or paranormal activity. Assuming that jinns are made of energy and give off energy, it has been hypothesized that their presence might be measured by electromagnetic force (EMF) detectors, which can examine and record even the smallest fluctuations in electromagnetic fields. According to this line of reasoning, the human body radiates a limited electromagnetic field; electrical appliances – from low-energy light bulbs to higher-energy televisions and computers – give off even more; and jinns, or so-called ghosts, theoretically, would cause far higher levels of measurable electromagnetic distortion. Some have insisted that these distortions are so powerful that they interfere with the working ability of computer systems, EMF detectors, and audio-visual equipment; and that high levels of static electricity have been detected by sophisticated devices. Like string theory, such theoretical suppositions invite investigation, analysis, and refinement in pursuit of truth.

Yet another theoretical approach focuses on recording temperature changes to scientifically detect the presence of invisible entities. This approach maintains that because fluctuations of more than ten degrees have been recorded in small areas with constant temperatures, it is reasonable to conclude that some energy-altering form has been present. Temperature does not change unless something causes such a change. Further theoretical modeling has revolved around cold spots and hot spots, the former linked to the notion that light does not reflect correctly off ghosts, which gives them a dark form because light is absorbed into the ghost. This theory would explain the claim that, even though ghosts absorb both light and heat energy, the general area around them is several degrees cooler than elsewhere in the room. Hot-spot theorists argue that just the opposite occurs; ghosts reflect light and heat rather than absorb it, thus causing the area to be hot or cold.

One of the most common claims of unexplained objects that become temporarily visible involves unidentified flying objects (UFOs). In many accounts, UFO observers report serious EMF distortions, which may result in an engine stalling or car lights ceasing to function. One can speculate that the ability of giant flying objects to maneuver with amazing speed could be due to the presence of jinns, whether for serious or mischievous motives during their brief crossing into the 3-D terrestrial realm.

The Prophet Muhammad’s traditions inform us that the jinns live, take nourishment, have offspring, enjoy life, and die, although their lifespan is unfathomable to 3-D-limited mortals. Like humans, they create different languages, believe in diverse religions, establish varied civilizations, and may choose to be either good or evil. Islamic belief credits jinns with the capacity to terrify humans, carry out pranks, and take possession of their consciousness. Ameen (2005), in his text The Jinn and Human Sickness, describes the type of sickness caused by the jinn, including physical sickness, hallucinations, creating enmity between people, sexual problems, and psychological disorders (52-3). Symptoms of jinn possession have also been categorized and researched by Ameen and include erratic behavior, seizures with no medical cause, paralysis of limbs, frequent headaches, and barrenness in women with no medical cause, Therefore, Islam, as well as other religions, resorts to some form of exorcism – that is, the expulsion of evil spirits from possessed victims. The ability to expel jinn from the human body has been described in Hadithic tradition. Biblical literature also documents the existence of demon possession and the ability to remove such evil spirits from the human body (see specifically the Gospels of Matthew and Mark). Of course, the symptoms of possession are also common problems that plague many humans due simply to aging, accidents, genetic disabilities, or emotional trauma and should not automatically be attributed to jinn possession without careful medical and psychiatric examination.

In summary, we remind our readers that truth is truth, regardless of where it is found, and ultimately all truth is perfectly correlated and logical. Given the sensory and perceptual limitations imposed by three-dimensional mortality, the dazzling possibilities suggested by string theory and other explanations of the unseen prove tantalizing to humans, who are searching to correlate the truths gleaned from various sources, including science and religion. We trust that the summary of string theory, the citations from the Holy Qur’an, the comparative perspectives from other religious traditions, and the overview of some phenomena that seem logically inexplicable, without the insights of revealed theology, will spark interest in the ongoing quest for truth that renders the human experience both fascinating and meaningful.

Figure 1: One of the ways to explain the multiple Dimensions is “String theory.” Theoretical string theory analyses, in hopes of eventually producing a comprehensive “theory of everything,” have focused not only on strings but also on membranes and have inspired new mathematical advances vis-à-vis Calabi-Yau spaces and knots.

(Adapted from Onpedia http://www.onpedia.com/encyclopedia/string-theory)

Question: Among the characteristics of “ignorance” that his followers would not completely abandon, the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, mentions boasting on the basis of one’s rank, reviling others’ genealogies, expecting rain from the stars, and wailing extremely over a lost loved one [1]. What are the lessons to be drawn from this saying?

Answer:

Boasting of one’s merits is a deception

Boasting about any quality like status, nobility, knowledge, wealth, beauty or intelligence, etc. signifies disrespect toward God. For Bediuzzaman, disregarding Divine favors is ingratitude, whereas laying claim to them is boastfulness. So, if a person wishes to avoid both ingratitude and boastfulness, he must acknowledge that all these blessings such as knowledge, wisdom, reason, judgment, wealth, health, and the like, come from God. If necessary, a person should only mention them in the form of acknowledging God’s blessings.

Boasting and vanity are qualities disliked by God. Even if a person is descended from the pure lineage of the noble Prophet, he must say: “My God, coming from such a blessed lineage is not something in my control. I know that You are the One Who blessed me with it. This goodness belongs to You and it is a heavy responsibility for me at the same time. My Lord, I praise You with thanks for having bestowed on me this favor and I ask for Your help so that I can give this responsibility its due.” No one should ever use this as a way to assume superiority over others.

Being a descendant of a general, coming from a wealthy family, being the child of a high-ranking bureaucrat … none of these bear any value in the sight of God. In this respect, no matter at what level, a person should not commit a mean act by being boastful of one’s family and should not see this as a factor of superiority. The merits of one’s ancestors are of no benefit whatsoever for a person. What really matters is having worthy personal values: “Surely the noblest, most honorable of you in God’s sight is the one best in piety, righteousness and reverence for God” (Qur’an 49:13). The measure of an individual’s value is related to that person’s worship, the quality of his or her relationship with God, and whether that person leads a God-conscious life; acting with the knowledge that God sees everything and as if one were able to see God. If a man does not stand where he should, descending from a noble lineage will be of no benefit to him at all.

Superiority by lineage

Secondly, the Messenger of God referred to the issue of holding others in contempt on account of their ancestry. While a person’s coming from a humble background and being the child of a shepherd does not reduce that person’s value at all—as stated above—coming from such and such lineage does not bring any virtue either. The following couplets of Ibrahim Haqqi summarizes this situation well:

“Haqqi come, do not reveal your secret;
If you wish to progress on this path,
Do not deride the wretch my dear;
There are such wretches that hide a treasure.”

It is definitely wrong to reproach and deride people by looking at their cultural environment, material status, neighborhood, family and the like. Ideas of superiority, and seeing others as inferior, date back to a more distant past. In the present day, this understanding continues in overt or covert forms in many places in the world. There is a caste system in different forms and manifestations around the world despite so many claims of progress in civilization, democratization and human rights.

Fortune telling by the stars

Another characteristic of the Age of Ignorance that continues to survive is the issue of expecting rain from the stars and ascribing the coming rains to the stars. In Mesopotamia particularly, the people deemed the stars to imbue a special holiness. The people of that land believed the stars to be directly influential on a person’s destiny. Although such beliefs do not exist in our time, belief in fortune telling by the stars and horoscopes still continues showing that this tradition of the Age of Ignorance remains in different forms.

In relation to this subject, the noble Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, expressed that God Almighty stated:

“On this morning, some of My worshippers remained as true believers and some became unbelievers; he who said that it rained with the blessing and mercy of God is one who believes in Me and does not believe in the stars, but he who said it rained because of such and such (star) does not believe in Me and believes in the stars.”

Then, seeing the falling rain as a manifestation of God’s mercy and responding to it with praise is a sign of faith, whereas ascribing it to simple causes, such as the stars, is a sign of associating partners with God. If God Almighty had rendered the stars a veil before the operation of His power and greatness, it could have been acceptable to see them as causes. However, as the natural sciences have also proven, there is not even a direct relation of causality between the stars and rainfall.

Unfortunately, when people do not believe in what they should, namely, when they do not have sound faith in God, the Prophets and the Qur’an, the natural need for belief in something, that is an attribute of human nature, leads them to believe in falsehoods. While some seek help in yogism or meditation, others try to find satisfaction with horoscopes and the like. All of these block the ability and potential of the human soul from accepting the real truth. Human nature is inclined to a quest for the truth but sometimes people put on the hat of falsehood and try to satisfy their heart, which actually yearns for the truth, with stones, trees and stars instead, even though those are not even conscious beings.

Culture of wailing

The final point stated in the hadith is wailing over the dead. In some parts of the world, there still exist certain forms of mourning where people slap their hands on their knees and cry artificially like performers.

However, this exaggerated display of emotions is of no benefit to the deceased whatsoever. If a person did not attain closeness to God through worship, and did not live as an obedient servant while in this world, it is of not much of a benefit for him (or her) even if a large crowd attends his funeral, sings his praises, or bears witness that he was a good person. In addition, it also needs to be stated that knowingly giving a positive account of an evildoer is bearing false witness. We surely make judgments according to the outward reality. Only God knows what is in one’s heart. If a person has passed away with faith and righteous deeds, the number of people who attended his or her funeral does not really matter. Millions of people attended the funerals of so many pharaohs and other tyrants, but this does not absolve them from the sins of their atrocities and oppression.

As a matter of fact, the noble Prophet said that if forty people bear positive witness for a deceased person, that person will be forgiven. However, as I have tried to point out above, this does not apply to knowingly bearing false witness. The Messenger of God made the following address to Abu Hurayra as a warning against death:

“Restore your ship, for the sea is deep. Take your provisions perfectly, for the journey is truly long. Keep your load light, for the slope before you is truly steep. Preserve sincerity in your deeds because God, The All-Seeing and Righteous One, is well aware of any of your acts” [2].

These were the points the Messenger of God found worthy of emphasis. If you pass away having remained within such a righteous sphere, then you will have passed to the pure horizons of our soul and be blessed with the truth of: “Surely we belong to God (as His creatures and servants), and surely to Him we are bound to return” (al-Baqarah 2:156). Otherwise, the wailings and praises—even if performed by millions of people—and the crowds attending your funeral will do you no good at all.

Notes

[1] Hakim, Al-Mustadrak, 1/539.

[2] Daylami, Al-Musnad, 5/339.

What makes this event unique compared to other attempts at bringing people together to celebrate our heritages, our cultures, and our languages? For me it is the spirit of the philosophical rationale underpinning the organizers of the event: the Horizon Educational Trust, the Gauteng Provincial Department of Arts, Culture and Recreation of South Africa, the South African-Turkish Business Association, and the Turquoise Harmony Institute. What do they share in common that helps them to run a festival of diversity?

First, the festival is deeply focused on the “the diamonds” of the show: namely, the youth, who are students from a range of Turkish schools across the globe who came to showcase their experiences of dialogue, sharing the riches of their own cultures while embracing the opportunities for self-growth, discovery, and development as they learned to speak a common language of respect and value. Yes, there were the perfunctory speeches from dignitaries and sponsors. Yes, the organizers emphasized the role of Turkey offering not just bilateral South Africa-Turkey relations, but also access into the worlds where Turkish conceptions were sowing seeds across the international community. Yes, there was a nod to providing awards to the Mandela family in recognition of his contribution to world peace. But these speeches did not dominate the program; it was clear that the unexpressed agenda of the organizers was directed not towards scoring political points or grandstanding. The event was an opportunity to learn from others through appreciating difference and viewing “others” not as potential threats, a waging of supremacist ideological battles, or the harmful promotion of political factions. We, as the audience, were spectators of a new world in gestation.

The simplicity and genuineness of the hosts came through on multiple levels, but especially in how they promoted the view that cultural dialogues are easily communicated beyond linguistic specifics. The universal languages of arts, music, and dance speak volumes. The festival program directors marked each individual presentation with an evocative introduction translating the songs they rendered and offering connection with the message of the colors of a rainbow world, enriched by our diversity. Whist they hinted at the countries of origin of the performers, they were careful not to set any one up as “exotic others” against some normative hegemony, or in a competitive ascendancy. Each performance was afforded a dignity in its own right and the young stars rose spectacularly to the occasion with confidence and committed expertise. They exuded that this was a festival, not a competition; a celebration of dialogue of selves, not egoistic performances.

Notably, the program was also consciously planned to bring different performers onto the same stage in simultaneous coupled or multiple-group renditions, showing that it is not uniqueness alone that is to be valued, but one’s ability to stand alongside, and in concert with, other perspectives and points of view. We saw Romanian and Georgian songstresses hold back-to-back performances with South African backing vocals. We were mesmerized by a heartfelt Whitney Houston song, “I Am Nothing Without You” performed by an Australian teenager wearing traditional Islamic dress. We witnessed the choral singing of Turkish and South African songs by enthusiastic students on a full stage. A duo of a lanky African American and a suave South African Durbanite executed a spirited “Stand By Me” performance. An elegant impersonation of Adele’s “Someone Like You” by a Catholic girl from the Philippines sent shivers down one spine and brought tears to most eyes:

I wish nothing but the best for you…

The penetrating, almost operative gusto of “Je t’aime” by a pint-sized French lass celebrated the wonderful potential young people possess. Mozambican sisters, and Netherlander siblings, and Madagascar soloist performers continued to show the spirit of the festival by singing in Portuguese, Dutch, and Turkish. Audience members fervently waved randomly distributed miniature flags from all participating countries. Each member of the audience was randomly assigned arbitrary custodianship of these nationalistic symbols. The “We are the World” popular mantra brought all solo performers alongside the whole starry cast in a memorable display of togetherness. A South African dance group exhibited their pot pourri of traditional Turkish folkdances. Local variations of kwaito music and gumboot dancers culminated in a costumed celebration of all performers: North, South, East, and West in a rousing reinterpretation of the Southern anthem, Shoholoza. A tribute from the whole student group to both Mahatma Gandhi (in Gurathi) and Nelson Mandela (in isiXhosa) demonstrated the lessons of these international icons of harmony and commitment to social justice, through quiet, yet powerful engagement and dialogue. The celebratory pictures of their historical lives, presented in a back-to-back sequence, were a tribute by themselves. What a collage of possibilities peppered with the spice of smiles!

The music genres spanned both traditional and modern forms. It was quite evident that the star performers (ranging in age from early to late teens) were selected as exemplars of exceptional artistry. Each performance was reinforced by graphic slides depicting scenes from the performers’ home countries. Natural fauna and flora, cultural and architectural monuments, and significant people or groups formed the worldwide educational tour via the panoramic backdrop visuals. Some graphics told visual stories of evolving forms and features of the worldwide community. The program saw the presentation of singers performing their own and other cultural languages. They adapted costume styles from different settings outside their home countries. The kaleidoscope that emerged was a festival of variety: where people of different groups exchanged dress styles, languages, and dance choreographs to communicate the possibility for the dialogical space that a new cultural movement can embrace.

South Africans are perhaps skeptical of this kind of multicultural celebration due to apartheid. In such a form of cultural celebration, different cultures are placed alongside each other as enclaved entities, highlighting the “boundaries” of one’s beliefs, a celebration of otherness. Such divergence produced a “multi-cultural” endeavor that promoted a political hierarchy of perspectives which took on racialized proportions with disastrous effects.

In present times however, many proponents of the “new era” of cultural affirmation in post-apartheid South Africa see cultural celebration as an attempt to assert a new regime of hierarchies with one cultural form replacing the previously powerful forms. This is also more often associated with the representations of political power which silence those who differ from the majority perspective, the new master narrative, or dominant worldview. How different is this from multi-cultural apartheid?

By contrast, the Turkish school movement inspired by the international Hizmet philosophy of “service to humanity” is characterized by a worldview that celebrates the interdependent common ground across all cultural expressions. Their outward manifestations may differ, but cultural representations highlight the similitude of our humanity, and our quest for dialogue, love, and tolerance. This is embodied by the writings and teachings of a key founder of the Hizmet Movement: Fethullah Gülen. In this version of “inter-culturalism,” the attempt is to develop individuals who are conscious of their own self and their heritage, but not in service of a protectionist or preservationist agenda. From this firm position of self-strength, one is able to reach out to the world of others. We see in others, too, our agenda for our common quests. Our reaching out is a service to realizing peace and harmony – which is a goal sorely needed in a war-torn, politicized and ideologized world, which often uses religious beliefs as rallying points for promoting hostility, supremacy, and divergence. Sometimes these separatist agendas are disguised econometric plots, too! Cultural affirmation is not a hearkening to a fossilized past, but a recognition that our habits and routines can mutate and extend through dialogue and exchange; our borders can be more inviting and more welcoming.

A third kind of cultural engagement is “juxta-culturalism” which merely tolerates different groups walking alongside each other, never interconnecting. This is sadly the lived experiences of many who pursue only a narcissist nationalistic myopic agenda, seeing only the boundaries of geography and politics as the border of their selfhood. This produces expressions of xenophobia which does not recognize the inherent commonality of all human beings. We are all created equal in the eyes of God. Our nationalist identity is only a man-made demarcation, dividing one set of people from another. It is more commonplace that many individuals in our modern global society, live outside the borders within which their forefathers were born. We may draw our cultural roots from one geographic space, but live in another context altogether.

Human history has been replete with stories of crossing borders, migrations due to the ravages of political, economic, or natural disasters. Not all of these journeys are tales of joy. More likely, the fragile settled communities interpret the visiting migrant culture as undercutting the nationalistic goals of their society. Open hostility is unfortunately sanctioned as the appropriate response to keep the outsiders from penetrating our “safe world.” So, which version of cultural affirmation did the festival of language and culture promote?

I think that a version of “trans-disciplinary culturalism” emerged as the young stars of the show interacted to generate a positive energy of harmony by crossing over to the other side. Their own past matters; they remained rooted on their own river banks. But they were confident enough to swim across to the other side. The young performers were firmly grounded in the here and now of the present 21^st century, with all its influences: technology, media, and new musical and art forms, which they transported across the global village. And they dared us to dream of the possibility of building a new, shared cultural world. Their message was simple: we are simultaneously of the past, in the present, and eager to create the future. This movement across time and space, culture and geography, history and identity, are not threatening but enriching.

One of my lasting impressions was the emotional image of students embracing each other at the end of the show: this was the world in dialogue with each other. They had made a connection with those around them that would live on in their lives for many years. They will become the ambassadors of the new world order. The official festival song reverberates:

I saw a luminous future in my dream one night.
Lights were silent pouring down everywhere.
It was like a harmoniously working clock.
Dark nights had gone away.
A new world!
A new world!
They were building a new world.
Everywhere sparkled like the skies.
They were building a new world.

After the ceremony, I chatted with a young 12 year-old Albanian youth to congratulate him on his commanding and welcoming stage performance. He simply smiled broadly.

“No English. Me speak no English.” He smiled and held my hand, clutching his Albanian costume in one hand, his proud flag in another, and his infectious energy pouring out. Despite his lack of English skills, he was able to communicate via his open-hearted spirit.

What a festival of cultures and languages! Not essentialized, but harmonized. It was an expression of joyous humanity.

And there we found our God.

But now I think: was he from Albania or Afghanistan? Why do I not know these countries and their foreign flags? But does it matter?

His heart sparkled.

Reflections on the “13^th International Festival of Languages and Culture”
www.iflc.co.za
“Colours of the world”
18 March 2015
Nelson Mandela Theatre, Braaamfontein, Johannesburg

Michael Anthony Samuel is a professor of education at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, School of Education, Durban, South Africa.

Despite that, there are more than 100 types of amino acids found in nature; only 20 of them are employed for protein synthesis. Among these 20 amino acids, excepting glycine, which does not display chirality, only the L-form of the 19 is used for protein synthesis. This is because ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs, do not feature the utilization of D-form amino acids. As nothing in the universe exists in vain but with multiple tasks, D-amino acids have a job in the maintenance of life after protein synthesis in very different fashions. The way D-amino acids are employed in the execution and control of physiological preferences amazes scientists.

Up until recent times, D-amino acids were believed to be synthesized mostly by bacteria and plants, unlike mammals, and were considered dysfunctional as they passed, via consumption of nutrients, from bacteria and plants. However when D-amino acids were noticed for having roles as important as L-amino acids during the 1990s, the field gained significance. It was demonstrated that D-amino acids were found widely in invertebrates, vertebrates, and humans as free forms or inside proteins, undertaking critical functions in the nervous and endocrine systems. The most interesting point is the conversion of amino acids from the L-form into the D-form after the protein synthesis occurs in the peptides that are present in the venomous secretions of various animals. This conversion leads to the alteration of the peptide identity and function. Racemase and isomerase (epimerase) enzymes are utilized as they are created for this task. Usually, one or two amino acids of the D-form peptides are in D-form.

When chemist Gunther Kreil of the Austrian Academy of Sciences learned about the use of South American poisonous tree frogs (Phyllomedusa sauvagei ) during Shamanic hunting ceremonies by local Peruvian tribe (Matses), he studied this poison in detail. Participants of the ceremony first caused a burn on their chest region, then applied the poison they obtained from the frog skin over it. Diarrhea and tachycardia started within a minute, followed by a brief faintness. Once they recovered after a few minutes, they were to find themselves in a much more vigorous and exhilarated state of mind. The poison they were applying to their chest contained the dermorphin peptide, which has psychoactive, hallucinogenic effects and a D-amino acid. This peptide is a pain killer 30-40 times more effective than morphine. Among the 7 amino acids found in this peptide (heptapeptide), all are in L-form, except for one. Only the alanine, as the second in the peptide sequence, is in D-form and is produced via the isomerase enzyme from the L-alanine after the protein synthesis. G. Kreil discovered this D-form synthesizing enzyme in 2005. When this peptide was synthesized artificially in the laboratory, it did not display any biological activity or hallucinogenic effect. After a careful investigation of the case, it was found that frog skin based peptide had a D-form alanine second in its sequence; however, the one produced in laboratory had an L-form alanine. It was the presence of only one D-amino acid that made the difference in discovering the identity and function to the natural peptide in the poison.

In recent years dermorphin has started to be used as an illegal performance enhancer during horse races because of its pain killer feature. Horses on dermorphin can run longer and faster since they cannot feel the pain related to foot fatigue.

P. Kuchel of Sydney University also showed a D-amino acid presence in the peptide structured of the poison in the Platypus, a semiaquatic egg-laying mammal. Males use this poison as a weapon to fend off competitors. In 2009, Matthew Waldor and his friends at Harvard University discovered that the sugar-protein mix (matrix) called peptidoglycan found in the composition of bacterial cell walls is structured in a way to contain primarily D-alanine, D-methionine, and D-leucine. More interestingly, D-amino acids of the peptidoglycan structure were able to play a stimulatory role in coordinating the activities of other bacteria in the colony. For example, they acted as light houses in the use of florescence and helped in the formation of thin layers (bio-films) on various surfaces in bacteria. Once we understand the way D-amino acids help in communication between bacteria, it will be possible to use them as a drug. It’s possible they can be used to disintegrate bacteria that forms on teeth, in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients, on clogs in fuel lines and water tanks, and in medical devices such as catheters.

D-amino acid containing peptides found in lobsters help maintain salinity levels and facilitate courtship in mating seasons. In recent years, D-amino acid containing antimicrobial peptides were discovered (bombinines) in the secretion glands of fire-bellied toad skins (Bombina sp). In this peptide, the second amino acid was in the D-form (D-allo-isoleucine). Two different peptides were found containing D-amino acids in the second position of the amino acid sequence of the poison secreted by Platypus males.

One of the reasons for D-amino acids to exist in animal poisons is that peptides containing D-Amino acids can not be easily degraded by the proteases (peptide bond breaking enzyme) of the host or opponents. Even though proteases can quickly and easily digest proteins composed of L-form amino acids, they struggle to do so with peptide bonds between D and L form amino acids. Pharmaceutical companies are trying to add D-amino acids to the peptide-structured drugs to prevent the quick degradation of peptides and proteins used for treatments when ingested. However, the addition of a D-form amino acid brings the high possibility of a situation that changes the function of a peptide or protein, or causes the loss of a protein. Nonetheless, specialists in this field point out that at least some amount of the D-amino acids that are produced by trillions of bacteria found on the skin, in the digestive track, and among other parts of the body can still be utilized for human health and convenience.

The D-serine of the mammalian nerve systems (glial cells and neurons), the D-aspartate of the neuro-endcorine, endocrine tissues, and testicles, and the D-alanine and D-aspartate amino acids of aquatic animals are abundant. D-Serine in the brain is synthesized by the conversion of L-serine into D-serine by the serine racemase enzyme. D-aspartate is in charge of hormone synthesis and secretion, and the regulation of spermatogenesis, and is produced by aspartate racemase and degraded by D-aspartate oxidase. It is also predicted to play role in the synthesis of hormones such as melatonin and testosterone.

As of now, four enzymes have been detected to be in charge of D-amino acid metabolism in mammals. How these are controlled is still unknown.

Publications pertaining to the association of epilepsy, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorders with enzymes in charge of D-amino acid synthesis and break down have increased in recent years. From this point of view, serine racemase and D-amino oxidase can be used to develop new potential drugs regarding the treatment of similar NMDA receptor associated diseases.

The first data demonstrating the use of D-amino acids in saliva in organs outside of the human brain was obtained by Y. Nagata and his team at the University of Nihon, Tokyo. A team led by Kenji Hamase of the Kyushu University discovered high levels of D-alanine storage in the beta cells of the rat pancreas. Kuchel, who discovered the enzymes converting the L-amino acids in to D forms in duck-billed Platypus poison, also found similar enzymes in the hearts of mice and humans. According to Kuchel, the physiological roles of those in humans remain to be unknown.

As a result, the common feature of toxins and antimicrobial peptides that are produced and secreted by animals is to contain D-amino acid. These peptides can be the source of a potential drug in the treatment of diseases such as cystic fibrosis, schizophrenia, and macular degeneration of the eye.

These prove that, especially in biology, exceptions are common; life is enriched via examples of extraordinary lives, processes, and mechanisms in unexpected places by unpredictable molecules or interesting reactions that can’t be predicted. Such discoveries help deepen our wonder at the intricacy and wisdom of creation.

A sudden vibration I feel above the earth; a rhythmic beat, like a marching band. A caressing and tranquil harmony permeates from all around. It is no stranger to me; I seem to recall this experience previously. My parents, from whose fruit I was spawn, told me stories of merciful droplets that would fall from the sky. Several miles high they would come to our aid. They were the answer to our prayers. Now, I alone, a single seed destined to beget my own clan of many fruits rejoice for the coming of rain. I wonder if the rain knows that it will allow me to fulfill my potential. Nevertheless, all that really matters is that there is an All Knowing One who brings me my sustenance from an unexpected and contrasting place – miles high in the sky.

I feel an eruption within me as the cold, parched earth moistens from all around. Although given no mouth, I have the required faculties to absorb the moisture through my rotting shell. Waiting to break free and penetrate the earth above, I first ensure that my presence is firmly established and stable by means of sprouting deep within the earth – how else would I bear the weight of my future children. Like the umbilical cord of a human child, I too draw my sustenance (earth/water) by means of my intertwined roots deep within the earth. Two miraculous and contrasting elements are earth and water. Complete opposites which do not compete but work in unison. No taste and hardly any color. There are no visible workers in sight or artists holding paint brushes in their hands, but my first sprout, which has now penetrated the earth, has various shades of green.

I sprout out of the earth in prostrated form and in awe of the events thus far. An act to acknowledge His all encompassing Power and Compassion; I am humbled by Thee. The more I accept my insufficiencies and impotence compared to His Might, the more I am nourished and sustained. Now there is a new guest which visits me at length each day. Its warmth caresses my newly formed leaves and energizes my zeal to extend and expand – the sun. Yet another contrasting force from where my roots spread deeper into the earth. The sun’s light, from millions of miles high, synergizes with the earth, air, and water to give me the strength I need to grow. I’m sure none of these causes (earth, air, water, and light) are aware of each other. If they were, they would most certainly be in conflict with each others’ will. The display of solidarity between them could only be explained by the Power of Authority and Unity, Who has Governance and Command over all. None fall out of their jurisdiction. All these causes are but only a veil to my Makers Dignity and Grandeur; however, His Divine Unity and Glory does demand that I be observed from beyond these superficial causes and acknowledge that He is the True Cause. All these conflicting elements become subservient to my needs. Indeed, He is the Creator of all things.

It has been quite some time now since my inception from within the womb of the earth. I stand tall with several arms branching out, adorned with leaves like open hands constantly asking for nourishment from my Maker. In return, He wants me to attract others to His fine display by means of decorating me with luscious flowers, neatly and purposely laid out petals side by side. Within my flowers I carry the pollen required to sustain and fulfill the purpose of other creatures and life forms. Just another piece of the ecological jig saw, which becomes un-puzzled when looked through the rational eyes of belief. No harm is inflicted to me as I hear the buzzing of wings circling my ornamental, soft, colorful, and tasty bloom. A poisonous bug pilots his landing delicately on a petal which is now fully blossomed. A succulent feast I offer to this creature that carries a toxic sting, but produces very sweet, multipurpose nourishment for its own clan and various other life forms.

I have now matured, ready to display the next work of art my Maker had preordained within my core. I must bear fruit to fulfill various other acts of wisdom; to continue my species, to act as a source of sustenance to other life forms, and once again to attract and amaze all consciously observing eyes to the Mercy, Compassion, Art, Knowledge, and Wisdom that my Creator has displayed. A picture does tell a thousand words; however, I also speak in as many tongues as there are languages. I have become a vessel to translate My Designer’s subtle but prominent messages.

My fruit, like a human child, has various stages of growth and formation. My children, too, start off as a humble seed but I fulfill my potential within a very short period of time. All my cousins and relatives follow a similar process; however, we are all commanded to bear our offsprings at different times to cater to different needs. Take, for example, the orange or apple, whose trees usually bear their fruit during autumn and winter months. They contain various nutrients and vitamins to nourish their consumers and assist in the preventing of (or aid in the healing of) common ailments that humans are susceptible to during these months.

My fruit is now mature – ready to bedazzle its observing audience and tantalize its consumer as a delicious culinary delight. It is fashioned and conserved with an outer layer to protect it from harmful outside elements. It is painted with various shades of a variety of colors and endowed with a succulence not to be found within the earth, water, air, or light! I feel so honored in being given the opportunity by my Maker to be a demonstration of His Might and Art, however small I may be in the big scheme of things. I have had no control over any of my faculties or attributes in developing into a fruitful tree, nor did any of the elements which have assisted me to grow. I have become a means in consolidating and manifesting many of my Designer’s beautiful Names and Attributes.

The time has now come for me to rest and experience my own resurrection. With all my offspring now either consumed and having given nutrition to other life forms or fallen to the earth where it had originated from, I shed my leaves. They too will fulfill another purpose by being a nutrient to the earth and the creatures within. I give praise to my Sustainer, Who has looked after and catered to all my needs; from being a humble seed to a fruitful tree bearing my own seeds. I have served many purposes, both physical and metaphysical. In conclusion I do ask all that have witnessed my journey: “Then which of the favours of your Lord will you deny?”

The widely accepted argument today is that the elements used as building blocks of life were first backed in the nuclear furnaces of stars under extra ordinary heat and pressure, undergoing a series of transformations and took their forms as we realize them on our earth. Among all the elements on our planet earth, the unique properties given to carbon and hydrogen elements has made the existence of carbon-based life forms possible.

Carbon combined with different elements in many different quantities and geometric arrangements, results in a vast assortment of materials with vastly different properties.

The molecules that are found in live organisms are created from different quantities, geometric arrangements and assortments of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur. The base properties of carbon are playing an important role in creating these compounds.

Each carbon atom makes four bonds. Carbon may make bonds with other carbon atoms forming chains, branching chains or rings of linked carbon atoms. These properties given to carbon are important factors in the miracle called life.

When a carbon atom makes bounds with four hydrogen atoms methane gas is obtained (CH4). If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with oxygen atoms in methane we obtain carbon dioxide (CO2). If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with sulfur atoms in methane we obtain carbon disulfur (CS2), which is a combustible and poisonous liquid.

If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms in methane we obtain carbon tetrachloride CCl4. If we exchange the hydrogen atoms with fluoride atoms we obtain fluorocarbon compounds. The Teflon used in our kitchenware is a fluorocarbon resin.

When two carbon atoms each having three hydrogen atoms attached come together, the ethane molecule is formed. As mentioned before chains, branching chains and rings of linked carbon atoms can be formed this way. Some carbon compound’s molecules consist of just a few atoms; others contain thousands or even millions. This is one of the main reasons of organic versatility that is behind the scene. Attaching other functional groups to the carbon atoms in the chain increases the versatility of compounds. Some examples of these functional groups that are built up with carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur coming to mind at first would be the hydroxyl functional group (OH), the carboxyl functional group (COOH), the methyl functional group (CH3), the amino functional group (NH2), the phosphate functional group (PO4), the carbonyl functional group (CO) and the sulfhydryl functional group (SH).

If we exchange one hydrogen atom in methane with a hydroxyl group we obtain methanol, which is an alcohol that damages the optic nerves. To turn methanol into ethanol, which is found in alcoholic beverages we need to add a methyl group to methanol. If we add one oxygen atom or a carboxyl group to ethyl alcohol we will obtain acetic acid (vinegar acid). Adding a nitrogen atom or an amino functional group to acetic acid we obtain amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Looking to these examples we understand that a slight difference in the structure or order of the atoms within a compound can change the whole functionality of that compound. We realize that live systems are fragile and that very sensitive adjustments are made to create the right conditions for the existence of life and that delicate balances are kept to maintain the order of life, which we enjoy so much. Another important fact these examples can prove is that building everything from one thing or building one thing from everything is one of the aspects of creation. This aspect provides us valuable knowledge about creation.

We can explain this matter further with an analogy. To construct a building we need various materials like bricks, cement, wood and iron. Buildings with different architectures and functionalities are constructed with the same materials in different quantities and arrangements. Similarly, this amazing variety of life forms and the order of life on earth are brought to existence with only a few element types (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, nitrogen and sulfur) which are brought together in different arrangements, representing infinite numbers of different shapes in space.

Life is protected from extinction with buildup and breakdown mechanisms, which change and convert these molecules from one to another.

The popular child game called LEGO is another example that can be used to explain how this infinite variety of life forms is created by a few types of elements. Children can build different objects according to their imagination by using the limited number of plastic pieces in different quantities and arrangements. Just like this, the most merciful has created the amazing nature and every living creature in it by using the limited number of elements in different arrangements and quantities.

Natural forms of pure carbon include graphite, one of the softest minerals known, and diamond, the hardest substance known. The only difference between the two is the structure of the bonds between carbon atoms. Diamond and Graphite, being the same chemical composition, but different crystal structures, are two polymorphs of pure carbon. Another example is aspirin, gasoline and vanillin oil. All three compounds are composed of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms but their properties and usage are completely different. All these examples point to the attribute of creation stating that many things are made from one thing.

Another related topic is isomers. Hydrocarbon variations that differ only in the arrangement of atoms are called isomers. Isomers are very important in biology. The preference for some isomers of molecules that are used in the base metabolism of living beings and biological systems shows us that the existence of life is not without certain intentions and willpower. For example, only the D form isomer of glucose can be used by biological systems. Similarly when the C vitamins are produced synthetically in the lab environment, 50% of those are isomers. Because only one of the isomers is biologically active, our body can use only %50 of the C vitamins we buy from the drug stores.

To stay alive, the human body needs water, air and nutrition from the outside world. It is very important that the nutrition we take has enough elements like iron, zinc ant iodine in it. These elements take place in certain enzymes and molecules, which are important for some proteins and hormones to work properly. For example not having enough iodine in our nutrition can cause an enlargement of the thyroid, which shows up as an abnormal swelling in the neck called a goiter. This illness can be seen more often in mountainous regions where the soil has less iodine because the rainwater washes it away. This reflects on the vegetation and fruits grown in the region and causes the body to not produce enough thyroid hormones. When iodine in nutrition is less than a certain amount it can even slow down the brain development. Similarly iron deficiency causes anemia and zinc deficiency causes growth retardation.

In summary, the magical order and amazing complexity in nature is based on a few molecules, which are arranged in different shapes, orders and in different quantities.

It is one of the miracles of creation that all complex organizations and structures, which even have different specifications, are made from very basic building blocks. The science of complexity (chaos theory, fractal geometries, etc.) has begun to research how God, who is able to make one thing from everything and everything from one thing, has created these astonishing complex beings from very basic and plain molecules. This research to understand how this amazing order and complexity exists will open new doors for the 21’st century science. 

References

• Crawford, M. and Marsh, D. (1989). The Driving Force: Food in Evolution and the Future. Mandarin paperbacks.. Octopus publishing Group. London.
• L. Vlasov & D. Trifonov, 107 Stories About Chemistry, Translator : Nihal Sarier. TUBITAK Populer bilim kitaplari No: 26, ANKARA.

Photosynthesis

To fully gain an insight into these interactions’ complexity, we must conduct an in-depth study and observation of the processes taking place. Initially, the sun’s released energy must be made useful to our body’s cells, for direct sunlight on its own is not useful. Energy from the sun, along with water from the soil and carbon dioxide released from all living organisms, synthesizes oxygen and sugars (including glucose) within the leaves of green plants. This seemingly simple but very complex process is called photosynthesis. Without the oxygen and glucose required to generate usable energy (in the form of ATP* molecules), no human or plant cells could survive, although some exceptions are known.(2) Hence, all photosynthetic organisms on Earth an indispensable sources of oxygen for all life-forms.

The two main sources of oxygen are rain forests and oceans, where green algae and photosynthetic bacteria live.(3) In fact, algae lying 120 meters beneath the Antarctic ice is fully equipped to serve life. These algae have been found in sponges with a system of fiber optics that allows them to gather the minute amount of light reaches the Antarctic Ocean’s murky depths and direct it to photosynthetic algae.(4) Given this, we must say that photosynthetic life-forms are in complete submission to and serve other life-forms, among them humanity.

Plant and tree leaves are optimally designed, both physically and biochemically, to generate vital oxygen and sugars. A leaf’s large surface area is required for the optimal interception of solar energy, while the thin cross-section is essential for the fast transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of the leaf.

Specific photosynthetic cells are arranged in between the leaf’s two protective epidermal layers. Carbon dioxide and oxygen molecules, under specific guidance, leave the leaf through specific pores flanked by cellular gates or guard cells situated underneath each leaf, as the leaf’s upper layer is covered with a protective waxy layer. This waxy layer is essential, for without it the leaf would dry up. For example, on hot days 100 gallons of water are lost from cottonwood trees.(5)

All evaporated water is collected as clouds (water vapor near the condensation point), from which pure, condensed water falls as rain. Likewise, all animals’ breath contains water vapor (released during the breakdown of glucose for energy release), which is also created as clouds and recruited as a moving source of potential water for all needy plants and living organisms.

Water’s continual recycling between the land and oceans to the clouds prevents wastage and provides a continually renewed source of fresh water to synthesize oxygen during photosynthesis. It also serves as a medium in which all biochemical reactions must take place in living cells.

Moreover, a leaf has no knowledge or power to generate oxygen and sugars, which are vital for all living cells, for it has never seen or experienced any direct contact. For carbon synthesis to occur, oxygen atoms must be torn from water and carbon dioxide molecules. This requires knowledge and power, since neither solar energy nor a leaf possess these. Also sugars, an indispensable food source for all life-forms, cannot be synthesized by coincidence in a weak and powerless leaf.

This complementary relationship indicates that all these simultaneous interconnections could only take place according to a program dictated through an all-pervading knowledge, willpower, and mercy. Likewise, only One with such attributes could subject, direct, and allowing these processes to continue.

Breathing

Moving at extremely high speeds (around 346m per second),(6) oxygen molecules released from such photosynthetic life-forms as plant and tree leaves, and bacteria and algae in the oceans, must reach the lungs of all living organisms. They also must be dissolved in water so that fish and other marine organisms can breathe. In fact, all of these processes must take place continuously so that each organism can live until its appointed time. This means that the oxygen molecules must be guided through the atmosphere and into each living organism so that each molecule’s optimal and perfect function may be carried out. Thus, although moving at extremely high speeds, each molecule’s function remains in the best and optimal manner.

Each lung is a highly delicate organ composed of millions of microscopic tunnels ending in tiny sacs (alveoli) encapsulated with a dense capillary (thin artery) network.(7) Oxygen molecules in the atmosphere are inhaled and brought to the sacs, which send oxygen (from within the sac) into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide is diffused from the bloodstream into the sacs. Although the air we breathe contains a large proportion of nitrogen, it is mainly oxygen that is pulled through the sac’s wall, across the thin arterioles’ microscopic walls, and into the bloodstream’s red blood cells. Each oxygen molecule is then complexed and surrounded by a huge molecule of hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells). Although these processes take place very quickly, every step occurs with exceptional precision and accuracy.

To reach the trillions of functionally different cells, the red blood cells must be pumped there with a great force. Therefore, all oxygenated red blood cells coming from the lungs are directed immediately to the heart. This masterpiece works continuously from birth until death, pumping fresh blood from the lungs to the tissues, and simultaneously pumps oxygen-deprived blood from the tissues to the lungs.(8)

Red blood cells flow through the arteries with great force. When they reach the thinnest arteries (capillaries) at tissues that are only one-cell thick, they almost align in a single queue within the capillaries and move carefully until the oxygen they carry is diffused to the surrounding needy tissue cells. At the same time, the waste gas of carbon dioxide is diffused quickly from the tissue cells into the blood plasma. The red blood cells then are directed into the veins, loaded with waste gas, and sent back to the heart (this requires great energy, as the blood returns to the heart at a very low pressure). From here, the oxygen-deprived red blood cells are pumped back to the lungs to be oxygenated. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is directed out to the sacs and exhaled into the atmosphere.

As creation contains no waste and every existence is useful, this waste gas is recaptured during photosynthesis to create vital oxygen, thereby displaying an unprecedented example of complementarity. Thus solar energy is harnessed to generate oxygen and provides a means of generating energy beneficial to cells (chemical energy). The oxygen created in this process is taken through multiple steps and stages until it is made available to the cells.

Conclusion

Here, we see a clear manifestation of perfect bounty and grace, for the cells needs are brought to them from afar and with extreme care after going through multiple ordered steps that easily could be disturbed. One insight we acquire is that each step takes place rapidly yet accurately, and so must require an infinite power and knowledge to occur.

We, Earth’s most intelligent creatures must admit our relative inability and impotence to understand fully or even to control any of these perfect processes. Rather than behave according to our vested interests and suppose Earth to be under our control, we should seek to understand our responsibility to know that all of these processes are somehow connected with us and subjected for our benefit in so many ways that conscious gratitude and faithfulness are required.

Footnotes

1. http://www.seds.org/nineplanets/nineplanets/sol.html.
2. Richard Monastersky, Deep Dwellers: Microbes Thrive far below Ground, Science News 151 (29 Mar. 1997):192-93.
3. http://gened.emc.maricopa.edu/bio/bio181/BIOBK/.
4. http://www.sciam.com/0297issuehttp://0297scicit3.html.
5. http://gened.emc.maricopa.edu/bio/bio181/BIOBK/.
6. http://fermi.bgsu.edu/~stoner/p201/idealg/tsld009.html.
7. http://biology/01.ux.com/MiraCosta/HumanResp.html.
8. http://www.atlcard.com/pump.html.

In the West, the theory of evolution continues to be promoted as if it were a proven fact or a secure, testable and tested law-something that no-one in their right minds questions any more. This presentation implies that there is no room, let alone any need, for discussion. The most common media cliché is that the evolutionary chain has been confirmed yet again by yet another discovery of the missing link proving human ancestry from apes. Faced with this kind of promotion and presentation, and the sheer pervasiveness of it, it is no surprise if non-specialists come to accept that the theory must be true, and that it must be accepted by all the specialists, the whole scientific community, with no serious doubters. However, that perception is far from the reality. In the first place, the theory lacks completeness on two major counts and there is no likelihood of these deficiencies ever being made up. In the second, there are major voices of dissent from within the scientific community, alongside alternative theoretical explanations which demonstrate a far superior conformity with observed or experimentally obtained data.

The origin of life

To have any enduring claim to viability the theory of evolution must explain the origin of life in its own terms. It must be able to answer the question, ‘How did life evolve from non-living forms?’ It needs also to explain how the notion of ‘selection for survival’ operates before life exists, to explain how ‘life’ is the best way for non-living forms to exist longer. Just as the theory tells us that, because rhinoceroses with the thickest skin did best in battles with other rhinoceroses, over aeons of time rhinoceroses evolved skins as thick as skins can possibly get while still functioning as skins-so too, it needs to tell us how life is an adaptation. If it is, what is it an adaptation to? Moreover, if life is an adaptation, why is it the same across the whole range of living forms (animal or plant or in-between)? We have innumerable varieties of living forms (adapted, we are told, to different conditions of climate and competition for food resources) but we do not have different varieties of being alive. Is that what we should expect? Should we not expect that the creatures who lived longest (and had offspring the least often) would have out-survived all competition, until eventually they lived so long it was for ever? Or, vice-versa that those who lived the shortest lives (and therefore had more offspring more often) eventually fell back, after aeons of trial and proof, into hardly being alive at all individually, but merely replicating themselves? In fact, of course, the same climate and conditions of competition for food resources support both relatively long- and relatively short-lived forms at every level of complexity and thoroughly intermingled within even the same individual life-form.

Life rests upon an infinitely precarious equilibrium among the proteins, the building blocks of life, found in the simplest to the most complex of living forms. Denying the existence of a conscious Creator, the theory of evolution cannot explain how this equilibrium was established and protected. The theory proposes chance and coincidence as the only scientific way to think about the question. But a scientific way of looking at a problem must have at least some likelihood of being true, if we are to expend energy fruitfully on verifying or falsifying it. In other words, a hypothesis must be reasonable to start with so that we can test and judge it. It must not be irrational: the appeal to chance and random coincidences is nothing if not an abandonment of reason. A protein is made up of the combination of on average 1000-1500 aminoacids in 20 different types in a certain sequence. Even a single error in that sequence renders the protein useless. There is zero probability of this happening by chance, not even if the universe is billions of light-years wide and long. One of the foremost advocates of evolution, the Russian scientist A.I. Oparin confesses this impossibility in his book The Origin of Life (pp.132-133). Even the simplest of these materials (proteins), consisting of thousands of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen atoms, each with a unique design presents highly sophisticated structure. For those who study the structure of the proteins, it is as hopeless for these proteins to have formed by chance as for the Aeneid (the long Latin epic by Virgil) to have been composed by random association of the letters of the Latin alphabet.

Another evolutionist scientist has offered a different analogy with the same conclusion. The probability of a chance formation of only one of the proteins required for life (Cytochrome-C) may be likened to the probability of a monkey writing out the history of humanity by randomly pushing the keys of a typewriter.

What evolution theory defends is exactly this nonsensical assertion. Yet, the examples above are only the probability calculations for the chance formation of a single protein. However, millions of similar impossible coincidences should have been realized consecutively in order for the evolution of life to be effected.

The probability of chance formation of a Cytochrome-C sequence is a low as zero. If life requires that certain sequence, it is likely to be realized only once in the whole life-time and space of the universe. Now it could be proposed that some metaphysical power(s) beyond our definition consciously enabled its formation. But to entertain such a proposition is, apparently, not appropriate for the modern enterprise of science. Therefore we have to fall back on the first hypothesis as the best we have at present.

If, as it appears, the theory of evolution is not justified by the information we have, how does it survive? Has questioning it become, among the specialists, a taboo which they violate at the risk of their reputation and their careers? If so, why? We will return to this question.

The problem of transitional forms

Another of many difficulties with the theory of evolution is that the theory requires there to exist or have existed in the past transitional forms. For example, if the theory claims, as it does, that life originated in the sea and then sea creatures were driven (by some force, let us say, a climatic change like a fall in sea-level) to move on to dry land, the theory must produce evidence (or at least convincing argument) of the transitional forms between the sea-creatures and the land-creatures they evolved into. Our present experience of, for example, fish, is that if they come out of the water, they very quickly die. We have no reason to believe that fish were so radically different aeons ago from what they are now. If anything, the evidence is all the other way: that fish as fish were the same then as now. So how could enough of them have lived long enough in shallow-water or no-water to establish in their gene pool the skill to evolve gills into lungs? Nobody can say that maybe some of these fish happened to acquire a lung at the end of the four-millionth year while they were in the throes of death. It is entirely nonsensical. But this nonsense is exactly what the evolutionists assert. The same problem arises when we look for transitional forms between land-bound reptiles and flying birds.

Some allegedly extinct intermediate transitional forms have turned out to exemplify only the temptations of forgery and distortion in the service of falsehood into which some scientists have allowed themselves to fall. For instance, the fish Coelacanth (Rhipitistian Crossopterigian) presented by evolutionists as a transitional form between marine and land creatures, and supposedly extinct about 70 million years ago, was found alive and well in 1939 near Madagascar, and has been caught about 50 times since in the open seas. Furthermore, the organs that prompted the evolutionists to present the coelacanth as the transitional intermediate form (inner ear alcoves, head typed backbone and swimming bag), do not have these properties at all. The same is true for other fossils presented as transitional intermediate forms. The well-known nature scientist A.H. Clark acknowledges that, since we have no single evidence indicating a transition between fossils and living groups, we must accept that such transitional forms never existed.

A well-known genetic and evolutionist, Richard B. Goldschimdt admits that there is no such a thing as the transitional intermediate form. He explains the differences in species by sudden leaps. Now to say that a species originated all of a sudden is tantamount to saying that it was consciously originated or ‘created’. Although the evolutionists are embarrassed on scientific platforms, they do not have a hard time deceiving the ordinary person in the street, because the theory is so well-packaged. You draw an imaginary schema representing transition from water from land, you invent Latin words for the animal in water, and for its descendant on land, and you draw sketches of both (both wholly imaginary constructs), and the package is completed or, as we should rather say, fabricated. ‘Eusthenopteron transformed into first Rhipitistian Crossoptergian, then lchthyostega in a long evolution process.’ If you put these words in the mouth of a scientist with thick glasses and a white apron, you are half way to convincing most people. For the great many people who see reality through the media packaging of it, this kind of presentation is good enough to be truth: it is easy to believe, it makes no demand on consciousness, or reason, or conscience: we are all here by chance, we are not here by the will of a Creator to Whom we are answerable.

The most common package is, inevitably, the one that relates to

human beings. A central feature is the string of related sketches (all imaginary constructions) of an all-ape, three-quarters-ape, half-ape/half-man figure, gradually ending in a drawing that looks more or less like a European male of average build and features. This is offered as our story, our beginning long ago, our present being now. This string of sketches will be found on virtually every classroom wall, from primary schools to secondary schools and in every popular textbook or encyclopaedia which touches upon the subject, and in the form of stuffed exhibits in every science museum in the West.

In these drawings, half-ape half-human creatures are seen as a family. Having a hairy body, a slightly bent walking posture, and a face in between a man and an ape, these creatures are supposedly drawn from the fossils found by the evolutionist scientists. But the fossils found give information only about the bone structure and skeleton, and examination of the teeth will reveal information about the probable range of diet.

The fossils tell us nothing at all about how hairy the body was that hung upon those bones, nor what kind of nose, ears, lips or hair would once have rested upon the particular skull. But the evolutionists’ sketches picture do, almost always, show the organs like nose, lips and ears, and these are drawn (to fit the theory) and do indeed show something half-man, half-ape. This is not science, it is fiction or, more precisely, it is myth. Another support for this fiction, and another proof that it is fiction, is that the same bundle of bones can give be made to give rise to quite different re-constructions, depending upon the particular theorist’s preference: for example, the three totally unlike re-constructions of the fossil called Australoplthecus Robustus (Zinjanthropus). There is certainly a power behind these presentations of the theory, but it is not the power of reason disciplined by facts and evidence, but the power of myth-making imagination inspired by a particular ideology.

The ideological background to the theory

In order to understand why the evolution theory is promoted and defended so insistently, we need to look to the historical background behind it. Until the modern period, the intellectual life of Europe was basically subject to the authority of the Church. Starting from the 16th century, the order justified and underpinned by the authority of religious beliefs and principles started to conflict with the interests of certain social groups. Acquiring great wealth through commerce but having no political power, these groups began a long struggle to limit the authority of the Church. They did so not only on the political and social fronts but also on the philosophical front: religious beliefs and the authority of religion had to be weakened before the social-political system underpinned by religion could be radically reformed. Almost all the 18th century ‘enlightenment’ intellectuals and 19th century positivists came from these secularising groups and were funded and supported by them. (The French Revolution was the biggest single social transformation realized by their machinations.)

The space opened by the weakening or elimination of religious beliefs was filled by new ideologies generated by the same social groups. The first ideology was liberalism, followed by socialism which developed as a reaction to it. Later came fascism meddled with racism. Despite containing some opposing ideas, these ideologies were all by-products of the new secular system and stood on the same anti-religionist ground. None of them spoke of the man’s responsibility before his Creator or the obligation to organize personal and collective life according to His guidance. Conversely, the principles that necessitated belief in religion were harmful to the new ideologies. One of the most important of these principles is that man was created, as the Church had always held (following the same belief in Judaism), by God in His own image, for the purpose of doing His will and worshipping Him.

It was very noteworthy that communism, the most radical and outspokenly anti-religious of the modern ideologies, showed a particular zeal for the theory of evolution. Karl Marx wrote of Darwin’s Origin of Species in a letter to his comrade Friedrich Engels (dated December 18, 1860) that this book presented the natural-historical basis for their critique of capitalism (Marx and Engels’ Letters, vol.2, p.426).

Darwinism laid the basis for fascism which is one of the by-products of the new secular order. Holding some human races superior to the others, this notion proposed that some races were in advance of others in the evolutionary process. This trend called Social Darwinism inspired many racists from Arthur de Gobineau to Adolf Hitler. Darwin himself prepared the ground for racism by proposing that the white man was more advanced in evolutionary terms.

Besides communism and fascism, the capitalist ideology dominant in the Western world and now in nearly the whole world, needs people to believe in evolution. To undermine people’s commitment to religion and moral principles, to reduce their aspirations and relationships to merely economic ones, it was necessary to convince them that man was not created by God as a morally responsible being. It is very noteworthy that major capitalist dynasties like Rockefeller and Carnegie come first among those who have granted funds and other support to the flourishing of Darwinism in the U.S.A. Michael A. Cremo and Richard L. Thompson, in their book The Hidden History of the Human Race, explain how the Carnegie Institution was virtually aiming for the victory of the scientific cosmological vision over the old religious cosmologies. The Rockefeller Foundation supports the same materialist cosmology and serves the mission of ‘modern civilization’, aiming to confine the concepts of God and spirit to the mythology museum. The evolution propaganda promoted in the distinguished media organs of the West, and reputable science journals is a consequence of this ideological requirement.

Conclusion

No ideological program, whatever the illusions of its supporters, and whatever their means of promoting and packaging their untruths, can survive for ever. Precisely because man is God’s creature, made for nobility of being and action, he must and will seek truth, albeit temporarily deviated.

All the information revealed by modern biology shows that the origin of life, especially the molecular structure of living creatures, cannot be explained by coincidence in any way. The transcendent consciousness ruling over the whole universe is the ultimate evidence of God’s existence. As a matter of fact, some eminent names in microbiology have come to the point where they cannot defend evolution any longer. Instead, another theory has begun to get a long overdue hearing among these scientists: the theory of conscious design. The scientists defending it remark that it is very evident that life has been created by a conscious designer.

The chemistry of fullerene has grown considerably in importance within last ten years. The discovery was very fruitfull, since then that the number of carbon atoms can vary, and for this reason numerous new carbon structures have become known. Formerly, six crystalline forms of the element carbon were known, namely two kinds of graphite, two kinds of diamond, chaoit and carbon(IV). The latter two were discovered in 1968 and 1972. Graphite is soft, black and stable, common form of carbon. Diamonds may once have been a woman’s best friend, but chemists know they are only lumps of graphite in disguise. Both are in different properties, in diamond, each carbon atom is bound to four other carbon atoms in a regular repetitive pattern. In graphite, the carbon atoms are located at the corners of regular and fused hexagons arranged in a parallel layers. Those two forms are not soluble in organic solvent such as toluene, benzene but fullerene.

How C60 is formed like a European football shape?

Fullerenes formation can be summarized by a short experimental procedure; when vaporized carbon condenses in an atmosphere of inert gas such as helium. The gaseous carbon is obtained by directing an intense pulse of laser light at a carbon surface. The released carbon atoms are mixed with a stream of helium gas and combine to form clusters of some few up to hundred of atoms. The gas is then let into a vacuum chamber where it expands. It is then cooled to some degrees above absolute zero. The carbon clusters can then be analyzed with mass spectrometry2.4. Although explanation is easy, to meet the experimental part, conditions and to carry it out is not that straightforward. People have been making football and rugby ball, however, it never came up to their mind that those shapes could represent a stable molecule structure. Now, question in this respect is that the fullerene could be available in other part of the universe, since the reaction conditions do take place on the sun surface.

Why new form of carbon had been called buckministerfullerene?

Curl, Kroto and Smalley performed this experiment together as mentioned earlier with two graduate students J.R. Heath and S.C O’ Brien during a period of eleven days in 1985. By fine-tuning the experiment they were able in particular to produce clusters with 60 carbon atoms, C60 gives the most remarkable peak on the mass spectrum. It was found high stability in C60 which suggested a molecular structure of great symmetry. The pattern of European football has exactly this structure, as does the geodetic dome designed the American architect R. Buckminister Fuller for 1967 Montreal World Exhibition. The researchers named the newly discovered structure “buckministerfullerene” after him. The shape could be defined as perfect symmetry the most beautiful molecule, the greatest ball, in fact, it was the most beautiful reflection of the Creator who had already created the universe.

The discovery of the unique structure of the C60 was published first in the Journal “Nature” and had a mixed reception- both criticism and enthusiastic acceptance. Continuing their work 1985-1990 obtained further evidence that the proposed structure ought to be correct, the research program particularly at Sussex University in England has covered several interdisciplinary areas. One area focused on the generation and spectroscopic characterization of new molecules, in particular, unstable species and reaction intermediates which contained labile multiple bonds, which led to carbon phosphorus double and triple bonds.

Why was this discovery so important for condensed matter?

As is mentioned above, numerous new carbon structures have become known by this discovery. Graphite and diamond (the other two well characterized forms of carbon) are known since time immemorial, now at the end of the 20th century a third form has been discovered. Furthermore, it has been under our noses all the time as amazingly the molecule forms in a soothing flame. The idea is that what kind of interesting applications can be developed if buckyballs are put together to produce new materials, or if different elements are put into the buckyballs. Besides lots of compounds made from buckyball could be easily identified. The way was, thus, open for studying chemical properties of C60 and other carbon clusters such as C70,C76,C78, and C84. New substances were produced from these compounds, with new and unexpected properties. An entirely new branch of chemistry developed with consequences in such diverse areas as astrochemistry, superconductivity material chemistry/ Physics.. (see several selected publications in the references)

During last six years since the fullerenes became available to scientist, more than a thousand new compounds have been synthesized. Their chemical, optical, electrical, mechanical or biological properties have been also tested. The production of tullerene is still expensive, which limits their use. If fullerene can be produced with a cheaper procedure then we might use it via industrial processes in our daily life. It is still early to see final application of this discovery, but there is few countries take it further to find whether it could be used as a drug, lubricant, and computer communication.

What Muslim scientists might do in order to discover something or do something in science vertically which will bring the competition with western scientists? Although the science had been developed in different respect of sciences by Muslims, now Muslims have got to pay some more effort for those gifts. We know that there are numberless substances have been staying out there ever since they had been created.With this consequence, a Muslim scientist has to be mentioned, Dr Ala’a K. Abdul-Sada10 who had involved in spectral analysis and characterization of this discovery. He is the first one who discovered this new form is soluble in different organic solvent that present a key factor in the new field of chemistry. Also the first sign in the discovery of this molecule is entirely depend on the solubility. He is a member of faculty and runs the mass spectrometry at the University of Sussex. According to him, ‘There is nothing wrong with Muslim scientist, but unfortunately badly effected by the lack of resources. The capability of Muslim scientists are well enough, if they are provided with equipment, and other scientific requirement’. He reported more than eight international patents which is purely petroleum application processes and being used industrial scale. We wish this level of research will be carried out in different area by Muslim scientists.

REFERENCES

1. H. W. Kroto. J. 2. Heath, S.C. Obrien, 2. F. Curl, R. E. Smalley, Nature, 1985. Vol:318, No: 6042, pp. 162-163.
2. J. Baggot, ‘Perfect symmetry; the accidental discave of Buckmmisterfullere’, Oxford Univ. Press, 1994, IX+315pp.
3. H. Aldersey-Williams, “The most beautiful molecule;an adventure in chemistry’, Aurum Press, London, 1995, IX+340pp.
4. 2. F Curl and 2. E. Smalley, “Probing C60′, Science. 18 Nov. 1988, Vol: 242.
5. H. Krcto, ‘Space Starts, CO and Soot”, Science, 25 Nov. 1988, vol 242.
6. C60: Buckministerfullerene, the celestial sphere that fell to earth,Angew. Chem., mt. Ed. EngI., 1992, 31,111.
7. A post-buckministertullerene view of Carbon in the Galaxy, Acc. Chem. Res., 1992. 25, 106.
8. The structure of buckministe fullerene compounds, J. Mom. Struct.,1994,325,1.
9. Condensed phase na otubes, Nature, 1995,377,687.
10. 2. Taylor. J. P. Hare, A. K. Abdul-Sado and H. W. Kroto, j Chem, Comm., 1990, 20, 1423.

Despite these common properties, the concept of being alive is well defined in biology. Living beings take in energy, produce waste, grow and reproduce. Plants and animals, however primitive, are living beings. Humans are included in the animal kingdom in that, like animals and unlike plants, they are animate.

It may be useful as well as interesting and challenging to make the distinction between living and non-living and seek answers to the questions, What is life? What is living and non-living being? What are the actual moral differences between them? and Do non-living beings

have any worth? The fact that (as we noted at the outset), in respect of their material and physical composition, living and non-living beings are similar, is a crucial one: if every thing is made up of Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen and other elements, then, to some extent, the difference between living and non-living is going to be expressed in meta-physical and moral terms.

We define certain ‘life-functions’ like ‘take in energy, produce waste, grow and reproduce’, and classify entities as living or not by these criteria. If some or all of these ‘functions’ are there, we say ‘it is alive’, if not, we say ‘it is not-alive’. Consider a cat wandering and playing around. It eats poisonous meat and lies down. After ten minutes we check it for ‘life-functions and, realizing they are all negative, we say ‘it is dead (or not-alive)’. We may now ask, what is the actual difference in the being of the cat between these two states? Although, in terms of the cat’s physical make-up, everything is unchanged, how can we define it as being alive at one time and not-alive at another? Is it just our labelling of beings with our own criteria? And can our descriptions be adequate without some metaphysical considerations?

If it is right to say that the building blocks of every living being are lifeless, not only life but also lifelessness should have some worth. Oxygen and water are unquestionably lifeless entities, but they are the most precious things on earth for beings living in this world. Therefore the intrinsic value of something has nothing to do with its being alive or not.

Dworkin (1993, p.69) reports the argument of David Hume and many other philosophers that objects or events can be valuable only when and because they serve someone’s or something’s interests, and (p.71) comments:

On this view, nothing is valuable unless someone wants it or unless it helps someone to get what he does want.

Dworkin’s own view is:

Something is instrumentally important if its value depends on its usefulness, its capacity to help people get something else they want. For example, money and medicine. Something is subjectively valuable only to the people who happen to desire it. Something is intrinsically valuable, on the contrary, if its value is independent of what people happen to enjoy or want or need or what is good for them.

Dworkin’s classification, wide- ranging though it is, could be extended by replacing the word ‘someone’ with ‘something’, and ‘people’ with ‘entities’. If we accept this extension, it emerges that everything living or non-living has some sort of value. Whether humans comprehend it or not, everything on earth and in universe has a purpose, and is of service to someone or something. Perhaps with the further advance of science and technology we will come to see more and more things, now considered as useless, as in fact valuable for some entity or other.

It follows that life is not a prerequisite in order for something to have value. It is existence that is primary. Spinoza (1923 edn, p196) wrote:

No one can desire to be happy, to act well and live well, who does not at the same time desire to be, to act, and to live, that is to say, actually to exist.

From existence every beauty and perfection may come, whilst from non-existence nothing is produced, good or evil. Although existence is entirely valuable itself, there are degrees of value. We are almost bound to assume that the perfection of an entity’s existence is through life for only a living being can experience its own existence, through thinking and reasoning. And all our knowledge is founded on experiences (Locke, 1993 edn, p.45).

Schweitzer (1923, p.26) argues that the essence of Goodness is: preserve life, promote life, help it to achieve its highest destiny.According to him, the fundamental principle of ethics is reverence for life. All the goodness one displays toward a living organism is helping it to preserve and further its existence. He believes that ethics embraces not only people, but also creatures; an ethics that does not also embrace our relation to the world of creatures is incomplete (pp.22-3).

If something is so valuable and precious, it must, in one way or another, be protected. We go to great lengths to secure and protect man-made pieces of art and scientific instruments. If life is so good and precious, how is it protected?

Every living being has an instinctive will to survive and is equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills. A small animal e.g. chicken will fight with a dog to stay alive. Plants too exhibit a desire to live. Individuals from the same-species grow roots and leaves in different lengths and sizes, depending on their environment, to increase their life chance. Schweitzer (1966, p.25) calls this the ‘will to live’. The ‘will to live’ is a universal fact, and entails competition between individuals and species. We observe in nature that, as well as co-operation and mutual helping, there is struggle: one life preserves itself by fighting and destroying other lives.

We destroy lives not only for survival but also for our convenience. We cannot build dams and produce electricity without destroying the environment and ending some forms of lives. All our daily food are plants and animals. It is unavoidable to destroy the lives of some plants or animals, knowingly or unknowingly, for various reasons.

If existence is entirely valuable, and the real basis of existence is life, then life should be valuable and respected in any form. However, is there any difference in terms of their value between different forms of life? Can animals be favoured over against plants, or humans over against both animals and plants? Could there be any justification for it? Is this a species-ism?

Many writers have sought answers to the question: ‘What makes human life valuable and, in particular, what makes it more valuable than other forms of life?’ (Harris, 1985, p.7). Harris questions the assumption that human life is (or should be treated as) more valuable than other forms of life. What justifies it and what, if anything, makes it more than mere prejudice to favour ourselves and our own kind? He says: ‘There is no doubt that we do value human life supremely, we think it important to save a person rather than a dog where we cannot save both, and we think it right to do so.’ Obviously, we must ask Why?

Before attempting to offer a possible answer, we should refer to Aristotle’s argument in his Ethics. He suggested:

We must not even demand to know the explanation in all cases alike; there are some in which it is quite enough if the fact itself is exhibited, e.g. in the case of first principles; the fact is primary and a starting point. Some starting-points are grasped by indication, some by perception, some by a kind of habituation, others by other ways’ (Aristotle, 1976 edn, p.77).

And preferences between forms of life fit into this category. We may not be obliged to find a satisfactory explanation as to why we value human life, even some individual’s life, supremely. Who could accuse me of unworthy discrimination if I rescue a human rather than a cat, my wife rather than a stranger, a black rather than a white, one from my nationality rather than one from another, in a rescue operation that does not permit me to rescue all? Who could accuse me of being a nationalist, racist or species-ist? This is simply a matter of preferences. This does not mean that I do not value the lives of the ones I could not rescue.

I cannot be expected to have a special reason for making that or a similar choice. I did so just because I felt it was the right thing to do.

Although it is not necessary to find a ‘convincing’ reason to value human life supremely, we can distinguish humans from other beings by some of his features, namely by their consciousness, reason and intellect. Dworkin argues that; ‘We treat the preservation and prosperity of our own species as of capital importance because we believe that we are the highest achievements of God’s creation, if we are conventionally religious, or of evolution, if we are not’ (Dworkin, 1993, p.82). Although in religious terminology God is free from having particular achievements or failures, it is true that humans are His special creatures, to whom He relates through Messengers. He made humans responsible for their conduct as they uniquely are equipped with consciousness, reason and intelligence to distinguish right from wrong.

In conclusion we may say that, to comprehend the nature of life is extremely important, but perplexing as well. Maybe we will never achieve that. However, as conscious beings, it should not be too hard for us to respect every being on earth, and reflect that they are all valuable.

Is there any reason to compare the worth of different forms of lives, if we embrace in advance the idea that they are all valuable and necessary for this world? Why should we put ourselves to the trouble of wondering whether we have any right to destroy some forms of lives for the benefit of others? Why do we hesitate to admit the distinctiveness of human beings? It is perfectly understandable to reject discrimination between human beings on the basis of race, gender, nationality and religion, but what could be a sufficient reason for devaluing humans as such in the name of equality between species?

Existence is good and every single being on earth and in the universe is valuable, and purposeful.

Therefore we should value all existing beings.

Consciousness, reason and intellect are precious, and we do accord supreme value to the lives of those beings who have these features. We should be aware of that too, and be respectful and responsible accordingly. 

References

• Aristotle (1976 edn)The Ethics of Aristotle, Penguin Books, London.
• Dworkin, R. (1993) Life’s Dominion, Harper Collins, London.
• Harris, J. (1985) The Value of Life, Routledge & Kegan, Paul, London.
• Locke, J. (1993 edn) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Everyman, London.
• Schweitzer, A. (1923) Civilization And Ethics, A.&C. Black Ltd., London.
• Schweitzer, A. (1966) The Teaching of Reverence for Life, Peter Owen Ltd., London.
• Spinoza (1923 edn), Ethics, trans. White, W.H. and Stirling, A.H., Oxford University Press, London.