Termites are 1-2 cm in size, but they live in mud towers that can grow to five meters tall. The scale, between termite and tower, is comparable to that between a human and a skyscraper. When their life style, which seems chaotic from the outside, is investigated, one finds that termites maintain social lives within perfect urban communities. These wondrous mini cities feature air conditioning and ventilation systems, in addition to a queen chamber, and rooms for incubation and juveniles.

An instinctual sense of solidarity that has been ingrained among living organisms also plays an important role among termites. They display an amazing form of cooperation in matters like foraging and defense. As termites live in colonies, they follow a particular arrangement of duties. The queen is in charge of new generations; workers meet the nest’s needs, and soldiers are responsible for its defense. When necessary, workers also participate in defensive tasks. One of the termite’s defense mechanisms, which amazed scientists, was recently discovered in June 2012.

Jan Sobotnik, with the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, and Thomas Bourguignon, of Université Libre de Bruxelles at French Guiana, discovered an unseen feature of the termite species Neocapritermes taracua. The workers of this species are, in a sense, enlisted to military duty when they “retire” due to old age and an inability to forage due to weakened mouths. They serve the defense of the nest as something of a chemical weapon specialist. When the colony is under attack, these veterans blow up a droplet-size balloon filled with a type of chemical generated in between segments of their neck and dorsal region.

When worker termites get older, blue crystal chambers, which resemble backpacks, grow on their two shoulder blades on their back. These crystals are a kind of protein called hemocyanin that contains copper, and they join together with saliva when under threat. This fusion causes a chemical reaction. The end product is a sticky liquid, like a gel, that is compressed to expand and then burst. This can fatally injure a predator. The poisonous substance that is dispersed causes rotting upon contact. The chemical formula of this blue crystal substance, along with its reactions, are still unknown.

Researchers from Oregon University (USA) reported that the mouth of an ant is worn down by age. When this occurs, these senior individuals, which used to cut leaves, now take on different jobs, like carrying the leaves. Leaf cutter ants, which are also known as the ranchers of the animal kingdom for their ability to cultivate fungi in their nests, can cut and carry leaves whose weight can be up to 50 times their body weight.

The leaves that are transported to the nest comprise the main ingredient required for the growth of fungi in a suitable environment regulated for the right temperature and humidity. This fungi is ultimately used to feed the colony. This is a fine example of senior members of a community staying active in a new role. And this is not just unique to termites: research shows that members of animal societies adapt to changes in their lives, and continue serving their colonies even if they lose some dexterity.

Our universe seems to be set up this way. As mentioned in the above examples, there is a change of occupation instead of just retirement. Just as there is no termite that stops working, there is no bird that says “I do not want to fly anymore because I am old,” or no tree that says, “I will retire and stop giving fruit because of my old age.” Organisms adapt to new conditions and find new ways to provide for our planet.

Our aging planet will continue rotating and the sun will keep smiling on us with its heat and light until the end of such organism’s lifetimes.

When it comes to humans, continuing with occupation and business as much as they can should be the desired effort. Especially for charity work, no one should mention retirement or leave of a duty, and receding to one’s quarters. Let us renew our intentions now, and review our senior living plans.

Southern Pine Beetles (Dendroctonus frontalis, figure 1) are one of the most harmful pests in the world, causing hundreds of million dollars worth of damage to pine trees in the Southern United States. These beetles initiate their attack on a pine tree by having a small group of female beetles dig into the inner park (Figure 2) and phloem of the pine tree. Once this work is done these females will secrete a chemical that will draw other male and female beetles to the affected pine tree. This initial attack is followed by a massive attack by a larger number of beetles, enabling them to easily overcome the defenses of the pine trees due to the sheer number of beetles. Shortly after taking over the tree, mating begins between the male and female beetles. As part of the mating process the females fill the excavated galleries within the trees with eggs. After the eggs have been laid the adult beetles will then leave the tree and continue to attack other trees. Attacking trees and causing their death is of course a sad story and may not sound very interesting since most pests have similar attack strategies; however, one detail that we did not mention yet makes this process more intriguing. What do the larvae eat to complete their development within a gallery that is inside a dead tree? The answer is: Fungi.

Pine beetles establish a symbiotic life structure with a beneficial fungus (Entomocorticium sp. A), which is the main food source for their larvae. Adult pine beetles have a body compartment (mycangium), in which they can carry this fungus. When adult beetles dig galleries in tree barks, they inoculate these galleries with the fungi. This fungus will grow in these galleries that helps the beetles’ larvae complete their development by providing them with a source of nutrition. Fungi also benefit from this process by being transferred from one tree to another with the help of the beetles. This symbiotic life structure is threatened by the existence of an antagonistic fungus, (Ophiostoma minus, also known as blue stain fungus) and parasitic mites both of which the southern pine beetles also bring along. The blue stain fungus has no nutritional importance for larvae, this fungus can grow in the same galleries as the beneficial fungus and they can even outcompete them. In addition, the parasitic mites feed on the blue fungi and can prove harmful beetles as the amount of blue fungi increases. Therefore, beetles’ larvae cannot survive for long and thus the reproduction of the southern pine beetles can be disrupted without some form of defense.

A recent study by Scott et al. has shed some light on this complicated life structure [3]. These tiny beetles, which are only a few millimeters long, have a smart defense mechanism to prevent their larvae (Figure 3, pink arrow). As far as the history tells us, humankind started using pesticides about 5000 years ago, but these tiny beetles have been using them for preventing the growth of the blue-stain fungi long before humans started using pesticides. These studies showed that the symbiotic coexistence of southern pine beetles and the beneficial fungi (Figure 3, yellow circle) is maintained by a (actinomycetous) bacterium (Figure 3, inside the red square). This bacterium produces a previously unknown antibiotic compound (named mycangimycin), which selectively inhibits the growth of blue-stain fungus hence providing a significant advantage for the maintenance of the beneficial fungi (that is, the main food source of the larvae). How can this bacterium even be present in the freshly carved galleries in pine trees in the first place? The surprising answer to this question is that they are transferred to these galleries by the very same pine beetles. As mentioned earlier, adult pine beetles carry beneficial fungi in their body compartment (mycangium) and inoculate the galleries they carved with this fungus to provide food for their larvae. In addition to this beneficial fungi these beetles carry they also carry bacteria that can produce antibiotic compound to inhibit the growth of blue-stain fungi and consequently diminish the number of parasitic mites. This bacterium can grow inside these galleries and even in a body compartment of adult southern pine beetles. Interestingly, this antibiotic kills blue-stain fungi but does not significantly affect the growth of the fungi, which is the food source for larvae. Thus, the beneficial fungi can multiply in number and offer enough food for the development of beetle larvae. Some of these larvae manage to grow to adults and then leave to attack other pine trees carrying the same fungi and bacteria with them (Figure 4).

The interactions within the rest of the life kingdoms is not any less complicated than the symbiosis between pine beetles, fungi, and the bacteria. The interactions between animals, plants and microbes are very complex and also fragile. Removing or replacing any member of an ecosystem can often result in a serious failure in the ecosystem as was observed many times especially within the last century.

References

1. http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?org=NSF&cntn_id=112319&preview=false.
2. http://entnem.ufl.edu/creatures/trees/southern_pine_beetle.htm.
3. Scott, J.J., et al., “Bacterial protection of beetle-fungus mutualism.” Science, 2008. 322 (5898): p. 63.

The hectic life style that many of us lead today causes stress which is likely to result in diseases of the heart or nervous system. The fast food culture has become a part of our lives due to our busy work schedules; this sort of a diet obviously causes an excess intake of fat. Office hours spent sitting on a chair without effective physical activity result in the storage of unused energy in the body. Thus, cardiovascular diseases have become one of the most common life-threatening risks for people living in developed countries. In the last five decades, much research has been devoted to investigating and preventing the risk factors that lead to coronary artery diseases.

The mushroom is a food with a rich nutritious content. Some species are known for having characteristics that are helpful in regulating the immunity system, preventing tumor formation, and reducing blood pressure without producing any known side effects. 88–91% of the physical make-up of a mushroom is water, thus fresh mushrooms are rich in proteins which can be more easily digested than many other vegetables. In addition to such proteins that are necessary for general health, mushrooms consist of B-complex vitamins and mineral materials.

Some species of mushrooms act as sources of healing in many ways. Polysaccharide-protein complexes obtained from species like Pleurotus spp., Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi), Grifola frondosa (Maitake), Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) have been found to prevent the spread of tumor cells and AIDS. It has also been discovered after research that mushrooms have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects; they are useful in the treatment of illnesses like cold, stomach and head aches, and hepatitis B; they can help reduce fatigue and sleeping problems as well as blood cholesterol levels. Mushrooms can also have a positive effect in diseases like arteriosclerosis, kidney failure and high blood pressure, as well as helping in strengthening the immunity system, thus delaying unfavorable conditions of aging.

Research has shown that mushrooms, with their B-complex vitamins, have a positive influence on the nervous system. The mushroom offers a good alternative for anemia, a disease that arises from a deficiency in folic acid and it also helps to regulate the blood sugar level. Mushrooms are often recommended for patients with liver and kidney diseases, as well as being a good source of protein for patients suffering from gout, for it causes the formation of only a small amount of uric acid at the end of the digestion metabolism. Here we provide more specific information about certain species of mushrooms:

Shiitake (lentinula edodes)

This species is cultivated and sold in Japan and China, where it is known as “the elixir of life” or “the secret of long life.” It is traditionally used in wedding meals. This mushroom is effective primarily in the prevention of apoplexy and arteriosclerosis. It is also used in many cancer research programs, due to its antitumor activity. A polysaccharide known as lentinan that is found in this species can suppress sarcoma 180, a solid type tumor, a feature that adds to the value of this mushroom. Patients are advised to consume shiitake mushrooms during chemotherapy.

In Japan, around fifty different types of enzymes have been derived from the shiitake mushroom. These enzymes include pepsin and tripsin, which are used in the treatment of some gastric diseases, as well as asparaginase, which makes up a part of leukemia treatment for children. This species is rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals. The consumption of 100 grams of fresh mushroom generates only 28 calories, thus making it a good alternative as a food that has limited energy intake. Mushrooms have only a small amount of A and E vitamins, but a large quantity of ergosterol (provitamin D2); this can change to D2 vitamin under sunlight or artificial light. D2 vitamin can adjust the phosphor and calcium balance, thereby contributing to bone and muscle development and preventing rickets. It has been found that the eritadenine compound that is contained in this mushroom reduces blood cholesterol at a rate of 25–45%. This species is known to be useful for all the health problems listed above (regulating blood circulation, apoplexy, arteriosclerosis, kidney failure, and high blood pressure; destroying bacteria, virus, pathogenic fungi).

Pleurotus spp.

This species is rich in proteins, only being surpassed by legumes. Mineral salts, like calcium, phosphor, and iron are contained in this species, in amounts that are proportionally twice as much as those found in beef or fowl. Among mushrooms, pleurotus has the highest levels of B1 vitamin (tiamin) and B2 vitamin (riboflavin).

Hemagglutinin, a substance that causes the agglutination of red blood cells, is contained in pleurotus ostreatus and pleurotus spodoleucus species. Eight of the eighteen amino acids found in pleurotus ostreatus are essential for human life. Extracts obtained from pleurotus spores trigger the formation of interferon, which is the first defense mechanism against viral infections. These spores have been found to help prevent flu and paralyses in laboratory animals.

Some mushroom species have been shown to be effective in strengthening the immune system. Chemotherapy applications used primarily in cancer and some other diseases are known to have many side effects, some of which are severe and can lead to other diseases. The toxic effects of some medications might pave the way for other infections, damaging the kidneys and liver. It is thanks to God, the Healer, that the mushroom is one among millions of other sources of healing that can be found in nature, waiting for us to discover them.

Basic nutrients for Agaricus bisporus %

Fat 0.35

Protein 3.43

Carbohydrate 3.78

Ash 0.71

Humidity 91.73

Minerals (ppm)

Zinc 5.46

Copper 1.59

Potassium 2445.50

Iron 8.73

Calcium 39.60

Chromium Iz

Phosphorus 882.30

Vitamins dissolved in water (mg/100g)

B1 (Tiamin) 0.094

B2 (Riboflavin) 0.396

Folic acid 0.078

C (Ascorbic acid) 2.29

Niasin 5.35