Smart prosthetic hand combines both human and robot control

Zhuang et al. Shared human–robot proportional control of a dexterous myoelectric prosthesis. Nature Machine Intelligence, September 2019.

Holding an object in your hand might seem easy, but it’s actually a very complicated and challenging task; if, for instance, an object starts to slip, you typically have a couple of milliseconds to react. Scientists have been trying new approaches for improved control of robotic hands, particularly for use by amputees. A recent technology was able to combine individual finger control and automation for improved grasping and manipulation by successfully merging the fields of neuroengineering and robotics. This interdisciplinary approach was tested on three amputees and seven non-amputee subjects. The neuroengineers achieved the intended finger movement from muscular activity on the amputee’s stump, allowing for individual finger control of a prosthetic hand, which had never been done before. The robotics team enabled the robotic hand to take hold of objects and maintain contact with them for robust grasping. The amputee first performed a series of hand movements in order to train the algorithm through a machine learning paradigm. This taught the algorithm to decode user intention and translate it into finger movements of the prosthetic hand. Concurrently, sensors placed on the amputee’s stump detected muscular activity, which trained the algorithm to learn which hand movements corresponded to which patterns of muscular activity. Once the user’s intended finger movements were acquired, this information could then be used to control individual fingers on the prosthetic hand. When the user tried to grasp an object, the robotic automation initiated. The algorithm told the prosthetic hand to close its fingers when an object was in contact with sensors on the hand’s surface. This automatic grasping was designed to infer the shape of objects and grasp them based on tactile information alone, without any help of visual signals. The robotic hand has the ability to react within 400 milliseconds, and it is equipped with pressure sensors all along the fingers: it can react and stabilize the object before the brain can actually perceive that the object is slipping. While this promising technology can be used in in several neuro-prosthetic applications such as bionic hand prostheses and brain-to-machine interfaces, there are still many challenges remaining to implement this technology in a commercially available prosthetic hand for amputees. It is currently being tested and improved.

Cats securely bond with people, too

Vitale et al. Attachment bonds between domestic cats and humans. Current Biology, September 2019.

Dogs have long been regarded as man’s best friend. They’re sociable, faithful, and obedient. Cats, on the other hand, are often described as more aloof, mysterious, and independent. But a new study suggests that cats actually bond with their owners in similar ways to how humans and dogs bond with companions. The most established way to study human attachment behavior is to observe an infant’s response to a reunion with their caregiver following a brief absence in a novel environment. When a caregiver returns, secure infants quickly return to relaxed exploration while insecure individuals engage in excessive clinging or avoidance behavior. These tests had been previously run with humans, primates, and dogs; researchers decided to run the same test with cats. 79 kittens and 38 adult cats and their caregivers were recruited. During the test, an adult cat or kitten spent two minutes in a novel room with their caregiver followed by two minutes alone. Then, they had a two-minute reunion. The cats’ responses to seeing their owners again were classified into attachment styles. The results show that cats bond in a way that’s surprisingly similar to infants. In humans, 65% of infants are securely attached to their caregiver and domestic cats and kittens mirrored this, as about 65% of them securely bonded to their people. After the first round of tests, the researchers enrolled half the kittens used in the study in a training and socialization course. The other half served as a control group. Researchers then found the same results, suggesting the training did not have an effect on kittens’ attachment behavior toward their owners. This indicates that once a cat forms a bond, it seems to remain stable over time. This social flexibility may have helped facilitate the success of the species in human homes. It is still not clear what the factors are that shape the caretaker relationship, but it’s likely a miraculous complex mix of genetics, personality, and experience.

An efficient and green way to convert heat into electricity

Zheng et al. Paramagnon drag in high thermoelectric figure of merit Li-doped MnTe. Science Advances, September 2019.

A recent discovery could help scientists to develop more efficient ways to generate electricity from heat that would have been otherwise wasted, such as heat coming from car exhaust, industrial processes, and interplanetary space probes. In principle, magnetic fields can be used to generate electricity. If we move a magnet through a coil or wire, the magnet pushes and pulls electrons that create an electrical current. Magnets themselves don’t have energy, but they can control energy currents through the created magnetic field. The main problem with magnets is that when a magnet is heated up, it loses most of its magnetic properties and becomes a so-called paramagnet. Until this discovery, scientists believed that paramagnets couldn’t be used for generating electricity. In the new study, researchers found a way of designing thermoelectric semiconductors that can convert heat to electricity. The tiny particles in paramagnets, so called paramagnons, ended up producing enough spin to push an electron, for only a billionth of a millionth of a second – apparently long enough to make paramagnets viable energy-harvesters. This breakthrough in the conventional understanding of magnetic properties could lead to more research into how magnets and energy interact to potentially facilitate electricity production from heat that is otherwise wasted and oftentimes harmful to the environment.

A new Artificial Intelligence (AI) approach to translate brain waves into speech

Akbari et al. Towards reconstructing intelligible speech from the human auditory cortex. Scientific Reports January, 2019.

In a recent study, researchers demonstrated that brain signals from the human auditory cortex can be reconstructed into intelligible speech with a high rate of success. In the study, the brain signals from the auditory cortexes of five participants (suffering from epilepsy) were recorded while they were listening to stories and numbers being read. Researchers specifically chose epilepsy patients as they were already undergoing a clinical procedure involving the placement of electrodes into the temporal lobe of their brains. This procedure is called invasive electrocorticography. The researchers then spoke 10 numbers into the ears of the test subjects: zero to nine. Each number produced a unique response in the brain. The sound produced by the vocoder in response to those brain signals was analyzed and cleaned up by neural networks, a type of artificial intelligence that mimics the structure of neurons in the biological brain. Remarkably, the robotic translations were successfully understood by 75% of people enlisted to test the technology. These results suggest a hopeful future for the Brain-Computer Interface. In particular, this new technology has great potential at giving a voice to people who are paralyzed or severely injured. Despite the potential, the path for a practical device is still long. To go beyond simple numbers and access the thoughts that go with speaking, the researchers will have to probe a different part of the brain known as the Broca area. It is found in the frontal lobe and linked to speech production and language processing.

Milky Way is warped and twisted, not flat

Chen, et al. An intuitive 3D map of the Galactic warp’s precession traced by classical Cepheids. Nature Astronomy February, 2019.

Astronomers have been studying the Earth’s home galaxy, the Milky Way, for centuries in efforts to get a better understanding of its size, structure, and place in the universe. While modern instruments have provided invaluable details about our galaxy and others, a truly accurate model of our galaxy has been missing. Researchers have recently built, for the first time, an accurate 3D map of the Milky Way. We often think of spiral galaxies as a flat thin disk of stars that orbit around a central region, where billions of stars provide the massive gravitational force to hold everything together. However, a new study showed that the Milky Way’s gas disk is no longer confined to a thin plane, but is instead organized in an S-like, warped appearance. The researchers determined the Milky Way’s exact shape at high accuracy by measuring the distances to so-called Cepheid variable stars. Cepheids are young stars that can be up to 20 times as massive and 100,000 times as bright as our Sun. These high stellar masses live fast and die young, sometimes after only a few million years. They also show day-to month-long pulsations, which are observed as changes in their brightness. Combined with a Cepheid’s observed brightness, its pulsation period can be used to obtain highly reliable distances.  By using the data of 1,339 Cepheid stars as benchmarks, researchers were able to map out accurate distances between objects in the Milky Way. Interestingly, in the Milky Way’s outer regions, they found that the S-like stellar disk is warped in a progressively twisted spiral pattern. Researchers suggested that the Milky Way’s warped spiral pattern is most likely caused as a result of rotational forcing or “torques” by the massive inner disk. The further stars are from the center of the galaxy, the weaker their gravitational pull is. This new morphology is expected to provide a crucial updated map of our galaxy’s stellar motions and the origins of the Milky Way’s galaxy.

Smart fabric self-cools or self-insulates depending on conditions

Zhang et al. Dynamic gating of infrared radiation in a textile. Science, February 2019

Decades of innovation in fabrics have yielded high-tech materials that react to hot and cold conditions, allowing them to keep marathon runners cool or alpine hikers warm. However, there was never a material that could change the insulating properties of fabric in response to the environment. A recently developed fabric is the first to automatically warm wearers up or cool them down as needed. Infrared radiation is the primary way the body releases heat and is the focus of this new technology. When the condition is warm or moist, like when a body sweats, the fabric allows the infrared radiations to pass through. Conversely, in cool and dry conditions, the fabric traps the surrounding heat that escapes. The fibers are made of two different synthetic materials coated in carbon nanotubes – one absorbs water, and the other repels it. When the material gets hot and wet during sweating, the strands twist and warp. This distortion brings the strands of yarn closer together, which opens the pores in the fabric to allow heat to escape. When a wearer is too cool, this mechanism is blocked, trapping heat close to the skin. The reaction takes place almost instantly. The garment cools people down before they realize that they are getting hot. Athletes perhaps will be the first people to wear clothes made from the material, but it could be useful for infants, people with disabilities, and the elderly. Researchers say it could be in production within months as the base material is easily available and the carbon coating can be effortlessly added during the standard dying process.

Like all omnivorous foods, peppers – both hot and sweet – have been created in unique, wise ways to make them appealing to eat and to help reproduce.

Plants and their fruits are sustenance for herbivores, including humans. They are often brightly colored – be it red, orange, yellow, purple, or green, inviting us to a delicious food. But not all plants are meant to be eaten. Indeed, some plants are designed to be unappetizing, either through look or smell; some even have thorns, or sticky, hairy surfaces to deter us from eating them. Another remarkable way that plants are protected against herbivores is the presence of unique chemicals that induce vomiting and pain, or may be toxic.

Many edible plants need to be eaten – it’s how they spread their seeds. Thus, they produce juicy, tasty skin and sweet-smelling aromas. Why, then, are hot peppers different? Though they are nicely colored and juicy, and sweet smelling, they are also hot, and not terribly pleasant for animals to eat.

A recent study at New Mexico State University’s Chile Pepper Institute determined the hottest chili to be the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion Chili. It was chosen from among 125 varieties. Researchers dried and ground it to powder, to isolate its active compound. This way, they were able to determine that the Trinidad Moruga Scorpion reaches about 1.2 million units on the Scoville heat scale. It is so potent that it could induce sweating and tears, and of course puts the mouth on fire.

Figure 1. Molecular mechanism of TRPV receptor activated by capsaicin. TRPVs are located on the surface of nerve cells where they normally respond to changes in temperature by releasing calcium ions. Those ions signal to intracellular machinery to fire nerve action to inform the brain about increased levels of heat. Capsaicin in hot peppers mimics this system, and thus fools brain to think mouth is hot.

What make hot peppers hot?

Animals are equipped with receptors, like TRPV1 in the mouth’s nerve endings, which sense heat. Hot peppers produce a chemical called capsaicin. Capsaicin binds to and activates TRPV1 receptors; thus we feel a heat similar to a burning sensation. In reality, capsaicin does not actually increase the temperature in the mouth, but instead mimics the same process (Figure 1). Since capsaicin mainly dissolves in oil instead of water, drinking water does not help much to get rid of the burning sensation. Cold water provides only temporary aid. However, the drinking of ayran (a Turkish yogurt drink) relieves hotness by removing capsaicin due to the presence of oil in ayran. Interestingly, although mammals have receptors for capsaicin, scientists have recently discovered that birds don’t.

Capsaicin deters mammalian consumption

It is an interesting phenomenon that peppers are hot but need to be eaten to propagate their seeds in different environments, which is done through the droppings of animals. If this is the case, why are hot peppers made unpleasant with capsaicin? To figure out the wisdom behind this contradiction, Joshua Tewksbury performed a study with a group of mice and birds, and found that birds do not distinguish between sweet and hot peppers in their diet. In this study, both mice and birds ate the same amount when fed with food mixed with sweet peppers. However, mice refused to eat foods mixed with hot peppers, while birds happily ate such food. Moreover, analysis of the droppings of birds and mice showed that the seeds passed through the bird’s digestion systems were intact and fully fertile and could germinate, while seeds eaten by mice were either crushed or semi digested so that they were not fertile. Thus, the role of capsaicin in hot peppers is to deter mammals that destroy their seeds while not disturbing birds. This is a great example of ingenious interdependence.

Capsaicin as antifungal agent of peppers

Figure 2. Capsaicin is not only protective against mammals but also fungus contaminations. A) Insects make peppers prone to fungus contamination by causing harm. B) Healthy pepper C) A pepper with fungal contamination. Modified Image from Tewksbury lab.

The infinite wisdom of capsaicin protects peppers against fungus as well. Another study by Tewksbury showed that hot peppers are relatively protected against fungal infections. Tewksbury demonstrated that increased doses of capsaicin inhibit the growth of fungus. This finding is in parallel with lower fungus growth in hot peppers compared to sweet peppers.

But what about insects? How could peppers be protected from insects?

Adaptations against insects

Interestingly, the skins of hot and sweet peppers have different levels of thickness. It has been suggested that this gives an advantage to sweet peppers. Furthermore, this protective layer is made of lignin, which is made of the same material as capsaicin and helps to protect from other threats. This allows peppers to adapt to many different environments. For instance, in the presence of fungal contamination, a pepper might be able to produce more capsaicin and decrease lignin production, or vice versa.

Why do we like to eat hot peppers then?

Humans differ from mammals in their love of hot peppers. There are different explanations why we like to eat hot peppers, despite them being painful. Some experts assert that hot peppers are good for our health by lowering blood pressure, having antimicrobial effects, and increasing salivation thus making a boring diet fun. On the other hand, some experts approach it from the perspective of human emotions and argue that we are actually after the pain produced by hot peppers. In addition, there are some studies suggesting that capsaicin could also suppress other pains.

Hot pepper or capsaicin as pain suppressor

Capsaicin in hot peppers could be used as a pain suppressor, as some studies suggested. A study using mice lacking TRPV1 heat receptors showed that the increased long term activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin could relieve pain following the accumulation of high doses of Ca2+ in the cells. This is accomplished by the suppression of both cellular activities and the transmission of pain through nerves.

Hot peppers are hot and we love them. It seems like we will continue consuming them. As every other art of creation, hot or sweet peppers are likely to have many more levels of wisdom awaiting us to discover.

References

• Tewksbury Lab. Retrieved from: http://faculty.washington.edu/tewksjj/res_pai.html on 18.2.2012.
• Yalgın. Ç. 2012. Acı biberler niye acı? (Why Are Peppers Hot?) Açık Bilim. Retrieved from: http://www.acikbilim.com on 18.2.2012.
• Zivkovic, B. 2006. Hot peppers – Why are they hot? A Blog Around The Clock.

We tend to overlook our skin, but it performs many vital functions for our bodies – including coming to our rescue in emergencies.

Since it is designed to function within very precise limits, our body is very susceptible to small temperature changes. Since abnormalities in these changes occur, the body has various mechanisms to keep its temperature constant. One of these mechanisms works by changing the amount of blood in the veins underneath the skin. When talking about body temperature, it is important to distinguish between the internal and external body temperature. The internal temperature is the temperature of the brain and internal organs, while the external body temperature is the temperature of the skin.

Normally, arteries that transport clean blood, and veins that carry dirty blood, are not connected; therefore clean and dirty blood never mix. However, as a consequence of some illnesses or birth defects, an abnormal bridge between arteries and veins may be present. This kind of condition is usually called arteriovenous shunts, or arteriovenous fistula. In these kinds of situations, blood is pumped directly from arteries to veins. In other words, clean blood flows towards dirty blood. Normally, the clean blood has to travel the body, providing oxygen and other supplements to cells, while collecting carbon dioxide and returning to the heart to be cleaned again.

An incredible network for the transportation of substances from the blood in arteries and veins has been created. If this system, known as the “capillary network,” did not exist, none of our organs could be fed, and the circulatory system would not be able to provide its vital function.

The system is necessary for two reasons. The speed of the blood in the arteries and veins is too fast for anything to be transported to the organs, and their walls are too thick to allow transportation of substances. Therefore, the blood travels from the arteries to the capillaries, and after the trading of oxygen and other substances with carbon dioxide is completed, it flows to the veins. If any kind of abnormalities exist, the blood flows directly from the arteries to the veins, therefore skipping the capillaries. As a consequence, the organs aren’t fed and the blood gathers in the veins without fulfilling its purpose. Naturally, the oxygen and nutrition balance of the organs gets messed up. The blood is pumped out of the heart with no purpose and heart failure becomes inevitable.

The capillary network has been assigned the task of communication between arteries and veins. The skins is our only organ where the blood flows directly from arteries to veins; AV shunts accomplish a very important duty in this function.

There is a network of veins underneath the skin. The number of veins in this network is so many that if they were completely filled up, they could hold up to two liters of blood in the skin. Blood is pumped to the skin for two purposes: to provide oxygen and nutrients to the cells, and to collect carbon dioxide and waste products in the cells, as is done with every organ; and to monitor the internal temperature of the body by sending blood to the skin if the temperature gets too high, similar to what radiators in cars do when the engine gets too hot.

There is also the subcutaneous fat tissue underneath the skin which acts as an insulator. The vein network mentioned above is inside this fat tissue. There is a continuous flow of blood from the capillaries that feed the skin towards this network of veins. Moreover, especially in areas where the skin is exposed – such as the hands, feet, face and ears – there is a blood flow from the small arteries towards this network of veins. Contrary to other organs in the body, blood flows directly from the arteries to the veins. If this direct blood flow did not exist, the amount of blood in the skin’s veins would be close to zero, because the amount of blood necessary for skin nutrition is very little. However when the internal temperature rises too much, the amount of blood, which is normally close to zero, can suddenly increase to as much as 30% of the blood pumped by the heart. In this case, the body’s internal temperature is being transported to the skin. This is an incredibly efficient cooling system. However, if the weather is cold, the AV shunt veins are switched off and the skin’s blood flow is decreased until close to zero, therefore maintaining internal temperature. The fat tissue underneath the skin also has a very important function, as it acts as insulation, helping maintain temperature.

Body temperature and the body’s systems work in perfect coordination with each other. We can observe a very simplified version of this system in computer based air conditioners. However, when we reflect upon the incredibly sophisticated cooling system of the human body, we come to the conclusion that no other system is as perfect as that.

The hypothalamus, which has various vital duties for the brain, was also given the very important mission of controlling the body’s temperature. There are hot and cold heat receptors in various parts of the hypothalamus. When body temperature increases, these receptors are activated. As a consequence of this warning, skin veins all over the body expand. Simultaneous with the expansion of the veins, sweat is excreted.

The hypothalamus also has the duty of suppressing the mechanisms that produce heat throughout the body. For example, trembling is stopped and general metabolism is slowed down to decrease body temperature. As metabolism slows down, the production of heat becomes minimal, and cooling takes place. In conditions where the body temperature is too cold, some hormones secreted in the hypothalamus trigger the pituitary, and then the thyroid, hormones. Since thyroid hormones are responsible for increasing metabolism, body temperature increases. However if body temperature increases above normal, the control of the hypothalamus on the thyroid is reversed, and thyroid hormones are decreased, therefore decreasing body temperature.

There is one more reason for placing so many veins in the perfect and miraculous body’s skin: except for extremely cold weather conditions, quite a large amount of blood exists in these veins that are not used for nutritional purposes. Some of our organs act as storage for blood; two of the most important ones are the spleen and liver. Another one is the skin. In the course of losing blood, or an illness that increases the need for blood, the spleen and liver shrink. As a consequence of this shrinkage, the blood inside them is sent to the heart, through veins, and distributed to the areas in need of blood. This increases the heart rate.

A similar scenario occurs in the skin. The veins responsible for cooling shrink, and the blood they contain is sent to the heart with the help of the main veins, therefore helping the heart pump. During heavy loss of blood, the blood in the skin comes to the rescue. Patients who are losing blood have incredibly cold and pale skin. This is because the blood in the skin has reduced to a minimum.

The obverse of this happens in an illness called erythromelalgia, where more blood than normal flows from the arteries to the veins in the skin. This is mostly seen in the hands, feet, nose, and ears, since AV shunts are more prevalent in these areas of the skin. The symptom of this illness is burning pain, which is triggered by heat and soothed by cool temperatures. The nutrition of the skin decreases and some substances produced because of the absence of oxygen increases redness, heat, and pain, since some of the capillaries feeding the skin shut down and all of the blood flows from arteries to veins with the AV shunts.

Our skin protects our muscles and bones, and contributes to the beautiful aesthetic of our body. It provides our sense of touch, and is therefore a means for us to experience the material world, as well as providing temperature control for our bodies. It can clearly be seen that the relationship between the skin and the veins could not have evolved by the consequence of coincidence.

Distribution and density of the hairs in our body is coded in our genes. This program is activated after birth and hair roots are formed at around 8th-10th week of pregnancy. The hairs that cover the fetus are thin, short, and weak. The growth of hairs is completed in the 22nd week. Number of hairs in a fetus does not change much according to gender. Later on in a person’s life, hairs can become dense or rare, owing to factors such as race, age, gender and hormonal state. There are hair roots covering almost all over our body except for the soles, palms, forehead, the areas under the eyes, on and behind the ears.

A hair is made up of the hair root and the hair shaft on it. A hair root is surrounded with two layers. The duty of these layers is to prevent harm to the hair shaft and let the hair grow in the right direction. A hair root is a multilayered structure where every layer has a different function. The papilla is in the base of the hair root and it basically serves to send nourishment to hair cells. The upper layer of the hair shaft is the hard substance called keratin. The innermost layer, which can be seen as the spinal cord of a hair, does not exist in every hair shaft. The second layer, known as the cortex, constitutes most of the hair shaft. The color of hair is mostly determined by the pigment in this layer. The outermost layer is the upper skin of the hair.

Hairs in different parts of the body have their peculiar forms of and limits to growing. Under the control of hormones, hair roots cause hairs of different properties—such as thickness and color—to form. The hairs in moustache, armpits, between the legs, beard, and on the head grow fast and continually. On the other hand, the hairs on our arms, chest, back, legs and including those in the eyebrows grow very slowly and they know their limits. If the person does not own functional testicles, there may be no hair in certain areas of the body except for the hair on his head.

Most of us are apt to think that certain stories make our hair curl; actually, hair erector muscles are the unsung heroes of those stories. Under every hair in the body, there is an erector muscle that makes it move. These muscles have important functions for the body.

Firstly, it helps the oil glands carry out their function. The oil sacks are located on the surface of a hair. The sizes of these sacks are around 0.2-2 millimeters. Sacks are in the form of clusters. Oil glands are also placed all over the body, accept for the soles and palms. They are the natural “lubricants” for the skin and hairs; they protect the skin from the damage of drying up. Every gland under the skin has a channel. There are alveoli that open to every channel. When the hair muscle is stimulated, the hairs become erect and the connected gland start secreting a substance called sebum. The glands empty their contents to the body of the hair.

Regulating the acidity (pH) level of the skin is among the duties of the hair erector muscle and it produces a protective gel. The oily secretion forms a thin layer of gel; as it serves protecting the skin from heat and cold, it is given an antibacterial effect as well. The natural coating of the skin prevents reproduction of harmful germs. The pH level of the skin is 5-6 and it does not allow bacteria to grow. If this substance is not secreted from the skin, the pH acidity shifts toward alkali, moisture level of the skin increases; the fat layer and then the natural coating is damaged. Thus, germs find a suitable environment to reproduce.

Hair erector muscles are also given a role in adjusting body heat. The hairs in the human body are not related to heat isolation. When the body is exposed to cold environments, the mechanisms that increase body heat are activated. When sympathetic nervous system stimulates hair erector muscles, they contract, hairs bristle, and the body heat is tampered through the reduced heat release. Sometimes, even the invisibly small hairs erect and goose bumps appear on the skin. The purpose is to form a screen for heat. They also allow for perspiration in hot weather and help the body to cool down. In addition, hair erector muscles serve as touching receptors as well. The receptors in hairs easily detect objects on the body surface. Hairs that are activated by touch stimulate the nerve tissue in their base. In a way, they keep a round the clock watch for the body; as tiny and unsung heroes.

They say that perfection is hidden in details, which is also very true for hairs. And perhaps, the secret to appreciation lies in recognizing details, and appreciating their perfection.

Carbon atom, which composes nearly 0.2% of the earth’s crust, has a very special place among elements. All living beings are formed from carbon-based compounds. In addition, 94% percent of compounds—that is, more than 4 million—contain carbon atoms. Certain carbon compounds form nearly 18% of the matter in living beings. The rest is mostly water. These compounds are used as building blocks in cell formation. Only carbon has the ability of compounding with other elements in sufficient variety and complexities in order to carry out the main functions that life is based on. As carbon atoms easily form chains by making chemical bonds, no other element is given such a quality. These chains formed in a line can separate into branches and can connect to form rings. These rings are actually polygons formed by three, four, five, six, or more carbon atoms. Due to this quality, carbon is the element that forms the basis of many things from the foods we eat, to the clothes we wear, from the fuels we use, to the furniture we have.

The heat level that makes carbon compounds possible is between -20 and +120 0C. Carbon compounds begin freezing at -20 0C and they begin breaking at 120 0C. In space, where extreme heat and freezing cold exists, the only heat range that makes carbon compounds possible is found on earth and this is a very sensitive heat range. Temperatures in our neighboring planets give a better idea: as hot as 450 0C in Venus, and as cold as -53 0C in Mars. Under these temperatures, it is impossible for carbon element to form compounds and thus living beings. Therefore, the earth is the only planet created with the suitable conditions that make life possible.

Crystal structures of carbon atom

Particular repeating arrangement of atoms in three dimensional space to form a certain geometric shape is known as a crystal structure.

Different crystal structures of the same substance are named “allotrope.” Carbon has three different allotropes found in nature: amorphous carbon (coal), graphite, diamond. In addition to these, an artificially produced allotrope is fullerene.

Amorphous carbon (coal)

Amorphous structure is one without a definite crystal structure; that is, one where atoms take their places in free order. A mass of carbon atoms of amorphous structure is known as coal. After plants die, they undergo chemical transformation with the activities of microorganisms. If dead plants collect in a suitable wetland and are buried into the ground with a geological process, the carbon amount in their body increases and they begin transforming into coal. Types of coal are categorized according to the carbon percentage they contain. Geologically, this transformation process takes a period of 15 to 345 million years. Coal is one of the most commonly used forms of energy.

Graphite

In graphite, carbon atoms are found in a hexagonal crystal structure. These sheets, resembling the surface of a honeycomb, pile up and form graphite. As the sheets are not connected with firm bonds, they easily shift when some force is applied. This is why graphite is used for eliminating friction at machine industry. The black substance in pencils is graphite hardened by adding some clay. Graphite can resist very high temperatures. Therefore it is used within the steel industry and melting metals. In addition, it is a very good conductor of electricity. For this reason, the brushes of the electric engines in household machines such as a washing machine and a vacuum cleaner are made of graphite. In recent years, graphite has been used as heat shields of space shuttles.

Diamond

Diamond is the hardest natural substance we know. In spite of being a transparent substance and having no color of its own, it can be found in pastel colors such as yellow, brown, or even dim black, owing to being mixed with other minerals. Diamond is a perfect electric isolator and is the substance with highest heat conductivity. For this reason, it can be cut without being deformed. In diamond, carbon atoms are found in a pattern to form a cubical crystal structure. Extraordinary resistance of carbon-carbon bond and its hard and integrated structure prevents its reacting with other things around. It burns at a heat of 850 0C. In a piece of diamond, there can be other atoms that cause impurity and decrease the value. In good quality natural diamonds, there is only 1 alien atom versus 100,000 carbon atoms. In addition to jewelry, diamonds are widely used at industrial products such as drills, glass cutters and the like. 75-80 % of diamond production is used in this industry.

Formation of coal, graphite, or diamond from carbon

Carbon based organic compounds were buried underground as a result of movements by the earth’s crust millions of years ago. Physical and chemical changes occurred with those organic masses through heat and pressure. Gradually, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and—in the highest phases—hydrogen leaves these masses. This organic matter called “turba” (first transforms into lignite, then to sub bituminous coal, then to bituminous coal, and then to anthracite). If the conditions allow, it transforms into graphite. Coal is the first type of substance formed by carbon atoms on their journey to become diamond. As lower values of heat, pressure, and time suffice for coal formation, graphite requires much higher values. Diamond is formed in the mantle layer of the earth at about 150-200 depth. This valuable substance is later carried to the surface of the earth by volcanic rocks such as lamproite and kimberlite. In order for diamond to form, an atmospheric pressure of 50,000 atm, 2,400 0C of heat, and a period of 3 billion years are required. Without this immense pressure and long time, the substance to be formed by carbon will simply be graphite. It is possible to transform graphite into diamond artificially; however, according to calculations, a minimum pressure of 10,000 atm is required. In 1955, for the first time artificial diamond was obtained under 100,000 atm, 2,500 0C heat, and by using chrome as catalyzer. However, the pieces of diamond obtained were small and black, most of them did not classify as jewels. In another attempt made in 1962, graphite turned into diamond under 200,000 atm, 5,000 0C heat, without using any catalyzer.

The similarity between carbon and human beings

As carbon atoms’ properties change according to the crystal structure, people’s lifestyle and view of life depends on the community they live in and their position in that community. In order to become diamond, the highest level of its kind, a person needs to undergo hard conditions. If carbon atoms were to say, “this is more than we can bear, we prefer easier conditions,” then they can be nothing more than graphite. If the conditions for graphite are avoided as well, then one cannot go beyond the level of coal. Diamonds are kept in safes and worn in most important occasions and graphite has different kinds of practical use as an industrial material. As for coal, it ends up in fire. The situation of human beings in a way resembles carbon atoms. Every person is made of the same elements biologically. Their value will naturally be different, according to the processes they underwent and the behaviors they presented. Some show patience in the face of misfortune, put their sincere trust in God, and become the diamonds of humanity. Some others, whom we can compare to graphite, attain a desirable level even if they cannot become diamonds. Those who choose to assume the lowliest form are likely to face a similar fate with the coal.

References

• H. W. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl ve R. E. Smalley. 1985. “C60: Buckminsterfullerene.” Nature 318. DOI:10.1038/318162a0.
• L. Vlasov, D. Trifonov. 2005. 107 Stories about Chemistry, TUBÝTAK., Ankara.

Let us imagine the earth as a small sphere before us. If we throw an object from the North Pole toward point A on the equator line, the object follows a curved line towards the right side and reaches point B, not point A. Likewise, an object thrown from the South Pole towards the same point A will follow a similar line curved in the opposite direction. These cases have a common point. An object rolling on a rotating ground moves on a curved line. This curved line, instead of a straight one, is explained with reference to the force of acceleration. This force is named after the French engineer, Coriolis who explained it in 1835. If this force-which is generated by the earth rotating around its own axis-did not exist, then air movements and ocean currents, and consequently the climate conditions of our world, would be different than they are. The objects in our example, thrown from the two poles, go in different directions, because the world rotates counter-clockwise when looked from the North Pole, and clockwise from the South Pole.

The air over the equator receives the sun’s rays at a broad angle. It rises up after gaining heat and is replaced by colder air coming from distant latitudes. Air convection begins in connection with these heat changes. So if the world did not rotate, the air on the Poles would get heavier with cold air and come down. Then, it would be replaced by hot air from lower latitudes. The air at the equator would rise up with gaining heat and would move until reaching the Poles where it would come down after losing heat. Then, it would return to the equator, this time very close to the ground. In this case, the world would probably be an uninhabitable place with cold and fierce winds blowing all around. And of course, the side facing the sun would be very hot and the other side would be very cold.

Instead, the Coriolis effect makes these great atmospheric air masses move over our rotating earth. The hot air rising up from the equator moves towards the poles with a curved course thanks to the Coriolis effect (Figure 4). As this air current approaches the latitudes around 30 degrees, it loses heat and descends. A part of the descending air begins to move back toward the equator, but it follows a curved line again owing to the Coriolis effect. So this last curving forms the “trade winds.” In the past, sailing ships traveled from Europe to America for the purpose of trade; thus, these winds were named as trade winds. This air circulation between the equator and the 30-degree meridians is known as Hadley circulation. These air currents cause heavy rainfall in the equatorial region and the consequent formation of rain forests, which are considered as the lungs of our planet, and also they cause the formation of deserts around the region where the dry and hot weather are pure blessings for us. They are a blessing because the airborne dust rising from the desert fertilizes the rainclouds and plays a critical role for rainfall.

The air over the poles becomes cold, and it causes another air current as it becomes heavier and starts to descend. As the lowered air moves toward the equator, it changes course with the Coriolis effect. At the same time it begins to gain heat and ascend. At the latitudes where water ascends by gaining heat, a rain climate prevails. This polar air cycle is seen between latitudes of 60-90 degrees.

Some part of the air current, which descends down around 30 degrees of latitude, moves toward the poles at a low level. Also, some part of the air which comes from the poles and ascends begins to move towards the equator. So a third air cycling begins between the altitudes between 30-60 degrees. The “western winds” are brought forth from this third cycle. During the time of sailing ships, these winds were used to traveling from America to Europe (Figure 4).

In order for these air cycles to happen, the earth’s rotation around its own axis is not sufficient; its speed and atmospheric mass also play an important role. If the earth rotated slower, the Coriolis Effect would be too weak to give way to a triple air cycle. For example, since Venus rotates too slowly, there is only a single air cycle in its atmosphere. Another factor, as we mentioned, is the mass of the atmosphere. Since the atmosphere of Mars is thin and its mass is relatively less, the Coriolis Effect is too weak and there is only a single air cycle.

Coriolis Effect prevents the air current from following a straight course and the isobars form twisters as they proceed. Therefore, hurricanes in the Northern hemisphere move counter-clockwise, and those in the south move clockwise (Figure 5). Naturally, these main atmospheric movements are not the only ones. A region’s climate is dependent on several factors such as landscape, night-day heat differences, and the like. Therefore, the climatic conditions on the earth have a very complex structure. Even when we consider just these few factors discussed here, it is evident that there are countless parameters that make human life possible in our planet, and each one is finely adjusted. Even slight changes in rotation and the mass of the atmosphere would result in a dramatically different planet Earth.

The ocean currents

Movement of air masses affects the water on the ocean surface as well. Thus, wind-generated surface currents are born. These currents are parallel with the relevant winds. It is a well-known fact that these huge bodies of water change the climate of the regions they pass. Therefore, two places at 54 degrees of latitude show a surprising difference: there can be a polar bears’ park in Ontario, whereas palm trees and tropical fruits can grow in Belfast thanks to the Gulf Stream. There are other warm ocean currents that pass from Brazil, and the north and south of the equator. Some of major cold surface currents pass from Labrador, Canada, the Falkland Islands, and Peru. Warm currents soften the climate of the regions they pass, while cold currents provide sea creatures with rich food, and they are important areas of fishing.

The impact of the wind on ocean water normally reaches as deep as 100-200 meters, and even 1,000 meters in some cases. The Coriolis effect has a determining role on the direction of the currents. These currents on the move make a turn when their way is blocked by land. Thus, the succession of ocean currents becomes a cycle, and they form the great current cycles named as “gyre.” They turn clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-clockwise in the south.

There are five main ocean circulations on earth and each of them consists of four streams. These currents are at the north and south of the Atlantic Ocean, the north and south of the Pacific Ocean, and one in the Indian Ocean. The North Atlantic circulation is made up of the Northern Equator Current, the Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Current, and the Canary Current.

With the Coriolis effect, a blessing of wondrous scale, food chains are brought to life in the ocean and around coastal regions. The ocean waters are set in motion by the winds generated by the Coriolis effect, but they do not strictly follow the winds that activated them. With a deflection of nearly 45 degrees they move right in the Northern Hemisphere and to left in the Southern Hemisphere.

The effect of the winds weakens in the deeper ocean waters, and then the Coriolis effect becomes dominant. Thus the direction of ocean water carried in the Northern Hemisphere is vertical to the wind direction and towards the right. This condition causes ocean waters to be pushed towards the circulatory center, and the water level there rises about 2 meters.

As rising waters move down with the effect of gravity, the Coriolis effect comes to the stage again to give way to another current in the same direction within that current. The waters that were rising toward the center begin to sink, and they form a new vertical current. For the same reason, the separation of the water current to the right and left directions around the equatorial regions gives way to the waters at the bottom which then come to the surface. At these places, the water level decreases a little. This “upwelling” phenomenon has very important results. Dead organisms sinking down are broken down by bacteria in the deep waters. When this nutrient-rich water returns to the surface, it is a great blessing for so many sea creatures. It is a striking fact that the rotating of the earth is a means for providing many living beings with sustenance. All of these finely adjusted balances on our planet, which we mostly take for granted, provide reflecting minds with food for thought.

Original Article: Ramirez G. et al., Science 331, 211 (2011).

We have had to deal with tests and exams in academic and professional life from childhood on. Though we are motivated to perform our best, the pressure-filled situations generally cause us to perform below our abilities. University of Chicago researchers were interested in finding an intervention that would improve performance under such conditions, especially for those students who do not do well on exams because they are blocked by anxiety. Their study showed that simply writing down our thoughts and concerns immediately before a high-stress event can increase performance from 5–12 percent when it matters most. The simple brain-focusing exercise of writing down feelings for ten minutes before an exam reduces anxiety and increases exam scores significantly. The researchers concluded that writing allows individuals to reexamine the situation and revaluate concerns, reducing anxiety and increasing one’s ability to focus. This type of writing may help people perform their best not only on tests but also in variety of high-stress situations—a big presentation to a client, a speech to an audience, or even a job interview.

2- Life Without Starlight

Original Article: Hooper, D. & Steffen, J.H. (arXiv:1103.5086v1).

Liquid water is considered the common solvent to catalyze carbon-based life on planets. This assumption defines a rather tight region around stars, which is called the “habitable zone.” The energy absorbed from the host star through its light allows planets in the habitable zones to melt water into liquid. Water would either evaporate or remain ice if the planet is too close to or distant from the star. A recent study suggested that starlight may not be the only energy source that can convert ice into liquid water and maintain it in that state. Dark matter annihilation may produce enough heat in special circumstances for planets that may not be sufficiently heated by their host star. Ordinary matter constitutes only about 20 percent of the matter in the universe, while dark matter makes up about 80 percent of all matter. It is believed that dark matter weakly interacts with atomic nuclei. Therefore, one of the leading models for dark matter is called “weakly interacting massive particles” (WIMPs). In cases where dark matter interacts with nuclei, WIMPs can transfer momentum to the nucleus. Then they can get gravitationally captured and subsequently decay as energetic particles. This process can produce heat as a consequence. On Earth, the concentration of dark matter at its center is not sufficient to produce observable contributions to the planet’s total heat budget. However for planets around stars that are closer to the centers of their galaxy, where the concentration of dark matter is significantly higher, just enough heat may be produced by gravitationally captured and annihilated dark matter. The abundance of planets detected by NASA’s satellite mission-Kepler suggests that perhaps life in the universe might be more abundant than we thought.

3- How Much Digital Information Can Mankind Store?

Original Article: Hilbert, H. & López, P., Science 332, 60 (2011).

Have you ever wondered how much total information is stored by human beings? We store information in two different forms: analog storage such as books, printed photos, and audio cassettes, and digital storage such as hard drives, CDs, DVDs, and the like. A recent paper analyzed how the total information storage and processing ability of human beings changed between the years of 1986 and 2007. The study estimated that the total information stored as of 2007 is 295 exabytes. An exabyte is equal to one million terabytes or one billion gigabytes. If all this information was stored on CDs, this stack of CDs would reach beyond the moon. If it was stored in books, it would be enough to cover the entire United States with 13 layers of books. Interestingly, the information stored by DNA in one single human body is about 300 times larger than the entire amount of information stored by humanity. In 2000, only 25 percent of known information was stored in digital form; this ratio increased to 94 percent in 2007. The area in which the “information revolution” is most evident is computation. The study found that the global computing capacity increased by 58 percent per year during this time. But even at this fast rate of growth, in 2007 the total instructions per second that humankind can carry out on its general-purpose computers were about the same as the maximum number of nerve impulses executed by one human brain per second.

4- Tricking the Brain to Attack Alzheimer’s Disease

Original Articles: Atwal, J. K. et al., Science Translational Medicine 3, 84ra43 (2011) & Yu, Y. J. et al., Science Translational Medicine 3, 84ra44 (2011).

Alzheimer’s disease affects many people, especially in later stages of life, and as the lifespan of humans increases, it becomes much more prevalent everyday. The primary cause of Alzheimer’s disease is unknown, but scientists generally associate the disease with the appearance of plaques and tangles in brain cells, often caused by a protein called amyloid. Hence, a natural strategy would be to attack these proteins that form these plaques. Yet, the biggest obstacle in our brain is the blood-brain barrier, which prevents viruses and other unwanted visitors from entering our most delicate organ. Scientists have tried to overcome this barrier with many different drugs and strategies, but there is no clear winner yet. Two recent studies reported in Science Translational Medicine journal give us a new hope in our fight against Alzheimer’s disease. Scientists devised a clever strategy to trick the gatekeepers of the blood-brain barrier into escorting antibodies against the Alzheimer’s-associated proteins. This method reduced the levels of amyloid by up to 50 percent inside mouse brain cells. Designed antibodies had two arms—one arm to target the enzyme, BACE1, which produces the amyloid, and the other arm to bind to the transferring receptor, which in turn deceived the endothelial cells from the blood-brain barrier to internalize the antibody. There are many other brain disorders that we have a limited arsenal against because of the blood-brain barrier. Hence this new method can be used for these diseases, which opens up a whole new venue of targeting strategies.

Only 0.15 % of the energy that reaches the earth is used by the plants and the algae as a source of energy for photosynthesis. The energy that is stored in the form of chemical energy within the photosynthetic plants establishes the source of energy for the food that is consumed by the creation. The past creation, as a result of the physical-chemical processes, was fossilized and solar power has been stored in the form of fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas).

Energy consumption and the environment

Energy consumption is viable for every form of work; the waste is what remains in the environment. This waste does not pose a problem as long as they do not damage the sensitive ecologic balance. However, rapid industrialization and urbanization, which lead to excessive amounts of energy consumption, result in environmental problems. Since industrialization-urbanization is directly related to energy consumption – particularly with fossil fuels – industrialized countries are more vulnerable to experiencing environmental problems. In today’s world, it is climatic change – a product of global warming – among these problems that is of the greatest global importance.

The increase in the proportion of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere is the main factor for global warming. This increase is directly related to the consumption of fossil fuels. The rays of the sun, which are reflected from the earth, are trapped by carbon dioxide gases (chlorofluorocarbon, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases, such as water vapor) in the atmosphere, and they can not return to space. This, in turn leads to the atmosphere heating up (the greenhouse effect), eventually leading to an increase in heat throughout the world.

The main reason for the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is the consumption of fossil fuels (77%) and the decrease in the number of forests (23%). Coal gas is normally the last product of the anaerobic processes in nature. In recent years human intervention played the main role in this abnormal increase in gases. Playing an important part in this process is the expansion in rice fields (38%) in order to feed the increasing population, natural gas extraction and its transfer (16%), an increase in the number of cattle (14%), coal mining (12%), and the oxidation of produced biomass (6%). Chlorofluorocarbon is included in industrial products. As for the nitrous oxides, they are the by-products of reactions in the nitrogen cycle in nature. In recent years, as a result of the increase in the use of the nitrogenous manures (85%), forest fires and other fires (11%), and the oxidation of the produced biomass (7%) there has been a rise in nitrous oxide. Consequently, the rapid increase in greenhouse gases in the last years has lead to a 0.5°C increase in the average heat of the earth.

If the greenhouse gases continue to be accumulated at this speed, then by 2100 the average heat of the earth will record an increase of 2–4°C compared to the period before industrialization. Eventually, there will be a greater melting of the glaciers at the poles, which will lead to 0.5–1.5 % increase in sea level. Thus, residential areas by the seaside, agricultural areas, wetlands and industrialized areas will face the danger of being flooded. Moreover, the risks of climatic changes and desertification will become much more severe.

Some countries are investigating how to calculate the probable effects of a decline in water, food and energy resources and what precautions need to be taken accordingly as a result of global warming. In this sense, the problem was clearly indicated during the summit meetings in Vienna (1985), Rio (1982), and Kyoto (1997), however, they have not been sufficient to provide a solution.

Another important problem arising from the overuse of fossil fuels is the damage to the environment caused by air pollution and acid rain. During the consumption of fossil fuels, CO2, NOx, and SOx are emitted into the atmosphere and these, combining with water vapor, lead to the formation of carbonic acid (H2CO3), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). While normally the pH of rain water is 5.5–6, with these acids it falls down to 3.5–4. This and the resultant dissolution of the metals in the water pose a threat for both the land and the aquatic ecosystems (e.g. a decline in fish species in many lakes) and impair the ecologic balance.

The impact of alternative and renewable energy on the environment

The negative impact of fossil fuels on the environment and the decline in their reserves has accelerated the search for new energy resources. Even though nuclear energy is not a renewable resource, today it has come to be regarded as an alternative energy resource all around the world. Hydrogen, too, is another growing alternative resource. Geothermal energy is also a renewable energy resource, yet it is mostly restricted to the region where it originates.

With current technology, it costs us more to use solar energy rather than to extract fossil fuels. Moreover, there is a great need for the development of new technology that is aimed at producing wind, hydroelectric, bio-energy, tidal and wave energy in the most efficient way at the lowest cost.

Defeated by their ambitions, human beings, particularly in the last century, have destroyed the world and the environment that has been entrusted to them. Since the global impact and the cost of this process only emerged recently, it was too late before human beings realized that they needed to shift from energy systems based on fossil fuels. All the worries and concerns that have surfaced today is not because we have finally realized that the earth has been entrusted to human beings, but simply because the future seems to be promising nothing but destruction. Thus, the real solution to the problems is not related to acting to find a solution to the problems, but rather in being in compliance with the measures of the actual Owner of the world and the universe and avoiding form all types of extremism.

References

• Spiro Thomas G. and Stigliani William M. 1996. Chemistry of the Environment, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA.
• Godish Thad. 1997. Air Quality, CRC Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, New York.
• World Energy Outlook. 2004. International Energy Agency.

Around 4–5 billion years ago (bya) my formation began from the remaining matter after the creation of the sun. In time, this matter accumulated and formed the small planetary objects (planetesimals) which were the earlier forms of future’s giant planets. Our collisions continued with the planetesimals that orbited the sun. As a result of these continuous collisions and bombardments, my surface temperature raised to almost 6,000oC. What I am trying to say is that I was an enormous globe consisting mainly of metallic substances that were melted in boiling lava and showered by thousands of meteoroids and comets. God the Creator has hidden many messages of mystery regarding the entire process I endeavored for humans to discover.

When I began to cool down, my surface hardened like a shell, and because I was not yet sufficiently protected by the gaseous shield known to us today as the atmosphere, my shell was destroyed by the ceaseless continuation of the meteoroid bombardment as soon as it began to form. This transformation continued for billions of years. At last when the invasion of the meteoroids began to ease, I started to mature and slowly began the process of cooling down.

4.4 billion years ago

The creation of pieces of land that looked somewhat different than the seven continents at the present began. They were just sections of land floating on my coat of crust. The formation of crust around my surface was subjected to rupture due to the high pressure caused by the intense heat deep down inside me. Over a period of time this crust, which separated into a number of huge fragments (plates), experienced various deformations that resulted in the formation of mountains. This is how the basins of the ocean and the contours of the continents began to emerge. This was the period during which new specimens of rock (granite) and the floor of the ocean (basaltic), consisting of rising magma, formed the core of the continents. Today scientists are studying the oldest granites (billions of years old) that have managed to survive natural disasters and destruction to discover how the first continents were actually formed.

Granite is the rock that forms the cores of the continents (cratons). Cratons are produced by the primary component of the oldest crust. Cratons are light enough to float on my coat of crust; they are a system created in a way that enables the development of continents. These cratons are found especially in central parts of Africa and also in South America, Australia, North America, and Scandinavia.

My surface is made up of integrated fragments called tectonic plates. Even though my crust was created by rock, it was created flexible enough to allow the plates to move a few centimeters every year caused by the intense heat from beneath my surface.

Continents

Ground movement and various changes have occurred over time due to the dynamic structure of the continents and plates attached to the mantle. Discoveries of exactly the same fossils and identical fresh water organisms in two completely different continents far from each other have proved this. The actual reason for the plate’s activity is that my core is much higher in temperature than my surface. The core deep inside me is around 5,500oC. The greater portion of this intense heat occurred in my early days as a result of the collisions and bombardments I faced, and the remaining is related to the disintegration of the radioactive elements which settled particularly in my mantle section. The heat waves which spread from my core were passed on to the next layer of the mantle. The heat melted a section of my mantle layer and magma forced my molten rocks to the surface. The molten rock, which fills the spaces between the cracked plates, enables new rock to develop, and then the plates separate from one another.

Around the same period of the formation of new rocks, my plates and the continents found on them separated. The formation of rocks deep within ocean continues the creation of the range of volcanic mountains even today. The range of under-water mountains continues for about 12,000 miles between the Antarctic and the North Pole and rises above sea level in some places.

The region called Iceland between the North American and Eurasian plates was formed as a result of an enormous volcanic eruption. This is one of the few places where the separation of the continents is clearly visible. The crevasse of Iceland, surrounded by the American plates on one side and the other European plates on the other, is around 3 miles in width. This crevasse is increasing with the formation of new rocks and is expanding the distance between America and Europe. Scientists say that the distance between the continents is increasing by around 1 inch every year, so within a hundred years the distance between America and Europe is expected to increase another 8 feet.

3.4 billion years ago

The main continents were forced together by movement of the tectonic plates forming new continents, and there are still remaining pieces of these continents inside the cratons of Australia and Africa.

2.7 billion years ago

My first super continent is still the ruling territory. But due to the power built up by heat emerging from my core, the tectonic plates are on the verge of separating this continent. Because of the heat from my core, the main land has separated and oceans were formed in my surface. Today these oceans do not exist on my surface anymore; but you can still find their pieces in the continents by a careful look.

1.1 billion years ago

The supercontinent called Rodinia, a continent which contains most of the earth’s landmass, was created. Seven hundred and fifty million years ago (mya), the heat from my core began to break down this supercontinent, and as a result Rodinia was destroyed and a new supercontinent called Pangaea, the origin of all the continents known in the present day, was created.

Two hundred million years later (or five hundred and sixty-five mya): I became acquainted with bacteria, funguses, poriferans (sponges), earthworms, mollusks, segmented worms, and arthropods.

During the time when these creatures lived on me, the climate was moderate. Major volcanic activities occurred during this period when most of the land was covered by shallow seas. The sudden outbreak of the thousands of species of living creatures during this period may seem amazing to you; in fact, this was actually the first period in which complex structural vertebrates were created.

495–435 million years ago

I first became associated with the red and green sea algae. This was also the period in which various fish and sea creatures were created. The enormous landmass of this period called Pangaea gave me a totally different appearance and had a huge impact on the climate. The reason for this was that a large section of the land was so distant from the sea. The climate of the inland regions was showing deep scale signs of change with every season-certain periods of the year were very hot and others considerably cold. During this time, the ocean did not have the effect on the climate like it does today. This is why the climates varied to such an extent. The change of climate played a huge role in the extinction of many species of that period and destroyed almost 90% of the living creatures.

Creation has continued at a distinct magnitude during the millions of years that have passed, and between 270–340 mya larger proportioned variations of vegetation were created. In a short space of time, this vegetation formed into giant trees that covered huge areas of land. The largest deposits of coal were created from the fossilization of these trees, an example of creation that would make your life a little easier in the years to follow.

On the other hand, the territories began to gather together close to the planes of the equator, and this vast land was covered with rain forests resembling the Amazon. These immense lands of greenery were the marshy forests that were home to extinct ferns and the first seeds of the various groups of plant life. The inhabitants of this intense vegetation were mainly insects, centipedes, and scorpions, but much larger than the ones we know today. The plants and forests disappeared suddenly at the end of this period, and towards the end of the same period when the vast lands of Pangaea began to take form, the glaciers expanded, the sea water receded, and the arid climate changed dramatically along with the forestry structure and vegetation. Then the creation of many new creatures occurred.

250 million years ago

The supercontinent Pangaea began to break up, and this separation caused the formation of Gondwana in the northern hemisphere and Eurasia in the south. Throughout the millions of years, South America began to recede from Africa while North America receded from Europe, resulting in the formation of the continents as we know them today. Australia drifted from the Antarctic continent and moved slowly towards more moderate climates. The evolution of the continents continued to form the huge canyons and valleys in America, and the vast range of mountains, including the Himalayas and the Alps. Between 225–190 mya mammals were created, and between 190–135 mya, birds and alga were created, followed in the next period by plantation seeds which almost completed my preparation as a suitable place for you all to live.

100 million years ago

The plan of the present day continents became apparent. Sometimes my land masses would collide in the regions where the plates joined and caused activity like the formation of the mountains. Without this plate movement, there would have been no mountains created on the planet. During this period, the various species of dinosaurs and reptiles became extinct for reasons unknown to humans. Throughout the following 100 million years, the creation of the most significant mountain ranges, like the Himalayas, occurred along with the continuing collisions of the continents. These plates continue to move 5–10 cm every year and still cause collisions today.

Today I am the proud owner of seven continents. Africa-Eurasia is an enormous supercontinent which houses Africa, Europe, and Asia. Beginning from the plateau of Siberia in Russia, it reaches as far as Africa, but Africa-Eurasia is not my only supercontinent. North and South America joined by Panama also have vast territories. If the Bering Strait that separates Russia and Alaska were to freeze, a person who set out from South America could walk as far as South Africa covering a total distance of 25,000 miles.

Although you are may not realize it, the activity of the continents continues today, and my existence that began billions of years ago will continue in the future until the time comes for me to die (you call this doomsday).

There is another aspect of the continental activity that affects you. This occurs in the form of disasters, for instance the earthquake, an event of nature which has occurred for millions of years. This activity of creation occurs as a result of the intersection of the plates, the collision of continents, or the ocean plates submerging beneath the continent. The tsunami disaster in Indonesia in 2004 was the result of a catastrophic movement of these plates.

The exceptionally lengthy process of my creation explains the transformations and progress I have experienced until I reached the condition suitable for the most precious and honorable of all creation: human beings. I hope that every moment and every aspect of the manifestation of science, wisdom, power, and willpower of my life story and creation will be a guide for you in the future and will encourage you to be even more curious about my end and to bow to our Almighty creator in respect of all He created.