The pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a fruit with abundant seeds and a perfect packaging. A vital food and medicine provider across different civilizations for thousands of years, the pomegranate has a different taste depending on variety and maturity. It may taste very sweet, very sour, or sharp. Botanically, it is a fleshy fruit from the berry group with an ovary from a single flower and typically has several seeds. The crown jewel of the fruit world, the pomegranate is widely consumed due to its nutritional properties, benefits, and taste. Unlike many fruit trees, both male and female pomegranate flowers are produced on the same tree, meaning the male flower can pollinate other flowers on the same tree or other trees.

Astonishing due to its extraordinary packaging system, the pomegranate has been grown in the tropical regions of India, Asia, the Mediterranean, and Africa for centuries. Since ancient times, is has been a symbol of fertility and has been depicted in different arts throughout history. The fruit has different meanings in various beliefs and religions and is introduced in three verses in the Qur’an, where it is called rumman. “There are (unseen) fruits, dates and pomegranates in (these two paradises)” [1]. Mentioned in the verse as a fruit of paradise, it can be consumed fresh and used in the manufacture of medicine and dyes. It can also be processed into pomegranate molasses, syrup, seed oil, fruit juice, or vinegar. In the Indian alternative medicine system (Ayurveda), the pomegranate is considered “a pharmacy in itself.” And while it is widely used as a hemostatic and antimicrobial agent in Persian traditional medicine, its husk has been used to cure asthma, chronic diarrhea, dysentery, and intestinal worms. Its juice has been used in the treatment of aphthae and ulcers in India, Tunisia, and Guatemala [2]. Bediuzzaman gives pomegranate as an example to portray God’s blessings upon us: “While the pomegranate tree contents itself with muddy and turbid water, it feeds its fruit with a pure drink from the treasure of Divine Mercy” (The Seventeenth Gleam, Eighth Note). “For by exhibiting a wise beauty of art, as well as meaningful and subtle ornament, that amaze all minds, it has displayed a work of art like an ode in praise of the All-Majestic Maker. Look carefully at pomegranates and ears of corn, for example” (Thirtieth Word). There is an exclusive art and wisdom in each fruit bestowed from our Lord’s treasury of mercy.

The pomegranate husk

The red-violet husk has two parts: the outer part (hard, pericarp) and the inner part (white, spongy, mesocarp). The mesocarp is where the inner wall grains (aryls) are attached. Inner membranes are arranged in unsymmetrical chambers for the aryls. The husk makes up approximately 30-40% of the fruit. It contains phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic acids as well as punicalagin (a toxin-repellent substance), with its distinctly high antioxidant effect. Thanks to this feature, the pomegranate husk is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for its anti-carcinogenic and antibacterial effects. Research showed strong antibacterial activity in the active ingredients of the pomegranate husk, especially against E. coli, E. faecalis, S. aureus, and B. subtilis [3]. It has also been shown that it may have a potential effect in the prevention and treatment of obesity as well as against fungi such as Aspergillus flavus [4]. The pomegranate husk, which we usually discard, is known for its helpful effects against diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases [5]. It also has higher antioxidant potential than the pulp, seed, and juice extracts. This is one of the best proofs nothing is useless or worthless. Some studies have shown that husk extract may be beneficial against diseases such as Alzheimer’s and dementia thanks to its memory-enhancing effect. As per findings, it also reduces blood sugar (glucose), cholesterol and its derivatives, and increases hemoglobin levels [6]. The pomegranate husk can be made into tea or consumed as spice additive.

Pomegranate seeds

Drawing attention with their resemblance to blood cells, pomegranate seeds get their red hue from polyphenols. These antioxidants can help destroy free radicals, protect cells from damage, and reduce inflammation. They sustain the skin health, and support the heart and veins to be healthy and flexible, and keep blood values at normal levels. Pomegranates contain three times more antioxidants than green tea and other fruit juices due to the punicalagin found in their seeds [7]. Pomegranate seeds are also rich in vitamins and minerals such as vitamin C, iron, potassium, phosphorus, sodium, and zinc.

In some cultures, the pomegranate represents fertility. This may be in relation to the fact that they contain hormones that support reproduction—another reason could be that there are as many as 600-1000 pomegranate seeds in one pomegranate. Oxidative stress has been revealed to cause egg dysfunction and reduction of fertility in women. Pomegranates help reduce oxidative stress and may increase fertility. Pomegranate seeds can increase testosterone levels in men and estrogen hormone levels in women [8].

Specially packaged in their membrane called pericarp, the pomegranate seeds (aryls) are presented to us as a delicious healing store [9]. Besides easing stomach ailments, the pomegranate seeds also help regulate blood circulation and alleviate heart-related problems, dental problems, osteoarthritis, anemia, and diabetes.

Pomegranate juice

While the consumption of fruit juice is not advised in functional medicine due to fructose and pulp-free content, pomegranate juice is allowed. Pomegranate juice contains anthocyanin, glucose, ascorbic acid, ellagic acid, gallic acid, catechin, amino acids, iron, and minerals. Since ancient times, pomegranate has often been recommended for digestive system disorders. Recent studies reveal the improvement of cardiac functions in patients who drink pomegranate juice every day for three months [10]. Pomegranate juice has also been discovered to reduce colon cancer cells and prevent the development of prostate tumors in men and breast tumors in women [11]. Pomegranate juice is the best juice for heart health. As studies have shown, pomegranate juice improves blood flow, prevents hardening and thickening of the arteries, and can slow the growth of plaque and the accumulation of cholesterol. However, pomegranate may react negatively with blood pressure and cholesterol medications like statins [12]. Those who are on medication should consume pomegranate juice with caution. Pomegranate juice can heal inflammation in the intestines and can help solve digestive problems [13]. Since it contains 28-30% tannins, the pomegranate husk is also used in fabric dyeing and ink production, especially in leather.

The beauty and elegance of the pomegranate flower also heralds the taste and benefits of the fruit still in formation. The pomegranate, with its myriad forms, is a source of healing from cancer to diabetes, from blood pressure to heart diseases, from cosmetics to antibacterial and antimicrobial diseases. It is a fruit that should be consumed in abundance, especially in fall and winter. Pomegranate Gives many reasons for us to ponder over the many blessings we are bestowed with in this world.

References

1. Holy Qur’an, 55:68.
2. Khwairakpam, A. D., Bordoloi, D., Thakur, K. K., Monisha, J., Arfuso, F., Sethi, G., … & Kunnumakkara, A. B. (2018). Possible use of Punica granatum (Pomegranate) in cancer therapy. Pharmacological research, 133, 53-64.
3. Moneim, A. E. A. (2012). Antioxidant activities of Punica granatum (pomegranate) peel extract on brain of rats. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 6(2), 195-199.
4. Wu, D., Ma, X., & Tian, W. (2013). Pomegranate husk extract, punicalagin and ellagic acid inhibit fatty acid synthase and adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 adipocyte. Journal of Functional Foods, 5(2), 633-641.
5. Moneim, A. E. A. (2012). Antioxidant activities of Punica granatum (pomegranate) peel extract on brain of rats. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 6(2), 195-199.
6. Radhika, S., Smila, K. H., & Muthezhilan, R. (2011). Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic activity of Punica granatum Linn on alloxan induced rats. World Journal of Medical Sciences, 6(4), 178-182.
7. Gil, M. I., Tomás-Barberán, F. A., Hess-Pierce, B., Holcroft, D. M., & Kader, A. A. (2000). Antioxidant activity of pomegranate juice and its relationship with phenolic composition and processing. Journal of Agricultural and Food chemistry, 48(10), 4581-4589.
8. Al-Dujaili, E., & Smail, N. (2012, March). Pomegranate juice intake enhances salivary testosterone levels and improves mood and well-being in healthy men and women. In Endocrine Abstracts(Vol. 28). Bioscientifica.
9. About the membranes, Ali ibn Abu Talib said, “Eat the pomegranate with its membrane, for it cleanses the stomach” (Ahmed ibn Hanbal, V, 382).
10. Sahebkar, A., Ferri, C., Giorgini, P., Bo, S., Nachtigal, P., & Grassi, D. (2017). Effects of pomegranate juice on blood pressure: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pharmacological Research, 115, 149-161.
11. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/12-proven-benefits-of-pomegranate#TOC_TITLE_HDR_6
12. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/pomegranate
13. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318385

Research on hummingbirds (also known as nectar birds or Colibris), the smallest of the 9,800 bird species living today, has revealed remarkable facts. The world’s smallest birds are equipped with mind-blowing structures and functions that push all physiological and anatomical boundaries. The bee hummingbird (Mellisuga helenae), considered to be the smallest bird in the world, is only 1.96-inch-long and weighs 0.06 ounces.

There are around 330-340 species of hummingbird and they live only in North and South America and the nearby oceanic islands. With their colorful feathers, they are some of the most beautiful birds.

How the hummingbird flies

A hummingbird flaps its wings so fast that the motion cannot be seen by the human eye but only detected through special cameras. The wings move at an incredible speed in a seemingly complex pattern, drawing circles back and forth 50 to 80 times per second, depending on the species. Under the genus Colibri, the horned Sungem (Heliactin bilophus) species flaps its wings 90 times per second; the purple amethyst Colibri (Calliphlox amethystina) flaps its 80 times per second. This speed increases up to 200 per second during a short spike while escaping from an enemy. Moving back and forth, the wings oscillate in the form of the figure 8 in the air. While in most other birds the movement of the wings produces the power to lift up and down, Hummingbirds, like helicopters, can perform movements such as hanging in the air or standing steadily as well as flying backward or rising in a vertical direction.

Figure 8

Metabolic rate and energy consumption

Flying requires a lot of energy. The amount of energy spent is related to the bird’s body size and flapping speed. In this regard, given that a colibri flaps its wings 80 times per second, it takes a great deal of energy to maintain such a rapid movement. The colibri’s chest muscles were perfectly created for flapping quickly and take up 40% of the hummingbird’s total body mass. Therefore, a colibri consumes more energy than other birds; it’s basically a fighter jet.

In order to meet this high energy demand, the amount of nectar a colibri consumes every day has to be equal to their body weight. Living at such a high metabolic rate requires a fine adjustment of food consumptions with precise calculations.

Such a high food intake requires a high metabolism – and thus, the need for oxygen increases dramatically. When the need for oxygen increases, there can be two kinds of conditions. Those animals with very large lungs can intake a lot of air at once. And those with smaller lungs can produce the required oxygen by breathing many times a minute. Colibri or Nectar birds are the ones that can breathe the most in one minute. The lungs of the world’s smallest birds breathe 250 times per minute to transfer oxygen to their hearts weighing a mere 0.003 ounces and beating 1,200 times per minute.

Toronto University’s Kenneth C. Welch Jr. studied the metabolism of hummingbirds for more than 10 years. He discovered that there is a relationship between the size of hummingbirds, energy efficiency, and oxygen consumption, and that larger hummingbirds are more efficient energy users than smaller ones. A hummingbird can take 2.44 cubic inches of oxygen per 0.03 ounces an hour. When a small weight is added to the bird, this amount increases to 3.66 cubic inches, and their tissues use oxygen very efficiently.

Energy requirements

A hummingbird’s metabolism is the fastest among all vertebrates. It needs to eat almost constantly to get the energy it needs to produce fuel for its breathtaking metabolism, which functions like a power plant. It receives nectar from 2,000 flowers every day. If we humans could work at this bird’s energy levels, we’d have to eat about 1,300 sandwiches a day to produce energy, and our body temperature would rise to 725 °F! Also, our hearts would have to beat 1,260 times per minute. Although nectar from flowers is the main fuel source driving the bird’s metabolic engines, it also occasionally eats insects, for protein needs.

During any given 30-minute period, hummingbirds burn the sugar they had taken in an hour ago. If we apply this rapid intake of sugar and the metabolic cycle in human beings, we would have to drink a large bottle of soda and burn the sugar in it every minute.

Unlike us, hummingbirds use both glucose and fructose from nectar in their intestines, circulatory systems, and muscle cells. However, we can support our bodies at urgent needs with an intake rate of 30% of glucose. Half of the nectar that hummingbirds take is glucose and half is fructose. In this modern age, high fructose derived from corn in our diets has paved the way for metabolic diseases and obesity – that is, people cannot metabolize high fructose.

Scientists are trying to determine how hummingbirds can process fructose. It is known that there is a carrier molecule different from glucose in fructose. This carrier is very rare in human muscle cells, but it is found in abundance in hummingbird’s muscle fibers; so we believe the mystery of how they utilize fructose so fast is about to be solved.

Hummingbirds have been equipped with mechanisms to increase the rapid introduction of nutrients such as fructose and glucose – which are basically small sugar molecules – or amino acids into their metabolisms. Their hearts and blood vessels work at a high speed to carry the sugar into their tissues as well as to transfer a lot of blood. In addition, a large number of capillaries have been implemented close to the muscle cells so that the blood can reach each and every cell.

Wing design

While humanity has not yet invented a machine that can move in a figure-8 pattern 80 times per second, including forward and backward, the ultra-flexibility of a hummingbird’s unique wing strokes demonstrates the special creation of its bones, muscles, and joints. The colibri’s brain and nervous system, which control these muscles and joints by transmitting signals, require infinite knowledge and power. The flexibility of the shoulder joint in the movement of the wings, which allows them to bend to extreme positions not found in other birds, gives us an idea of the wing’s unique design and architecture. Although biomimetic engineers have spent millions of dollars applying this complex system to technology, they have so far failed in their attempts to produce a similar machine.

Cooling the feathers due to the friction of the muscles and the tremendous movement of the wings is a problem in itself. While man-made machines need advanced cooling systems, the hummingbird has been created with a such a built-in system.

Unique tongue structure

Biologists from the University of Connecticut have discovered that hummingbirds’ tongues have a very special design and work like micro pumps. Tongues about twice the length of their beaks allow them to reach deep into flowers. The nectar is then pumped into the body in less than 1/20^th of a second. This occurs thousands of times each day. Tai-Hsi Fan and Margaret A. Rubega, who for a long time examined how hummingbirds stick their tongues 15 or 20 times a second into the tubular part of a flower, said that they “could not clearly understand how they drink the nectar.” In their latest study, they showed that it was only possible for the birds to hold nectar through two channels in their tongues. It was once thought that the physical rule of the upward movement of liquids in capillary tubes, even without suction, worked in the hummingbird’s nectar intake; but when special video recordings of the movement of their tongues were examined, it became evident that the tongue first compressed the nectar in a series of movements, then sprung up very quickly and the nectar was suddenly sprayed into the channels.

It would seem that both the hummingbirds and the flowers they need for sustenance were created in perfect harmony.

Red hummingbirds migrate from Alaska to Mexico every year. They can fly 56 miles per hour. Prior to this journey, they feed for one or two weeks to fill their fuel tanks, forming a layer of fat equal to half their body weight. Since these activities cause a lot of heat loss on the body surfaces, they cannot provide enough energy to stay active for more than 12 hours at a time. To counter this, they fall into a deep sleep every night for 12 hours. The energy storage, flight endurance, long-distance migration, and returning with the young ones are each complicated factors that their coming together to make this journey possible cannot simply be explained by blind chance.

Of course, the smallest bird in the world would have the smallest egg size: a mere 0.5 x 0.3 inches, for a total weight of 0.007 ounces. Considering that this wonderful bird’s design is embedded into this egg, which is about the size of the nail of our little finger, it can be understood how perfect a creation it is.

Let us start with the building blocks of the system, which are the nerve cells (also called neurons). The main function of nerve cells is the transportation of signals through electrical pathways. The morphology of neurons is entirely different from that of other types of cells, and this is what helps the nervous system function effectively.

The typical nerve cell can be broken down into three parts: the dendrites, the body, and the axon. The signal enters the nerve from the dendrites, runs through the body, and leaves the cell by way of the axon. The head of the nervous system is the brain. As only one part of the system, the brain is formed of about 80 billion neurons. Apart from the brain, there are billions more neurons in the nervous system, which runs throughout the body. Other than the neurons, there are neuroglia in the brain, which consist of approximately another 80 billion cells. In the brain alone, there are over 160 billion cells whose only purpose is to transport signals. But where do these signals originate from and where are they taken to?

The functions of the nervous system are performed through three main categories. The first category is the central nervous system (CNS), which is made up of the brain, the brainstem, and the spinal cord. This part is the center for decision making. The second category includes all the cells in the body apart from the nervous system, such as sensory cells and muscle cells. The final category is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which seeps through the body and is the messenger between the CNS and the rest of the body. The whole function of the nervous system boils down to the transfer of electrical messages between these two ends.

An example is when a finger touches a flame. The sensory cells on the tip of the finger produce a “Hot” signal, and pass this electric signal on to the PNS. The PNS then transports this signal to the CNS, where electricity is translated into a meaningful message. The CNS then produces a “Withdraw” signal and sends it via the PNS to the muscles of the finger, which in turn withdraw the finger from the flame. This reflex does not even reach the brain and is processed in the spinal cord due to its simplicity. It is as if the brain cannot be troubled with such petty tasks. Slightly more complex tasks go up a little bit further to the brainstem. The tasks brought to the brainstem are not sudden reflexes, but do not require thinking, either. Some examples are chewing, swallowing, maintaining balance, and eye movement. The brain, however, performs the most complex tasks, such as sight, language, learning, and emotion.

Now that the signals’ pathways are clear, we must ask how exactly do cell groups in the central nervous system know how to react to various situations? How can a small group of nerve cells in the cerebellum (attached to the brain) decide to make the body lean to the left while falling to the right? How does a tiny spec of neurons in the pons (located in the brainstem) know when to start secreting saliva in the mouth? How are miniscule unconscious cells entrusted with decisions concerning the well-being of the entire body? They cannot see the area they are controlling. The only thing that comes to these cells is electricity. How on Earth do these cells know so much from only electric signals?

Let’s look at balance, but keep in mind that every mechanism is totally unique and they cannot be categorized into three or four groups. Our journey begins in the depths of the ears. There are three canals called the semicircular canals, which are all perpendicular to each other. The tip of each canal is filled with a thick fluid called the endolymph. On the bases of these tips are hair-like receptors. The thick fluid flows within the canal in accord with gravity, thus tilting the hair-like receptors. If these receptors tilt to one side, they generate a large amount of electricity. If they tilt to the other side they generate a small amount. Each canal represents one axis, and signals from all three canals make up a 3D world. Signals from each canal continuously flow to the small group of neurons in the cerebellum and are combined to make up a map of how the head is positioned. For example:

• The signal from the X-axis canal is high intensity. (This may mean the head is tilted right.)
• The signal from the Y-axis canal is low intensity. (This may mean the head is tilted upward.)
• The signal from the Z-axis canal is high intensity. (This may mean the head is tilted to the front.)

These three signals combine to give the coordinates of the position of the head. In this example, the variation is in the intensity of electricity. But in other signaling pathways, the variation may be in other features of electric signals, such as the frequency, the pattern, or the combinations of all of these. So by “reading” these different inputs of electricity, blind and deaf cells can “comprehend” complex situations and act accordingly.

It really is unbelievable how such sophisticated information can be simplified. This system may ring a bell to some of you: the main operating principle of the computer is exactly the same. Mere numbers, 0 and 1 (the signals), can combine to form complex information that the processor (the brain) can use to complete tasks satisfactorily. Yes, the brain is effectively a supercomputer capable of processing millions of signals every second in order to keep the body in check. It is capable of increasing its processing speed and can be trained to learn new things. Its memory capacity cannot be filled throughout a lifetime of learning, and it has a supporting system (the neuroglia) which optimizes its performance. It does not require any updates and can work without rest for over 100 years. It is compact and extremely lightweight. Of course, such a wondrous supercomputer requires a lot of resources in order to keep functioning. Although the human brain represents only 2% of the body’s weight, it receives 15% of the blood pumped from the heart, consumes 20% of total body oxygen, and utilizes 25% of total body glucose.

What we have talked about so far concerns around 80 billion neurons. Well, what about the other 80 billion we mentioned earlier? They are called the neuroglia and their main purpose is to lighten the neurons’ load. These cells form the environment in which nerve cells can operate most efficiently. Sounds simple enough, right? Well, we need to consider the fact that neurons handle delicate cargo. The signal formed by one end of the communication channel has to reach the other end with no change or loss in its features (frequency, intensity, pattern, etc.). A single mishap may generate serious consequences. The environment that the neuroglia are entrusted with includes molecular content, temperature, electrical stability, blood flow, and much more. No wonder there are 80 billion of them assigned to this job!

Let’s take a look into the types of neuroglia and what they do. First of all, there are the microglia. These guys are the bodyguards of the brain. They are actually specialized macrophages, which are a part of the immune system. In the case of brain damage, they sweep the area clean of any bacteria that may have infected the site.

Another type of neuroglia is the astrocytes. These cells are in charge of the blood flow to the neurons. They connect the nerve cells to the blood vessels and control the flow of blood by either dilating or constricting the vessels. They also constitute the majority of the “blood-brain barrier”. The blood-brain barrier is the border between the regular blood of the body and the fluid the brain swims in. The astrocytes in this barrier are like the chefs of the brain, selecting what is in the neurons’ menu. They allow only specific molecules through the barrier, meeting the needs of the brain during high activity and preventing waste during low activity. A third type of neuroglia is the ependymal cells. These cells produce the fluid the brain swims in, called the cerebrospinal fluid. Together with the astrocytes, they help form the optimal vital fluid for the brain. One final type of neuroglia is the oligodendrocytes. Oligodendrocytes form the specialized “myelin sheath,” which can be compared to a blanket. This sheath wraps around the nerve cells in the CNS, isolating them electrically. This isolation is key in the preservation and fast transportation of electric signals.

To conclude, the nervous system is extremely complex. Within this complexity, we find beauty beyond speech. How are these seemingly distant cells and organs in touch with each other through just electricity? With what decision-making mechanism can mere unconscious cells make such critical moves? We only have surface level knowledge of these mechanisms. But one other crucial question is how these cells managed to form such a complex system in the first place. They couldn’t have gone through the process of trial-and-error because error means certain death for such an intricate mechanism. So, did the cells gather around and engineer this perfect system by brainstorming? Were they capable of combining limited organic resources to design a brain that all of mankind could not even come close to after thousands of years of advancement? Ask your brain!

Our body is perfectly coordinated to regulate our blood sugar level. But when our insulin levels are artificially altered, serious diseases can occur.

The human body needs energy. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is to each cell in the body what gasoline is to a car. This energy is stored inside the bonds of the three phosphate molecules attached to an adenosine nucleotide. The light energy that exists in the sun’s rays is converted into chemical energy, stored in the form of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats through the photosynthetic reactions taking place in the chloroplasts of plants. Molecules of chemical energy are broken down in the mitochondria organelle of the cells in order to utilize their energy for ATP synthesis. This chemical energy (ATP) derived from nutrients is used by the eyes to see, the ears to hear, the hands to grab, the feet to walk, the heart to pump blood, the stomach to digest foods, the kidneys to filter blood, red blood cells to carry oxygen, white blood cells to fight germs, and the brain to think, memorize, and remember.

ATP is primarily synthesized from glucose – commonly known as blood sugar (glycolysis) – in approximately 100 trillion cells in our body. Glucose means fast energy. A sensitive metabolic balance is established (homeostasis) to maintain a blood glucose concentration in between 70-100 mg/dl for a nonstop energy flow and to prevent any cellular damage. If this balance is thrown out of order, many medical problems will ensue, primarily cardio-vascular diseases. How is the homeostatic balance of blood sugar maintained in healthy people?

Maintenance of blood sugar balance

The blood sugar balance is provided by the assistance and cooperation of the pancreas, liver, fat tissue, muscle tissue, the brain, the digestive system, and the kidneys. The chiefs of the orchestra here are the insulin and glucagon hormones synthesized in the pancreas, which operate in great harmony and yet have opposite functions. Insulin is in charge of dropping blood sugar; however glucagon increases it.  

The fine balance of blood sugar is conserved before we sense it for various energy situations such as exercise, sleep, or various energy intake cases such as overeating or skipping a meal. The real hunger is the 8-10 hour long “night fasting” period. During this time, since there is no food intake, the glucose that cells require for energy production is obtained from reserves in the liver. Thus, cells get their energy and blood sugar levels are kept at normal levels. If there is no additional food intake and the fasting time becomes longer, the glycogen reserves of the liver get consumed within 10-18 hours and necessary energy is obtained from fats and proteins. However, real fullness corresponds to a period of 4-6 hours “after meal.” During this time, the complex and macro size carbohydrates are converted to glucose in the liver and this glucose is stored as glycogen. Because the glucose storage capacity of the liver, which has numerous tasks, is limited, the excess glucose is stored by conversion into fatty acids. The unspent excess calories from three meals eaten in five hour intervals will be stored in either the liver or as fat tissue during the 12-18 hour long fullness period. The utilization of fats stored in the humps of camels which form by food intake to compensate for their energy and water needs during long desert travel can be given as an example of this.

In fact, when we say “I am hungry,” we acknowledge that the time has come to resupply our ATP reserves of nearly 100 trillion cells. The most important stimulator for the secretion of insulin from the pancreas is glucose. With the first bite, the readied insulin reserves of the pancreas are released into the bloodstream. This event, which takes place approximately within the first 6-10 minutes, is called the first-phase insulin response. With the language of reduced glucagon as a result of increased insulin, the message that it is no longer necessary to release glucose into the blood is transmitted to the liver. The blood sugar levels increase with continuing food intake (hyperglycemia) and this information is relayed to the pancreas through hormones secreted by intestinal cells. As directed by this signal, the proper insulin amount necessary for blood sugar levels is secreted into the bloodstream from the pancreas. This is called the late-phase insulin response.

The tasks of insulin

Cells are in need of insulin to uptake glucose into capillary vessels. Insulin binds itself to its specific receptor on the membrane of a cell, conducting its message, especially to muscle tissue. It’s saying, “The glucose food that you need is brought here by the blood vessels, and you can retrieve it.” After receiving the message inside the cell, GLUT (glucose transporters) molecules, which are in charge of glucose intake and are stored in the cytoplasmic vesicle pool, are carried to the cellular surface. Molecular gates are established once these molecules merge with the cellular membrane for the entrance of glucose through it. Glucose is inserted into the cell via this gate. The retired GLUTs are collected back in the cytoplasmic pools after cellular energy demand is met.

While these events are taking place, commands are given to the liver to prepare for the load of glucose arriving from the intestines and for adipose tissue to store the excess fat. These meticulous processes last for approximately two hours. The blood sugar level recedes back to its normal limits, but the activities of the liver and the adipose tissue continue at a rapid pace. If overeating occurs, the liver cannot take such a load. This can cause a delay in its functions, which will cause the body to feel tired.

The insulin and glucagon hormones have a half life of 3-5 minutes and are rendered ineffective in the liver and kidneys once they conclude their tasks. Thus, the body prevents lower blood sugar levels because of high insulin concentrations (hypoglycemia) or because of higher glucagon levels; it also prevents higher blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia).

The disruption of the blood sugar balance

Diabetes is the chronic observation of blood sugar above normal limits. This happens when the insulin hormone levels secreted from the pancreas are reduced and not able to carry out their function. There might be genetic factors present that contribute to diabetes; however, stress, a lack of exercise, obesity, and the consumption of processed foods containing elevated levels of carbohydrates often lead to the onset of diabetes in adults. The fine balance in between the liver, pancreas, muscles, and fat tissue can be disrupted by the following reasons:

1. If the number of cells in charge of insulin production in the pancreas decreases, sufficient insulin cannot be produced.
2. The message of insulin cannot be retrieved completely because of a disruption occurring at the receptors where insulin binds on cells, or due to lower numbers.
3. There may be a problem with reactions regarding GLUT production in accordance with the internal message retrieved upon bondage of insulin to the receptors.
4. During fullness, if the necessary suppression of glucagon production in pancreatic cells is not adequate, the glucose release from the liver continues.
5. The secretion of late-phase insulin response hormones in charge of pancreatic stimulation from the intestines is reduced.
6. Emptiness of the stomach is delayed, and a longer absorption time of nutrients occurs.
7. The appetite center is over stimulated and the urge to eat increases.

If the reasons above take place, then the blood sugar level is above normal. Normal blood sugar drops below 140 mg/dl two hours after a meal in healthy people, whereas this cannot be maintained in diabetic patients.

An iron pipe with salty sea water running through it for years is similar to a capillary vessel that has blood with high sugar levels inside it in terms of the damage that they undergo. Once hypertension and cholesterol joins diabetes, the heart, eyes, and kidneys will not function properly. These organs are great blessings granted to our body which we often appreciate only once we lose them. Therefore we must follow an intermediate path in eating and drinking, just as in every situation, avoiding excess.

Observing Majorana fermions in the ferromagnetic atomic chains on a superconductor. Nadj-Perge et al. Science, October 2014.

In the universe, matter and antimatter particles are always produced as a pair and, if they come in contact, they destroy each other in a flash of energy. In 1937, an Italian theoretical physicist named Ettore Majorana had proposed that there can be unique exceptions to this rule: a stable particle could exist in nature that is both matter and antimatter. Scientists have been looking for that indefinable particle, also known as the “Majorana fermion,” for seventy years. A group of researchers recently reported that they were able to detect the Majorana particle which behaves simultaneously like matter and antimatter. Researchers designed an experimental system allowing them to observe an emergent particle inside a material. They first generated an extended chain of pre magnetic iron atoms on a superconductor made of lead. Then, they cooled the material to -272 C, just about one point above absolute zero, and monitored it using a giant two-story-tall scanning-tunneling microscope, which can track electrical signal changes with very high precision. Finally, they were able to capture a glowing image of an electrically neutral particle at the ends of atomically thin iron wires. The Majorana particle was surprisingly stable and the opposing properties make the particle neutral so that it interacts very weakly with its environment. The discovery of the Majorana particle has exciting implications for several areas of modern physics, engineering, and astrophysics. For example, Majorana particles are very similar to neutrinos, as they both have very weak interactions with the matter. Neutrinos are thought to make up most of the dark matter that fill the Cosmos. Perhaps, neutrinos are simply Majorana-like particles and Majorana particles are also a candidate for what dark matter is. As an industrial application, Majorana particles can be utilized in quantum computing which aims to create computers to handle incalculable systems. The current quantum computing technology uses electrons, but they are known to be very unstable due to high interaction rates with surrounding materials. However, since Majorana particles are neutral and highly stable, they can be engineered into a variety of materials to produce more reliable and powerful quantum computing applications.

The Bitter Side of Artificial Sweeteners

Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut’s microbiota. Suez J. et al. Nature, September 2014.

There have been conflicting and confusing findings about the health effects of artificial sweeteners over the past several decades. Some studies found that they cause weight loss and others found the exact opposite. Some studies linked them to diabetes and other studies argued otherwise. A recent study provided a series of experimental evidences that artificial sweeteners disrupt the body’s ability to regulate blood sugar, and thus may cause metabolic diseases and diabetes. Researchers, using animal models and human studies, found that sweeteners significantly alter the gut’s microbiome – the collective name of bacterial colonies living in our intestines. The composition of our gut microflora plays a critical role protecting us from pathogenic bacteria, the metabolism of indigestible components of our diet, and modulating development and regulation of the immune system. Sweeteners – in the form of saccharin, sucralose, or aspartame – are found to alter the mix of microbes in our intestines and consequently change how our bodies metabolize glucose. Constant use of sweeteners in mice and human test groups caused typical glucose intolerance symptoms in which glucose levels rose higher after eating and declined more slowly than expected. Glucose intolerance can ultimately lead to serious illnesses like metabolic syndrome and Type 2 diabetes. Although this study will cause a lot of discussions and headaches in the food industry, the link identified between microbiome and glucose intolerance will definitely inspire novel therapeutic approaches to metabolic disorders such as diabetes.

Brainy Fingertips

Edge-orientation processing in first-order tactile neurons. Pruszynski JA and Johansson RS. Nature Neuroscience, August 2014

A new study found that neurons in human skin are able to perform advanced calculations that scientists thought only the brain was capable of performing. A group of sensory neurons that extend into the skin and record touch are called first-order neurons in the tactile system. Each nerve ending branches in the skin to form about 5mm2 elliptical receptive field, with up to 8 highly sensitive zones that are unevenly distributed within the field. It turns out that these neurons not only transmit information about when and how intensely an object is touched to the brain, but they also send complex information about the touched object’s shape. Researchers found that the sensitivity of individual neurons to the shape of an object depends on the layout of the neuron’s highly-sensitive zones in the skin. Computations that require untangling geometric shape information are classified as feature extraction computations in neuroscience and are typically attributed to the immensely complex circuits of the cerebral cortex. This study showed that neuronal populations localized outside of the brain, such as first-order tactile neurons, can have advanced processing capacity similar to brain neurons. These results can also potentially improve treatments for nerve injury and rehabilitation, as scientists previously assumed that the cerebral cortex was doing all the work.

A sugar is a monosaccharide if it is made up of a single sugar molecule; it is disaccharide if it is built by two sugar molecules; and a polysaccharide if it is composed with multiple sugar molecules.

Sugars that we ingest are broken, in the digestive system, into monosaccharides of glucose, fructose, and galactose. Almost all of the absorbed monosaccharides are first converted into glucose in the liver. This conversion is a very important task of the liver: 80% of the sugars passing into the blood are glucose. As a result, very limited amounts of fructose and galactose are present in the blood. Therefore, when blood sugar is mentioned, normally glucose is taken into consideration and the fructose and galactose levels in the blood are ignored. Glucose, which is also called grape sugar, is most abundantly found in grapes, while fructose is called fruit sugar, as it is plentiful in fruits, and galactose is named milk sugar after its dense presence in milk. The most important characteristic of fructose is that it is sweeter compared to other simple sugars.

Insulin is secreted from the pancreas in order to lower elevated blood glucose levels after digestion. Insulin functions in the transport of glucose from the blood into cells to provide necessary energy, therefore reducing blood sugar levels; furthermore, it also plays a role in the storage of excess glucose as glycogen, which is found primarily in the liver. Once glycogen storage limits are reached in the liver and muscles, glucose is then stored as fat. Fat tissue acts as sustenance during long fasting periods.

Differences between fructose, glucose, and galactose

Glucose and galactose are absorbed actively, depending on salt. They cannot be absorbed without salt while passing through the intestines. Salt is necessary for the absorption of glucose which is present in the starches of potatoes and other foods. Thus, when potato is consumed with salt, the transport of glucose into the blood is facilitated.

However, salt is not necessary in the case of fructose absorption. The intestinal absorption of fructose contained in fruit is delayed by fruit fibers, since these fibers prevent or balance the transport of fructose into the bloodstream. However, when fructose is ingested as a fruit juice, it is absorbed and joins the bloodstream much faster because of the lower fiber content.

A person feels full after a meal when neurons in the satiety center of the hypothalamus are stimulated by elevated blood glucose. Then, hunger center neurons are repressed, eliminating the feeling of hunger. Therefore, a person reduces their food intake during a meal as their blood glucose levels increase. Increased levels of amino acids and fatty acids in the blood also suppress hunger and stimulate fullness after meal. However, one important point is that fructose does not stimulate fullness in the brain. Therefore, if the blood fructose levels are elevated instead of glucose, a person cannot generate a sensation of fullness sensation. As a result, a person desires to intake more food during consumption of fructose. It is only possible for fructose to generate fullness after it has been converted into glucose by liver.

How to consume fruits?

We should prefer direct consumption of fruits instead of drinking natural or industrial fruit juices because of the high fructose content of fruits. The Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, consumed fruits before meals, the wisdom of which we learn only today. Fruits should be consumed at least an hour before or two hours after a meal, for sufficient time should be given for the fructose of an ingested fruit to be absorbed by the intestines and converted to glucose by the liver. Such practices will result in a reduced appetite and food intake. If fruit is consumed after a meal, a delay occurs in the conversion of fructose into glucose since the liver will be occupied by other biochemical processes, along with a full storage of nutrients; this will increase blood fructose levels and fail to reduce appetite. Fatty liver occurs as a consequence of high fat content of the blood. Arteriosclerosis and cirrhosis of the liver may be seen in people with a habit of excessive post-meal fruit consumption.

In a research carried out on laboratory animals, it was found that glucose induces fullness in the hypothalamus and suppresses food intake, whereas fructose was found to repress this effect of glucose, stimulating food intake.¹ Insulin reduces the harms of accumulating sugar in the blood by increasing lipid synthesis. Insulin also takes place in leptin secretion from adipose (fatty) tissue. Leptin is important in the prevention of obesity; therefore, insulin helps in weight loss, too. The leptin hormone causes reduced food intake by stimulating nerve cells in certain parts of the hypothalamus.² Fructose does not cause any leptin secretion because it does not stimulate an insulin release; therefore, it is not effective in generating a sense of fullness.

Ghrelin is a hormone secreted into blood by stomach cells during hunger. This hormone, which produces stomach acids, is enacted through the hypothalamus. It induces hunger, and therefore increases appetite. Insulin secretion increases along with the blood glucose levels during satiety. This eventually causes the increase of the leptin hormone, which also leads to a decrease in ghrelin secretion. As a result, fructose gets absorbed more than glucose in the intestines. Elevated fructose in the blood leads to insufficient or reduced insulin secretion. In this case, a person continues eating.

Fructose and diseases

Free circulation of lipids in the blood damages arteries and veins. For this reason, lipids are transported in “molecular vehicles” that are called as high, low, and very low density lipoproteins (HDL, LDL and VLDL). Neutral lipids (triglycerides) that are present on VLDL (very low density) vehicles are broken down with an enzyme. These lipids are then unloaded from the vehicles by cellular uptake and stored as fats. This transfer of lipids into adipose (fatty) tissue is enhanced via the insulin hormone. In the case of fructose intake, without its insulin secretion effect, lipids accumulate in the blood and liver and eventually prepare ground for liver damage and arteriosclerosis.As the result of a fructose based diet in laboratory animals, it was discovered that lipid production shifted from adipose tissue into the liver, therefore elevating the risk of high blood and liver fat levels.

There are two reasons for this shift. The first one is that fructose acts on the fat producing enzymes of the liver whereas it does not act likewise in adipose tissue.

Secondly, fructose plays an inhibitory role in the conversion of glucose into lipids in adipose tissue. Also, fructose consumption in humans has been linked to elevated blood fat levels.

Overconsumption of fructose causes increased liver fat synthesis. Phosphofructokinase is the limiting enzyme regarding the breakdown of glucose in the liver. This enzyme is regulated by citrates and ATP produced by glucose catabolism and the Krebs cycle, limiting glucose breakdown. However, there is no such limitation in fructose breakdown. Through fructose catabolism, glucose, glycogen, pyruvate, lactate, glycerol and the acyl part of acylglycerol are synthesized. This synthesis can not be limited. As a result of this excessive output and high amounts of triglycerides, VLDL is produced.³ It has been found that persons who consume two or more boxes of fructose sweetened beverages every day carry a 35% higher risk of heart disease.⁴

This isn’t the only disease associated with fructose. In some studies on laboratory animals, it has been reported that a high fructose diet is associated with hypertension.⁵ A lot of research exists suggesting that excessive fructose consumption leads to insulin resistance in both the liver and peripheral tissues, which can often cause diabetes.⁶ In a recent study, it was claimed that excessive fructose intake poses risks for renal diseases leading to glomerular hypertension, renal damage, and inflammation and damage to renal tubules and tissues.⁷

In a study conducted on 21,483 Americans who were older than two years, daily consumption of 37 gr. of fructose (8% of total calorie need) was found to be elevated to 54.7 grams (10.2% of total calorie need) gradually between the years of 1988-1994, mostly consumed by younger people. Increased use of fructose syrup was linked to obesity during the last 35 years.⁸ Furthermore, in a study carried on 1,749 male and female children and teenagers, a positive relation was found between body mass index (BMI) and excessive consumption of carbonated beverages containing high fructose concentrations.⁹ There many studies that support this report.¹⁰ Excessive fructose consumption is known to cause “metabolic syndrome” in which many diseases like obesity, arteriosclerosis, and diabetes emerge together.

Are fruit juices harmful?

Fructose syrup is being used at increasing rates in the food industry. According to the annual report of US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the year 2000, fructose syrups are sugar solutions containing approximately more than 50 % fructose. It is often synthesized by a conversion of corn starch into glucose by glucose isomerase.¹¹ There is also a third syrup type containing 90% fructose, however this has limited uses.

The sweetness of fructose syrup is similar to that of table sugar. It prevents the dehydration of food with its hydrophilic character. It is mostly used in aromatic foods, especially carbonated beverages and fruit juices. It prevents the proliferation of microbes with its high osmotic pressure property and makes food more resistant against them. Syrups containing 42 to 55% of fructose are used in baked goods, cereal products, dairy products, processed foods, both carbonated and regular beverages, ice creams, and frozen desserts. High fructose syrups are used in foods to decrease water activity and prevent spoilage.

Fructose syrups have a very low ash level due to application of intense purification processes during production and product color is water-white. Therefore colors of fructose used industrial foods are white as well. Fructose syrups have a lower viscosity and density compared to glucose syrups and therefore it is runny like water and not as sticky.

How to consume sugars after a meal?

Especially after a fatty meal, our body seeks sugar. The reason behind this is the requirement of sugar for the storage of lipids into fat tissue. However, this sugar should absolutely be glucose instead of fructose. Therefore, some amount of sugar can be consumed to facilitate the removal of lipids from blood after meals. This is recommended to lower blood lipid levels. However, this should not be done with fruits but with natural sugars like grape molasses. A baklava or a dessert made with industrial sugars (fructose) will not be beneficial but harmful.

In conclusion, the consumption of corn-derived fructose syrup is gradually increasing in recent years. Fructose syrup is used both in various carbonated or regular soft beverages, and in desserts. The reason for our fructose syrup preference is that it helps preserve foods longer and it leads to food addiction because it enhances appetite due to its strong sweetness. Fructose syrup is synthesized by the conversion of natural glucose in corn into fructose by isomerase enzymes. In this sense, today’s increased consumption of fructose is altering the existing sugar balance of natural food items. Overconsumption of fructose can pave the way to obesity, metabolic syndrome, arteriosclerosis, diabetes, hypertension, and arteriosclerotic heart and kidney diseases.

Arifagaoglu is a professor of medicine in Ankara, Turkey.

References

1. Wolfgang MJ, Cha SH, Sidhaye A. et al. Regulation of hypothalamic malonyl-CoA by central glucose and leptin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007; 104: 19285-19290.
2. Guyton AC, Hall JE. “Dietary Balances; Regulation of Feeding; Obesity and Starvation; Vitemans and Minerals.” Textbook of Medical Physiology, Saunders, 2010, 843.
3. Rutledge A, Adeli K. Fructose and the metabolic syndrome: pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms. Nutr Rev. 2007; 65: 13–23.
4. Fung TT, Malik V, Rexrode KM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sweetened beverage consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:1037–42.
5. Barone BB, Wang NY, Bacher AC, Stewart KJ. Decreased exercise blood pressure in older adults after exercise training: contributions of increased fitness and decreased fatness. Br J Sports Med. 2009;43:52–6.
6. Blakely SR, Hallfrisch J, Reiser S, Prather ES. Long-term effects of moderate fructose feeding on glucose tolerance parameters in rats. J Nutr. 1981;111:307–314.
7. Johnson RJ, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Nakagawa T. The effect of fructose on renal biology and disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010; 21(12): 2036-9.
8. Bray G. Fructose: should we worry? Int J Obes 2008;32: S127-131.
9. Forshee RA, Storey ML. Total beverage consumption and beverage choices among children and adolescents. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2003; 54: 297–307.
10. Forshee RA, Anderson PA, Storey ML. The role of beverage consumption, physical activity, sedentary behavior, and demographics on body mass index of adolescents. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2004; 55: 463-478.
11. Melanson KJ, Angelopoulos TJ, Nguyen V, Zukley L, Lowndes J, Rippe JM. High-fructose corn syrup, energy intake, and appetite regulation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 88(6):1738S-1744S.

Decisions within the cell: mathematical and algorithmic character

In order to enable Escherichia coli bacteria to use lactose (disaccharide), the genetic information of the enzymes that have role in transporting the lactose into the cell and converting it into glucose is coded in the bacteria’s genome. The binding and decoding structure which enables the genes to be transcribed at the right time in the appropriate amount is called the operon. The operons are model mechanisms which work on the synthesis or destruction of every chemical molecule (metabolite). One of these, lactose operon, is a good example that demonstrates how the decoding information contained in DNA is regulated and controlled in the bacteria. E. Coli is equipped with a system that distinguishes lactose and glucose when they are combined and this system functions perfectly. Primarily, all of the existing glucose is consumed before the start of the production of those enzymes that splits lactose into glucose and galactose. It has been discovered that this operation in the bacteria is followed by an interaction between DNA sequences located on the upper part of the lactose gene and various molecules. The DNA sequences on the upper part of the gene are the signals that format DNA for transcription. These signals cause the decoding of the genes that interact with the transcription factors. While some of the signals in the relevant region of the genes are common in most genes, some others are specific.

The most basic interaction system of the genome-proteome (all proteins in cell) is the suppression of the lactose operon that is observed in E. Coli. This process depends on DNA-protein interactions which are based on a mutual relationship and it requires the existence of repeated DNA sequences. Tetramer lac1 protein control the lac operon binds to four repeating binding regions on the DNA. Since one dimer can be connected to one operator sequence, two dimers are connected to two operator region units, and as a result the result is a loop formation in the DNA structure. Consequently, because of the access of RNA polymerase to the promoter region, the pre-coding process of genes is hindered. If the hindering protein is in the form of a monomer, the operator displays a weak interaction with half of the sequence. In the dimer form there is a stable binding. For this reason, many procedures in the cell occur by working together and making a union of molecules. Since the loop shape of DNA stabilizes the structure, it prevents the RNA polymerase from being connected to the promoter region. In order to eliminate the blockage on the lac operon, the mutual relationship must be prevented by stimulatory molecules, such as lactose.

There is metabolic information in cells that measure and control the physiological condition. The sequences on the regulatory region of the lactose operator and the data concerning the physiological condition of the lactose and glucose metabolisms are analyzed in the cell which perceives the presence and the amount of glucose through the changes in the system that transports the glucose into the cell. The molecule that announces the presence of glucose in E.coli is cyclic-AMP and concentration of this molecule in the cell is inversely proportional to glucose. The level of this signal affects both the coding and regulation of genomic information. The protein that transports glucose into the cell contains a phosphate group; as it transports glucose into the cell, this carrier protein phosphorylates the glucose molecule thereby loosing its phosphate group. As a result, the proportion phosphorylated transport protein and those without phosphate provides information about the glucose level in the cell. The phosphorylated form of the carrier protein activates the adenosine cyclase enzyme. Through this enzyme, ATP is converted into cyclic-AMP. The cyclic-AMP level increases in the cell. Consequently, the situation that concerns the increasing concentration of the phosphorylated transfer protein and the cyclic-AMP is interpreted as non-existence of glucose in the cell. The CRP protein that binds to regulatory region of the lactose can only bind to this region in the presence of cyclic-AMP. The cyclic-AMP-CRP complex which is tied to the promoter region of the lactose gene speeds up the transcription of the lactose operon. Transcription rarely happens when there is no lactose. This is because the lactose repressor protein lacI, hinders the RNA polymerase reaching the lactose promoter region by binding to the operator of regulating region. The cell can sense the existence of lactose in a circuitous manner. Low levels of coded Permease enzyme on the lacY region transfer some lactose into the cell. The coded beta galactosidase on the lac Z region alters them into a sugar called allolactose. The allolactose is bound to the lacI repressor protein and changes its conformation. The allolactose –lacI repressor complex can not bind to the operator region. The promoter region, called LacP, of Lactose operon is set free for transcription. In fact, every one of these molecular interactions is an incident of information being transferred. All these incidents demonstrate that an algorithm (If there is no glucose and only lactose exists, then transcribe the lacZYA enzyme) that is able to distinguish the difference between two sugars exists in bacteria cells and that it functions perfectly.

In short, the signal transfer in lactose operon occurs with the activation of chemical molecules that represent the experimental data pertaining to the physiological environment of the cells. For example, the levels of cyclic-AMP, allolactose and protein phosphorylation indicate the existence of glucose and lactose. The regulating network system, on the other hand, combines many aspects of cell activity (transport, enzymology, energy metabolism) in order to make the transcription decision. Briefly, it is impossible to show that arranging the order of the genome in any cell occurs independently from physiological or biochemical processes.

The principle of “using combinations in the arrangement of specific binding regions” is commonly used in metabolic signal networks that control cell physiology and the differentiation of cell (morphogenesis) that are oriented towards tissue formation. Such an interaction takes place on these network paths between proteins and DNA sequences to ensure that the cell is allowed to process molecular information and to calculate whether it will transcribe a specific genetic sequence. The common binding regions on DNA have vital roles in the coordinated control of various genetic loci, and it is then that the decoding of genes in a harmonious (symphonic) manner becomes possible. Various combinations of these regions are also used in making more complex decisions. As an example, protein-binding regions that are involved in the lowest level of genomic indicators have a role in decoding genes. The proteins that bind to these DNA sequences can become active when they form a group that has an interaction with more than one protein molecule. For instance, each one of the lacO and CRP regions on the lactose operon shows a palindromic sequence structure (the DNA sequence remains the same when the sequence is read from either end). Similarly, the lacP region has two lower regions that are appropriate for the binding of RNA polymerase and are separated from each other by a 16–17 base pair. In all living beings, the proteins and DNA sequences interact with each other. For example, the LacI repressor, which is in charge of controlling the lactose operon,has separate regions for not only binding the DNA region, but also for creating protein-protein binding as well as the binding of allolactose stimulator. The unique combinations of this region on the genome sequence result in a unique protein synthesis.

The genetic engineering procedures in cells

Some of the genetic engineering procedures that take place in the cells are as follows: Recombination systems (mutual material exchange) that are observed in homologous chromosomes (the chromosome pair derived from each parent), recombination specific to a particular region; separation of DNA sequences specific to those regions (fusion of gene pieces, VDJ recombination of genes as appointed in the immune system); the existence of systems that combine end points in non-homologous chromosomes (the binding of broken DNA parts, the formation of new genetic fusion, the formation of sequences that are open to hyper mutations); DNA transposons (DNA sequences that can insert themselves into different DNA sequences or can copy themselves there and leave a copy); the RNA sector that can control the transcription and signals that are responsible for the maturing transcription; the signal sequences that cause the rearrangement of neighboring DNA sequences (such as amplification, deletion, and inversion); and finally, controlling the transcription with micro RNAs.

None of the above phenomena which cause in-cell changes are random. Each of the genetic engineering functions is planned in a way that makes specific changes and arrangements. In the processes of insertion, i.e. when a specific amount of DNA is added to a different region of the genome, or deletion, i.e. when a specific amount of DNA is severed, there should be arranging, cutting and coding sequences that will bind the cut part to its new place in an appropriate way. On the genome, special regions that are suitable to mutation are created in order to produce variety and to respond to adaptation. When all these molecular engineering functions are thoroughly analyzed, it can be seen that even the point mutations, which up until now were thought to have happened by chance, are not coincidence; rather, they occur through the divinely designed genetic engineering functions. Most of the mutations that are thought to occur by chance in the cell have been removed by the repair systems and fault correction functions in the cell. Thus, the changeability and variety in DNA sequences are shaped by the power and will of God the Almighty according to a planned, programmed genetic schedule.

The R&D department of the genome

Depending on the stimulation received, God-given genetic engineering functions are arranged in the cells and a decision is made about which parts of the genome should be changed. Some of the changes inside the cell appear on a large scale. Inside the genome, different and far removed regions can be rearranged. The changes are related to one another and are in no way disconnected. One mechanism can produce more than one change. The reconstruction of changes in some organisms is a part of the normal life cycle. In the Cornelius protozoan, the embryonic genome is regularly decomposed to a thousand slices. Then, through processing and rearranging in the cells, a functional genome with a distinct system structure is created.

While the genome is reshaped, there is the production of new different sequences rather than the sequences that they regulate and which have the code for the continuity of existing phenotype features. The organization of the genome along the system base emerges with the functions of the genetic molecules, such as cut-paste-rearrange. For example, in immune system cells, there is a planned disposition to mutation and the specific antibodies are rearranged to recognize an infinite number of different antigens. The life cycles of lymphocytes demonstrates both the control of the DNA rearrangement improvements and the specificity of mutations. It is estimated that the new sequences which do not change the existing structure operate like a research center for the genome.

The God-given genetic engineering systems imposed in the cells, when analyzed from the perspective of the population, are molecular mechanisms that carry out basic changes to ensure adaptation. The duty of reconstructing the genome during adaptation has been assigned to the divine genetic engineering functions imposed in the cell. The divine genetic engineering tools and mechanisms, which are placed in the cell with active nucleic acid elements that carry information, change the genome in parallel to the changes in both the inner and outer environment; this change occurs not only on one point of the genome, but rather on every point of genome. The functions of the DNA elements, which allow for the exchange of genetic information (both horizontally and vertically, in species and between species, between types and classes), are arranged by domestic cell signal transfer and data process networks. The signal network systems that are in charge of rearranging and controlling in-cell procedures not only control when the genome is rearranged, at the same time it decides where these rearrangements take place inside the genome. The selection of the target is planned, it is not random. For instance, R1 and R2 retrotransposons which are established in the DNA region that codes 28S ribosomal RNA have specific recognition regions and the information of endonuclease cutting DNA region on specific points that it had settled down. Eukaryotic cells have more complex decision making systems. The cells continuously create responses in response to DNA damage, cell physiology and outer-cell reproduction factors. One of the critical questions and answers is whether the damage will be repaired or whether programmed death will take place. If the cell avoids giving an answer, then genetic indecisiveness appears and abnormal cell reproduction, i.e., cancer, begins. From this perspective, cancer is a result of pathology in the signal and information process in the cell. The changes in gene expression without any changes in the DNA sequence (epigenetic) as well as the divine genetic engineering functions are clear proof demonstrating that every single action in the cell occurs with a certain aim that is based on knowledge and calculations.

Hamza Aydin holds a PhD in biology.

References

• Shapiro J. A.(2001). “Genome Formatting for Computation and Function: Genome Organization and Reorganization in Evolution: Formatting for Computation and Function.” Presented at the “Contextualizing the Genome” symposium, Ghent University, Belgium, November 25–28, 2001 (Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., in press).
• –. (2005). “A 21st century view of evolution: genome system architecture, repetitive DNA, and natural genetic engineering.” Gene 345 (2005) pp. 91–100.
• Shapiro J. A. and Sternberg R V (2005). “Why repetitive DNA is essential to genome function.” Biol. Rev. (2005), 80, pp. 1–24. Cambridge Philosophical Society. DOI: 10.1017/S1464793104006657.

I hang between your stomach and your duodenum under it, attached to the intestinal mesenteries. I have two different identities in terms of my structure and function. I carry out two very different duties as a compound gland made up of both exocrine and endocrine tissues. So, I am granted a very special structure and chemical abilities to function well. One of my duties is related to the physiology of digestion: I break up the food passing from the stomach to the duodenum by pouring on it the four types of digestive enzymes I have been enabled to produce. These juices are carried through a tiny pipe to your duodenum. Two of them are used for breaking up proteins, one for carbohydrates, and one for fats. You don’t even realize it! As the food you take in passes from the stomach to the duodenum, my enzymes begin flowing faster. This is a very fine balance: while food is being digested, neither the enzymes should be wasted, nor should your intestinal walls be harmed. I don’t control the release of the enzymes. That duty is given to two hormones produced in your intestinal mucosa by the stimulus of the vagus nerve. When those hormones reach me by the bloodstream, my cells are stimulated and they secrete water, bicarbonate, and the digestive enzymes I mentioned and they flow into your duodenum through my duct.

My second job is the production of insulin and glucagon hormones, as the endocrinal pancreas. My cell clusters, which are also known as islets of Langerhans, have different types as separate groups, which you call alpha and beta. The insulin, which is produced by my beta cells, is used for regulating the glucose level in your blood. The duty of insulin is to stimulate your body cells to take the glucose in your blood and use it.

After you have a meal, the carbohydrates in it are broken down into glucose molecules, pass into the blood, and increase your blood sugar. For your body to function in a healthy way, the amount of glucose should be around 100mg/ml (it varies from 80–120). When the level is above the normal value, I secrete insulin. In this way, the sugar is carried to your cells and burned to produce energy, and its increase in your blood is brought back under control. Also, insulin helps you to store sugar in fat tissues and to turn them into fatty acids, and it slows the breaking down of fatty acids. Moreover, insulin helps you to make protein in your body by holding amino acids within your muscle tissues and storing glucose in your liver and turning it into glycogen.

The failure of my beta cells to secrete insulin is a serious problem; the consequence is “diabetus mellitus,” or what we commonly know as diabetes. A person with this disorder must abstain from various delicious foods and drinks. In cases where a strict diet does not solve the problem, patients may have to take insulin shots every day. Diabetes can cause many complications by damaging your nerves and blood vessels; I won’t go into types of diabetes so I don’t get sidetracked too much. I just wished to make a point: even a substance produced by a tiny cluster of cells can upset the functioning of many of your mechanisms. After having a meal, put your hand to the left of your abdomen below the stomach and remember what a blessing I am!

As for the glucagon hormone I secrete from my alpha cells, it does just the opposite of insulin and causes the sugar stored in your cells to be released into your bloodstream. When your blood sugar decreases-due to hunger, overwork, exercise, and so on-it causes the glycogen in your liver to be used in order to increase the level of your blood sugar. As adrenalin secreted by the adrenal glands helps glycogen to be broken down and to be released into the blood as glucose, they function as an integrated system. Glucagon also slows down the synthesis of glycogen, and it accelerates the break-up of proteins and fat metabolism. I think now you get it, Peter. Insulin and glycagon are parts of a biological feedback mechanism controlling one another. People discovered all these facts after years of lab research; now do you see how ridiculous it is to see me as a work of blind chance?

Like any other organ, I can also contract various diseases. The most common ones are acute or chronic inflammation, tumors, and cysts. I am easily troubled with inflammation in people with alcohol habits. Since enzyme secretions-and therefore digestive processes-are then not carried out properly, some undigested fats and fibers with proteins are excreted with the feces. A problem can arise with the intestines due to digestive deficiency. And if I completely fail to fulfill my duty owing to a chronic inflammation or tumor, then doctors take me out and you become dependent on insulin and a special liquid obtained from the pancreas.

It is sad to say that my cancer is not quickly recognized. It develops very fast and I try to keep up my duty as long as possible. Therefore, it is usually too late when diagnosed. There is nothing much modern medicine can do after it spreads. Although it is not definite yet, I suspect cigarettes play a role in my cancer.

As for diabetes, even though a promising method of treatment has been discovered, certain problems haven’t been overcome yet. The transplant of beta cells from the pancreas of someone who has just died-with as much tissue compatibility as possible-has had partial success. As with every other organ transplant, tissue rejection is a challenge. If the human genome project succeeds and the genetic code of the human body is thoroughly solved, it may be possible to cure diabetes by genetic engineering techniques. This is only at research level for now, but if scientists do their best, it is possible to find a way, since there is a treatment for every disease except for old age and death. You see Peter, as the vicegerents on earth, you humans are supposed to explore the secrets of the universe and appreciate the beauties you discover. I think I have said enough now. Thanks for listening, Peter!

Irfan Yilmaz is a professor of biology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.