Carbon atom, which composes nearly 0.2% of the earth’s crust, has a very special place among elements. All living beings are formed from carbon-based compounds. In addition, 94% percent of compounds—that is, more than 4 million—contain carbon atoms. Certain carbon compounds form nearly 18% of the matter in living beings. The rest is mostly water. These compounds are used as building blocks in cell formation. Only carbon has the ability of compounding with other elements in sufficient variety and complexities in order to carry out the main functions that life is based on. As carbon atoms easily form chains by making chemical bonds, no other element is given such a quality. These chains formed in a line can separate into branches and can connect to form rings. These rings are actually polygons formed by three, four, five, six, or more carbon atoms. Due to this quality, carbon is the element that forms the basis of many things from the foods we eat, to the clothes we wear, from the fuels we use, to the furniture we have.

The heat level that makes carbon compounds possible is between -20 and +120 0C. Carbon compounds begin freezing at -20 0C and they begin breaking at 120 0C. In space, where extreme heat and freezing cold exists, the only heat range that makes carbon compounds possible is found on earth and this is a very sensitive heat range. Temperatures in our neighboring planets give a better idea: as hot as 450 0C in Venus, and as cold as -53 0C in Mars. Under these temperatures, it is impossible for carbon element to form compounds and thus living beings. Therefore, the earth is the only planet created with the suitable conditions that make life possible.

Crystal structures of carbon atom

Particular repeating arrangement of atoms in three dimensional space to form a certain geometric shape is known as a crystal structure.

Different crystal structures of the same substance are named “allotrope.” Carbon has three different allotropes found in nature: amorphous carbon (coal), graphite, diamond. In addition to these, an artificially produced allotrope is fullerene.

Amorphous carbon (coal)

Amorphous structure is one without a definite crystal structure; that is, one where atoms take their places in free order. A mass of carbon atoms of amorphous structure is known as coal. After plants die, they undergo chemical transformation with the activities of microorganisms. If dead plants collect in a suitable wetland and are buried into the ground with a geological process, the carbon amount in their body increases and they begin transforming into coal. Types of coal are categorized according to the carbon percentage they contain. Geologically, this transformation process takes a period of 15 to 345 million years. Coal is one of the most commonly used forms of energy.

Graphite

In graphite, carbon atoms are found in a hexagonal crystal structure. These sheets, resembling the surface of a honeycomb, pile up and form graphite. As the sheets are not connected with firm bonds, they easily shift when some force is applied. This is why graphite is used for eliminating friction at machine industry. The black substance in pencils is graphite hardened by adding some clay. Graphite can resist very high temperatures. Therefore it is used within the steel industry and melting metals. In addition, it is a very good conductor of electricity. For this reason, the brushes of the electric engines in household machines such as a washing machine and a vacuum cleaner are made of graphite. In recent years, graphite has been used as heat shields of space shuttles.

Diamond

Diamond is the hardest natural substance we know. In spite of being a transparent substance and having no color of its own, it can be found in pastel colors such as yellow, brown, or even dim black, owing to being mixed with other minerals. Diamond is a perfect electric isolator and is the substance with highest heat conductivity. For this reason, it can be cut without being deformed. In diamond, carbon atoms are found in a pattern to form a cubical crystal structure. Extraordinary resistance of carbon-carbon bond and its hard and integrated structure prevents its reacting with other things around. It burns at a heat of 850 0C. In a piece of diamond, there can be other atoms that cause impurity and decrease the value. In good quality natural diamonds, there is only 1 alien atom versus 100,000 carbon atoms. In addition to jewelry, diamonds are widely used at industrial products such as drills, glass cutters and the like. 75-80 % of diamond production is used in this industry.

Formation of coal, graphite, or diamond from carbon

Carbon based organic compounds were buried underground as a result of movements by the earth’s crust millions of years ago. Physical and chemical changes occurred with those organic masses through heat and pressure. Gradually, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and—in the highest phases—hydrogen leaves these masses. This organic matter called “turba” (first transforms into lignite, then to sub bituminous coal, then to bituminous coal, and then to anthracite). If the conditions allow, it transforms into graphite. Coal is the first type of substance formed by carbon atoms on their journey to become diamond. As lower values of heat, pressure, and time suffice for coal formation, graphite requires much higher values. Diamond is formed in the mantle layer of the earth at about 150-200 depth. This valuable substance is later carried to the surface of the earth by volcanic rocks such as lamproite and kimberlite. In order for diamond to form, an atmospheric pressure of 50,000 atm, 2,400 0C of heat, and a period of 3 billion years are required. Without this immense pressure and long time, the substance to be formed by carbon will simply be graphite. It is possible to transform graphite into diamond artificially; however, according to calculations, a minimum pressure of 10,000 atm is required. In 1955, for the first time artificial diamond was obtained under 100,000 atm, 2,500 0C heat, and by using chrome as catalyzer. However, the pieces of diamond obtained were small and black, most of them did not classify as jewels. In another attempt made in 1962, graphite turned into diamond under 200,000 atm, 5,000 0C heat, without using any catalyzer.

The similarity between carbon and human beings

As carbon atoms’ properties change according to the crystal structure, people’s lifestyle and view of life depends on the community they live in and their position in that community. In order to become diamond, the highest level of its kind, a person needs to undergo hard conditions. If carbon atoms were to say, “this is more than we can bear, we prefer easier conditions,” then they can be nothing more than graphite. If the conditions for graphite are avoided as well, then one cannot go beyond the level of coal. Diamonds are kept in safes and worn in most important occasions and graphite has different kinds of practical use as an industrial material. As for coal, it ends up in fire. The situation of human beings in a way resembles carbon atoms. Every person is made of the same elements biologically. Their value will naturally be different, according to the processes they underwent and the behaviors they presented. Some show patience in the face of misfortune, put their sincere trust in God, and become the diamonds of humanity. Some others, whom we can compare to graphite, attain a desirable level even if they cannot become diamonds. Those who choose to assume the lowliest form are likely to face a similar fate with the coal.

References

• H. W. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl ve R. E. Smalley. 1985. “C60: Buckminsterfullerene.” Nature 318. DOI:10.1038/318162a0.
• L. Vlasov, D. Trifonov. 2005. 107 Stories about Chemistry, TUBÝTAK., Ankara.

The chemistry of fullerene has grown considerably in importance within last ten years. The discovery was very fruitfull, since then that the number of carbon atoms can vary, and for this reason numerous new carbon structures have become known. Formerly, six crystalline forms of the element carbon were known, namely two kinds of graphite, two kinds of diamond, chaoit and carbon(IV). The latter two were discovered in 1968 and 1972. Graphite is soft, black and stable, common form of carbon. Diamonds may once have been a woman’s best friend, but chemists know they are only lumps of graphite in disguise. Both are in different properties, in diamond, each carbon atom is bound to four other carbon atoms in a regular repetitive pattern. In graphite, the carbon atoms are located at the corners of regular and fused hexagons arranged in a parallel layers. Those two forms are not soluble in organic solvent such as toluene, benzene but fullerene.

How C60 is formed like a European football shape?

Fullerenes formation can be summarized by a short experimental procedure; when vaporized carbon condenses in an atmosphere of inert gas such as helium. The gaseous carbon is obtained by directing an intense pulse of laser light at a carbon surface. The released carbon atoms are mixed with a stream of helium gas and combine to form clusters of some few up to hundred of atoms. The gas is then let into a vacuum chamber where it expands. It is then cooled to some degrees above absolute zero. The carbon clusters can then be analyzed with mass spectrometry2.4. Although explanation is easy, to meet the experimental part, conditions and to carry it out is not that straightforward. People have been making football and rugby ball, however, it never came up to their mind that those shapes could represent a stable molecule structure. Now, question in this respect is that the fullerene could be available in other part of the universe, since the reaction conditions do take place on the sun surface.

Why new form of carbon had been called buckministerfullerene?

Curl, Kroto and Smalley performed this experiment together as mentioned earlier with two graduate students J.R. Heath and S.C O’ Brien during a period of eleven days in 1985. By fine-tuning the experiment they were able in particular to produce clusters with 60 carbon atoms, C60 gives the most remarkable peak on the mass spectrum. It was found high stability in C60 which suggested a molecular structure of great symmetry. The pattern of European football has exactly this structure, as does the geodetic dome designed the American architect R. Buckminister Fuller for 1967 Montreal World Exhibition. The researchers named the newly discovered structure “buckministerfullerene” after him. The shape could be defined as perfect symmetry the most beautiful molecule, the greatest ball, in fact, it was the most beautiful reflection of the Creator who had already created the universe.

The discovery of the unique structure of the C60 was published first in the Journal “Nature” and had a mixed reception- both criticism and enthusiastic acceptance. Continuing their work 1985-1990 obtained further evidence that the proposed structure ought to be correct, the research program particularly at Sussex University in England has covered several interdisciplinary areas. One area focused on the generation and spectroscopic characterization of new molecules, in particular, unstable species and reaction intermediates which contained labile multiple bonds, which led to carbon phosphorus double and triple bonds.

Why was this discovery so important for condensed matter?

As is mentioned above, numerous new carbon structures have become known by this discovery. Graphite and diamond (the other two well characterized forms of carbon) are known since time immemorial, now at the end of the 20th century a third form has been discovered. Furthermore, it has been under our noses all the time as amazingly the molecule forms in a soothing flame. The idea is that what kind of interesting applications can be developed if buckyballs are put together to produce new materials, or if different elements are put into the buckyballs. Besides lots of compounds made from buckyball could be easily identified. The way was, thus, open for studying chemical properties of C60 and other carbon clusters such as C70,C76,C78, and C84. New substances were produced from these compounds, with new and unexpected properties. An entirely new branch of chemistry developed with consequences in such diverse areas as astrochemistry, superconductivity material chemistry/ Physics.. (see several selected publications in the references)

During last six years since the fullerenes became available to scientist, more than a thousand new compounds have been synthesized. Their chemical, optical, electrical, mechanical or biological properties have been also tested. The production of tullerene is still expensive, which limits their use. If fullerene can be produced with a cheaper procedure then we might use it via industrial processes in our daily life. It is still early to see final application of this discovery, but there is few countries take it further to find whether it could be used as a drug, lubricant, and computer communication.

What Muslim scientists might do in order to discover something or do something in science vertically which will bring the competition with western scientists? Although the science had been developed in different respect of sciences by Muslims, now Muslims have got to pay some more effort for those gifts. We know that there are numberless substances have been staying out there ever since they had been created.With this consequence, a Muslim scientist has to be mentioned, Dr Ala’a K. Abdul-Sada10 who had involved in spectral analysis and characterization of this discovery. He is the first one who discovered this new form is soluble in different organic solvent that present a key factor in the new field of chemistry. Also the first sign in the discovery of this molecule is entirely depend on the solubility. He is a member of faculty and runs the mass spectrometry at the University of Sussex. According to him, ‘There is nothing wrong with Muslim scientist, but unfortunately badly effected by the lack of resources. The capability of Muslim scientists are well enough, if they are provided with equipment, and other scientific requirement’. He reported more than eight international patents which is purely petroleum application processes and being used industrial scale. We wish this level of research will be carried out in different area by Muslim scientists.

REFERENCES

1. H. W. Kroto. J. 2. Heath, S.C. Obrien, 2. F. Curl, R. E. Smalley, Nature, 1985. Vol:318, No: 6042, pp. 162-163.
2. J. Baggot, ‘Perfect symmetry; the accidental discave of Buckmmisterfullere’, Oxford Univ. Press, 1994, IX+315pp.
3. H. Aldersey-Williams, “The most beautiful molecule;an adventure in chemistry’, Aurum Press, London, 1995, IX+340pp.
4. 2. F Curl and 2. E. Smalley, “Probing C60′, Science. 18 Nov. 1988, Vol: 242.
5. H. Krcto, ‘Space Starts, CO and Soot”, Science, 25 Nov. 1988, vol 242.
6. C60: Buckministerfullerene, the celestial sphere that fell to earth,Angew. Chem., mt. Ed. EngI., 1992, 31,111.
7. A post-buckministertullerene view of Carbon in the Galaxy, Acc. Chem. Res., 1992. 25, 106.
8. The structure of buckministe fullerene compounds, J. Mom. Struct.,1994,325,1.
9. Condensed phase na otubes, Nature, 1995,377,687.
10. 2. Taylor. J. P. Hare, A. K. Abdul-Sado and H. W. Kroto, j Chem, Comm., 1990, 20, 1423.