We eat, sleep, and go to the bathroom. Yet, we never think about how all these physical needs are processed in the systems of our body when they are functioning normally.

Yes, our bodies are created with perfect systems by which our all kinds of needs are met. The digestive system is one of them. Our intestines are key elements of this system, so much so that asking someone “How are your intestines?” would be as comprehensive as asking “How are you?”

Digestive system

Food is critical to life. A human being can bear hunger for one month at most and can only endure a few days of drought. Thus, eating and drinking is crucial.

Foods as we eat them are not convenient for use by the cells. Food must be broken down into smaller pieces. This process begins in the mouth and ends at the anus, and it is called digestion.

The main task of our stomach and intestines is digestion. The teeth, salivary glands, the tongue, and the gullet – as well as swallowing – are essential secondary elements. Additionally, if the pancreas or liver fall ill, it can paralyze the whole system. While also working with the circulatory system, kidneys have the task of reabsorbing useful substances like glucose, amino acids, and water.

Our digestive system works together with the urinary system and the digestive organs like a factory. How these parts work together is still not fully understood, but more detailed research has been performed and revealed more secrets of the digestive system. By means of every discovery, it is realized that this perfect creation has a more intricate structure than is known.

The brain in the intestine

There are more neurons in our intestines than in our spinal cord and the intestines are created in a way that can move independently from the central nervous system. They have their own nervous system, known as enteric nervous system (ENS), which is also called the “second brain. “Within those yards of tubing lies a complex web of microcircuitry driven by more neurotransmitters and neuromodulators than can be found anywhere else in the peripheral nervous system. These allow the ENS to perform many of its tasks in the absence of central nervous system (CNS) control…” [1]. Thus, “… isolated segments of intestine can independently coordinate propulsive movements and propel content without any neural connections to the brain or spinal cord [2].

The intestines take action when food comes into the stomach. This movement is known as colonic migrating motor complexes (CMMC), and it moves the substances that cannot be digested, like bone and fiber. According to neurophysiologist Nick Spencer et al, “The gut wall contains a complete network of intrinsic nerves capable of propelling contents along the bowel, without any requirement of nerves originating in the brain or spinal cord” [3].

Eat different types of food

70% of our immune system cells are in our intestines. A big part of the approximately 38 trillion bacteria in our body are in our intestines, and they are useful; they have a big role in digesting food. Different groups of bacteria feed on different types of food; so for intestinal flora it is very important to have a variety of food on our table. For the ideal day on a plate Dr. Megan Rossi recommends people should “aim for at least 30 different plant species per week.” “The reason for this is that each plant contains different types of fibres and phytochemicals (the super healthy components of plants) that feed different good bacteria. The more plant variety, the more variety of gut bacteria – which is associated with health and happiness” [4].

Pets in our body

For Dr. Megan Rossi, “microbes are like our pets, so you have to take care of them and feed them” [5].

Of course, germ flora in our body is not just limited to the ones in the intestines. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi in our body are nearly scattered throughout the whole body. These living things produce pellicle on our head skin, irritate the gaps between our toes, live on our skin, are on duty among our teeth, and have ecosystems and assigned positions convenient to them. According to the situation, they keep their living spaces healthy or unhealthy. Although they number 50 trillion, they are approximately 200 grams of our body weight.  

Useful microbes

An average size human adult houses about 10¹² bacteria on the skin, 10¹⁰ in the mouth, and 10¹⁴ in the gastrointestinal tract [6].

These microorganisms are useful microbes with duties in our body. The harmless flora of microbes is generally present on the skin, mouth, teeth, nose, throat, and bowel and genital areas. There isn’t normal flora in internal organs except the large bowel. Internal organs have no microbes. If we look closely, flora is inserted in every part of our body which is dirty and has contact with the outer environment. If it was not for the useful flora, microorganisms causing illness would settle instead. Only intestinal bacteria are permanent microbes which are useful. For example, vitamin K plays a part in a crucial event like blood clotting and is produced in the intestine.

Control your stress

Research has revealed that mental and psychological stress affects the health of the intestines. Serotonin is produced automatically in case of need, and 85% of it is produced in the digestive tract. Stress suppresses the level of serotonin produced. Psychological illnesses are associated with low levels of serotonin.

Studies have shown that relaxing practices like meditation for 15-20 minutes can be good for health and reduce stress. At this point, daily prayers are a kind of therapy. Other ways to stay healthy include: avoiding things like alcohol and caffeine, and sleeping well.

Our body has ways of telling us when it’s not healthy. For instance, we can learn the digestive tract isn’t healthy if we have to use the toilet more than three times a day and fewer than three times a week.

References

1. Gershon, Michael D. “The Enteric Nervous System: A Second Brain.” Pdfs.semanticscholar.org.
2. Spencer et al. 2018. “Identification of a Rhythmic Firing Pattern in the Enteric Nervous System That Generates Rhythmic Electrical Activity in Smooth Muscle.” http://www.jneurosci.org/content/38/24/5507
3. http://www.flinders.edu.au/neuroscience/lab_visceral.html
4. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-5543159/Doctor-debunks-myths-surrounding-gut-health-say-surprise-you.html
5. https://navva.org/brazil/health/why-the-bowel-is-considered-our-39-2nd-brain-39-and-other-5-amazing-facts-about-the-organ-news/
6. http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/normalflora_3.html

All over the vast Islamic world, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, various services that are fundamentally important to society have been financed and maintained through charitable trusts.

Godliness and virtue is not that you turn your faces towards east or west; but godliness and virtue is to believe in God and the Last Day, the angels, the Book, and the Prophets; to spend of your substance out of love for Him for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the liberation of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts you have made; and to be persevering and patient in hardship and disease, and throughout all periods of stress. Such are the people who are true (in their faith), and those are they who achieved righteousness, piety, and due reverence for God. (Qur’an 2:177)

All cultures and religions instruct their followers to help the poor and leave behind an everlasting source of good deeds (Dallal 2004, 13-43). Originating from a desire to improve others’ well-being, charity is an altruistic behavior (Becker 1974, 1063-1091) of gift exchanges between individuals that encourages social order and stability (Mauss 1950). This essential principle comprises two main categories in Islam: Zakat, obligatory alms for Muslims with a certain level of wealth, and sadaqa, highly recommended voluntary donations, one of the most popular forms of which are philanthropic foundations.

A philanthropic foundation is “a nongovernmental, nonprofit organization, with assets provided by donors and managed by its own officials, and with income expended for socially useful purposes. Foundation, endowment, and charitable trust are terms used interchangeably to designate these organizations, which can be traced far back in history. They existed in the ancient civilizations of the Middle East, Greece, and Rome. Plato’s Academy (c. 387 BC), for example, was established with an endowment that helped to sustain its existence for some 900 years” (Britannica Online Encyclopedia). Considering that the first shrine on Earth, the Ka’bah, was built by Adam, peace be upon him, and was named the House of God (Qur’an 3:96), the earliest example of such foundations was given by the very first person (Akpinar 2004).

Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta (d.1369) was struck by the dedication of the inhabitants of Damascus to all forms of countless foundations, such as legacies devoted by people who could not travel to Mecca to pay others’ pilgrimage; foundations providing girls from poor backgrounds with all the requirements for their marriage; foundations devoted to purchasing the freedom of Muslim prisoners; others for paying the maintenance of roads, and many more (Ibn Battutah 2006). Once, he saw a young boy drop a porcelain plate, which broke. The passer-bys told the boy to take the pieces to the foundation for utensils. Consequently, the boy got a refund, equal to the value of a new plate. The residents, in their great numbers, also provided endowments for schools, hospitals and mosques. It was a city, Ibn Battuta tells us, where the social spirit was at its optimum.

The word waqf (plural awqaf), means to cause a thing to stop and stand still, to withhold, or to prevent; and the word applies “to endow the property rights of a good [while dedicating its benefits] to the public service perpetually, and to prevent others from obtaining its property rights” (Akgunduz 1996, 77). Awqaf are considered an expression of piety, not because their activities are inherently religious, but because they are governed by a law considered sacred (Kuran 2001, 841-897). In Islamic terminology, waqf is described as the detention of an entity from ownership forever, by considering it as the property of God, while devoting all its possible gifts of income to some charitable purpose for the community (Bilmen 1969, 294).

However defined, waqf institutions stand out as one of the greatest achievements of Islamic civilization. Although this was not a new concept introduced by Islam, the system to allocate, administer, and dispense the usufruct was unique. All over the vast Islamic world, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, various services that are fundamentally important to society have been financed and maintained through awqaf, some of which have even survived for more than a millennium (Cizakca 2000), providing the needy with basic needs such as food, education, and shelter, and improvements like lighthouses, cemeteries, public baths, drinking fountains, mosques, bridges, roads, aqueducts and so on, enhancing peace and harmony (Yalawae and Izah).

The first component of waqf is hayrat, the establishments under waqf property, dedicated to the public; the second is akarat, the revenue resources allocated to facilitate perpetuity (Yediyildiz 1996); the third, waqfiya, is the court-ratified and preserved deeds that specify the uses of income, the beneficiaries, the priorities of expenditure, the people authorized for administration and their powers. The last is the mutawalli (board of directors), responsible for the foundation functioning in accordance with the donors’ intentions, and in charge of maintenance, treasury, administration, and supervision (Baskan 2002). Local characteristics of mutawalli allowed for competition and control, which were keys to efficiency (Kahf).

Once established, the public aims of a waqf become binding, cannot be altered or revoked, even by the founder, and everyone, even the head of state, has to obey these deeds. Eliminating the waqf character of a property entails a complicated process, and is restricted to an exchange of another property of equivalent value and equivalent service to the community, in addition to a local court’s approval. Diverting waqf revenues to other purposes is not within the authority of the waqf administration or a supervisory court. Should a waqf purpose becomes unfeasible, its revenue is spent on the closest purpose available, both conceptually and geographically; and if this is not workable, the benefits go to the needy, which is assumed as the default intent (Kahf).

Some examples

Historical data suggest that foundations were first observed as religious establishments where people worshipped together, followed by other applications in society; some believe that some awqaf were founded by Prophet Abraham, peace be upon him, about 1860 BCE (Dallal 2004, 2). The first waqf in Islam is the Mosque of Quba in Medina, built in 622 AD, upon arrival of God’s Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, who demonstrated the primary examples of awqaf in Islam. He had first donated seven orchards in Mukhairiq, then his share from date gardens in Fadak and Khaibar, all for charitable purposes (Canan 2004, 275-281).

Following these exemplary actions, his Companions, may God be pleased with them all, and followers have continuously given to many various, worthy causes. For instance, many wells were bought from individuals, and were designated for public service. As Uthman ibn ‘Affan reports, “The Prophet, peace be upon him, arrived in Medina and realized that the city had very little drinking water, except the water of Bi’r Ruma (Ruma Well). He asked, ‘Who will purchase Bi’r Ruma to equally share the water drawn therefrom with his fellow Muslims and shall be rewarded with a better well in the Garden (of Eden)?’ Then I bought it from my own money.”

Another circulated tradition in Bukhari and Muslim, the two most authenticated collections of hadith, refers to what is considered the first Islamic land waqf. Upon his request, Umar ibn al-Khattab is advised by the Prophet, to retain the corpus [of the land] but dedicate its fruits [in the way] of God. Consequently, he dedicated the land, indicating that it should not be sold, given away as a gift, or inherited; and the revenue from the land should be used as charity for the poor, for emancipating slaves, for wanderers, and for other social needs. Later, during Umar’s caliphate, Bilal suggested to divide the conquered villages and take the fifth for the treasury. Umar, however, refused and decided to make them waqf for the sustenance of warriors and for all Muslims (Gil 1998, 125-140).

Having been advised about its benefits, the Prophet’s Companions never stopped putting their wealth in bequests; they did this to such a degree that Jabir, another Companion, said, “Any of the Prophet’s Companions who could afford it made endowments” (Isesco.org). It is remarkable that the Prophet advised one of his Companions, Abu Zarr, who did not have any belongings at all, to ‘add some more water in [his] soup, and offer'” (Muslim, Birr, 142).

Since then, awqaf have been one of the pillars of Islamic society. The establishment of different kinds of awqaf that serve as institutions of social cooperation and solidarity were utilized, which supported an array of activities from scientific movements to the protection of inlets, and they became a financial source for many socioeconomic sectors and for the beneficence of the needy. They were a model for the contemporary nonprofit sector.

To elaborate an illustration of the services offered, awqaf ensured that diverse services were supplied for free (Bakir and Basagaoglu, ishim.net). Awqaf also allowed for huge innovations, such as mobile hospitals, which moved from village to village, as well as emergency teams (Subai 1998). The revenue of certain bequests, which could include shops, mills, caravanserais, or even entire villages, would pay for the maintenance and operating costs, and sometimes would supply a small stipend to the patient upon dismissal (Husain 1992). An example deed states that, “The hospital shall keep all patients until they completely recover. All costs are to be borne by the hospital, whether the people are residents or foreigners, rich or poor, employed or unemployed, physically or mentally ill… There are no conditions of consideration and payment: none is objected to or even indirectly hinted at for non-payment. The entire service is through the magnificence of Allah, the generous one” (Yalawae and Izah).

Motivations behind awqaf

Though the word waqf is not used in the Qur’an, there are many verses that constitute a foundation for its actions, such as “to lend willingly,” “to spend in the cause of God,” “to spend of your substance out of love for Him for your kin, for orphans, for the needy,” “to feed the poor,” “to give for charity,” and especially, “to compete in building hayrat (charitable acts).” Due to the extreme emphasis upon charity within Islam, as an act of devotion to God, foundations have flourished, displaying an exceptional development and performing comprehensive services to society (Canan 2004, 275).

It is stated in a heartening saying of the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, that, “The most auspicious person is the one who is of assistance of others.” Hence, a contribution toward the welfare of the community is considered an act that brings a person closer to God. Another hadith declares that launching an establishment for social gain would be beneficial for the founder, even after death: “Once a son of Adam dies, none of his deeds will be of him except an ongoing charity, a useful knowledge, or a pious child who prays for him.” The ongoing charity here is interpreted as waqf.

The Islamic law of inheritance tends to fragment property into large numbers of small shares, whereas awqaf tends to preserve large amounts of wealth (Dallal 29). Yet, awqaf, whose benefits were confined to family members, were extremely rare. Notably, only 7% of the foundations registered during the 18th century delivered service to the founders’ families. As many as 75% devoted significant resources to serving outside constituencies, and the remaining 18% were strictly charitable awqaf. These figures confirm that sheltering wealth through a waqf was not the normal aim. Philanthropists founding these institutions believed that this world was a temporary residence, and it was necessary to spend one’s earnings for the happiness of other people in order to secure the felicity of the eternal life when returned to God (Yediyildiz 1996).

The waqf body is intended to prevent the temporary possessions of this world from vanishing, by withholding them in the name, and for the sake of, God as a continuous charity. There is no obligation of any kind behind this action stemming from altruistic behavior, but a sense of responsibility towards humanity, a conscientious sense of serving others, and competing in charity; in other words, such values as compassion, mutual assistance, solidarity, the pleasure of comforting a living thing both materially and spiritually, and the free will of a person embracing these values as principles, have been an element of Islamic culture, motivating a person to transform some or all of his or her personal assets into pious foundations to serve society (Yediyildiz).

Seeking proximity to God has been the main rationale of awqaf. In some cases, the founders named awqaf after themselves in the hope of being remembered by (and thus receiving prayers from) upcoming generations – though in general, anonymity is preferred. For instance, it was a common practice for the rich, especially during Ramadan, to pay debts of people in need, without revealing who they were, asking local shopkeepers to calculate the total balance on randomly picked pages of their records of receivable accounts. The overall purpose has been altruism rather than fame, since it is believed that impurity of intention might spoil the dedication of the gift, whose sole purpose is to please God.

Further influences

English trusts, the basis of Western nonprofits, remarkably resemble Islamic awqaf. Under both systems, the property is reserved and the usufruct is appropriated for a charitable purpose. The corpus becomes inalienable; estates for life in favor of successive beneficiaries can be created at the will of a founder without regard to the law of inheritance or the rights of the heirs, and continuity is secured by successive appointments of trustees (Cizakca 12). The trust was introduced by Crusaders, and influenced by the waqf institutions they came across. In other words, the Islamic waqf system, whose legal parameters have been developed by jurists through centuries, constitutes the origins of English trusts (Kuran 2001, 841-897).

Awqaf have supported a wide variety of life-oriented actions (Jones 1980, 23-36), playing a major role in establishing social justice and solidarity in society, in funding scientific research and arts, and in creating an ecological conscience to protect the environment (Yuksel 1999, 47-54). Moreover, it was thanks to the awqaf that the magnificent architectural heritage of Islamic civilization was financed and preserved throughout the centuries; urban districts could cope with tax burdens; excessive fragmentation of land could be avoided; old age and disability pensions were provided; in an age when insurance, as an institution, was unknown, rudimentary insurance was provided; infrastructure was built and maintained; almost all the assistance one can expect to have in a civilized society was financed, organized, built, and maintained by this system. The awqaf even aided defense efforts by building and maintaining urban walls and fortresses (Cizakca 2006).

“An origin of all revolutions and corruptions, and the spur and source of all base morals, is the saying, ‘So long as I’m full, what is it to me if others die of hunger?’ The only remedy for extirpating this approach is the payment of zakat” (Nursi, 22nd Letter). With their significance rooted in the Islamic principle of charity (Waqf and Islamic Philanthropy 2005), and their central function in sociocultural life, awqaf seem to be the most efficient way of dealing with poverty and income disparity. The government expenditure can be substantially reduced through a well functioning waqf system that creates a permanent, cumulative, and ever-increasing capital base and infrastructure for benevolent activities. This reduction leads to a lower government borrowing, and a reduced rate of interest which then initiates higher private investment, thus growth (Cizakca 2006), as demonstrated at the climax of Ottoman times, which needs to be addressed in another article.

References

• Akgündüz, Ahmet. 1996. “Islam Hukukunda ve Osmanlı Tatbikatında Vakıf Müessesesi.”, 2nd Ed. Istanbul: Osmanlı Araştırmaları Vakfı.
• Akpınar, Ali. 2004. “Vakıf Insanlar ve Din.” Yeni Ümit 17, no. 65)
• Bakır, Betül, and Ibrahim Başağaoğlu. “How Medical Functions Shaped Architecture in Anatolian Seljuk Darüşşifas (hospitals) and Especially in The Divriği Turan Malik Darüşşifa.” https://fountainmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/09-5d7.pdf
• Başkan, Birol. 2002. “Waqf System as a Redistribution Mechanism in Ottoman Empire.” http://cas.uchicago.edu/workshops/mehat/past_conferences/Baskan.pdf
• Becker, Gary S. 1974. “A Theory of Social Interactions.” Journal of Political Economy 82, no. 6.
• Bilmen, Ömer N. 1969. Istılahat-ı Fıkhıyye Kamusu. Vol. 4.
• Canan, Ibrahim. 2004. Kütüb-i Sitte Tercüme ve Şerhi. Vol. 16. Ankara: Akçağ Yayınlar..
• Çizakça, Murat. 2000. A History of Philanthropic Foundations: The Islamic World from the Seventh Century to the Present. Istanbul: Bogazici University Press.
• Çizakça, Murat. 2006 (interviewed by Dr. Shariq Nasir). “Combining Islamic History with Islamic Institutional Economics.” Islamic Business and Finance, March. http://www.cpifinancial.net/v2/Magazine.aspx?v=1&aid=392&cat=IBF&in=5
• Dallal, Ahmad. 2004. “The Islamic Institution of Waqf: A Historical Overview.” In Islam and Social Policy, Stephen P. Heyneman. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press.
• “Damascus: City of Munificence and Learning.” MuslimHeritage. http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=500
• Husain Nagamia. 1992. “Islamic Medicine History and Current Practice”, University of South Florida Medical School, Tampa, Florida.
• Ibn Battutah. 2006. “Travel in Asia and Africa”, translated by H.A.R. Gibb London and Rozali Othman.
• http://www.isesco.org.ma/english/publications/WAQF/Chap3.php
• Jones, William R. “Pious Endowments in Medieval Christianity and Islam.” Diogenes (1980): 23-36.
• Kahf, Monzer. 2003. “The Role of Waqf in Improving the Ummah Welfare.” Presented to the International Seminar on “Waqf as a Private Legal Body” organized by the Islamic University of North Sumatra, Medan, Indonesia, Jan. 6-7. https://fountainmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/ROLE_OF_WAQF_IN_THE_WELFARE_OF_THE_UMMAH-397.pdf
• Kahf, Monzer. “Waqf: An Overview”. https://fountainmagazine.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/WAQF_A_QUICK_OVERVIEW-427.pdf
• Kuran, Timur. 2001. “The provision of public goods under Islamic law: Origins, impact, and limitations of the waqf…” Law & Society Review 35, no. 4.
• Mauss, Marcel, “Essai sur le don. Forme et raison de l’échange dans les sociétés archaïques.” 1923-1924. (Translation: Mauss, M., 1950. The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies. New York: W.W. Norton.)
• Mustafa Subai. 1998. Min Rawaie Hadaratina (Marvels of our Civilization), Dar es Salaam, Cairo.
• Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said. 2007. The Letters “22nd Letter.” NJ: The Light, Inc..
• “Philanthropic Foundation.” Britannica Online Encyclopedia.
• “Waqf (endowment) and Islamic Philanthropy.” 2005. In UN-HABITAT Islam, Land & Property Research Series, Paper VII, 8-16: UN-HABITAT,.
• Yalawae, Asming, and Izah M. Tahir. “The Role of Islamic Institution in Achieving Equality and Human Development: Waqf or Endowment.” Universiti Darul Iman Malaysia (UDM). http://www.capabilityapproach.com/pubs/Asming%20Yalawae,%20and%20Izah%20TahirWaqfAsmeng.pdf
• Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin. 1996. Place of the Waqf in Turkish Cultural System. Translated by R Acun and M Oz. Istanbul: Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II). http://www.history.hacettepe.edu.tr/archive/waqfkultur.html
• Yüksel, Ahmet T. 1999. “Türk Islam Medeniyetinde Vakıfların Yeri ve Önemi.”

Despite advances in technology, computers still can’t come close to the power of the world’s most remarkable computer – the human brain.

Computing machines have seen three phases: the tabulating phase, the programmable phase, and now the new era of computing, the cognitive phase [1]. Tabulating machines performed a fixed task, whereas programmable machines could be reprogrammed to execute different tasks without any change in the hardware. Cognitive machines, however, promise learning and reasoning capabilities.

The possibility of such machines raises the question: is cognition the ultimate test for conscious existence? What do we know about cognition? How do we define intelligence? The questions go on and on. One thing, however, everyone seems to agree with is the fact that understanding the mechanism of human cognition is the key to developing advanced artificial intelligence, and cognitive machines.

Cognitive machines have the ability to learn, and they employ artificial intelligence to “reason.” Artificial intelligence is defined as, “The science of making machines do things that would require intelligence if done by men” [2]. The good news is that cognitive computing is no longer an esoteric pursuit of some futurists. It is, and has been, essential for the operation of many big-data driven processes. The 21st century has been flooded with data coming from almost every aspect of our lives. Technology has made it possible to generate data at an exponential rate. Temperature distribution throughout our buildings, the number of people diagnosed with cancer in the last six months, real-time changes in customer preferences, ethnic profiles of college applicants, and the top three words trending in online conversations at this very moment, are some examples of the kind of data available today.

As the amount of data generated increases, it also becomes harder and harder to process and make sense of the data collected. Our “greedy and ambitious” human nature does not want to waste, and it wants to use every bit of available data. This is where it becomes imperative to have a computing machine that goes beyond performing pre-programmed tasks and learns as it goes, without human interference. For this kind of computing, we need cognition.

The biggest challenge in imitating human cognition is to understand how cognition happens in the brain. It is obviously beyond our ability to monitor such activity that is constantly taking place in our brains, let alone recreating such marvels in the first place. Nevertheless, it will be a great achievement if we can manage to somewhat imitate human cognition, even partially. It would open a whole new era in terms of what can be achieved from a computing standpoint. For instance, the entire curriculum of a college degree can be processed by a cognitive machine in a fraction of a second; such machine can digest the whole of medical literature in a short period of time, provide human doctors with second opinions on their diagnoses [3].

Despite the fact that there have been substantial improvements in designing “intelligent” computing machines, mimicking the hardware of the human brain and simulating its decision-making processes, have posed three fundamental challenges: a hardware with comparable processing power and memory, a software algorithm to implement intelligent behavior, and the necessity of both being self-adapting and self-improving.

First of all, human intelligence has not been fully characterized – its capabilities and limitations are still unknown. This lack of knowledge makes it difficult, and perhaps even impossible, to reduce such intelligence to smaller, or simpler, modules. Therefore, we don’t have a good handle on how to mimic the human brain in a behavioral sense.

The second major problem is that we are still far away from having the hardware on which our “intelligence” software could run. Implementing intelligence in conventional computing machines, evidently, seems to be a futile undertaking. Programmable machines are no match for human brains; even the fastest supercomputers, taking advantage of thousands of processors, is able to mimic just one percent of one second worth of human brain activity-and even that takes 40 minutes [4]. Therefore, cognitive computing machines must incorporate different hardware architecture from conventional computers to achieve cognition comparable to humans. IBM’s SyNAPSE chip is one example of hardware inspired by the brain, and it has the potential to carry out the required, intense computations.

Lastly, the human brain and its cognitive power are constantly changing. Depending on various factors and experiences, our brains can improve or deteriorate; this is also true of our cognitive power. However, such improvement or deterioration could be in the form of a change in the physical structure or the amount of capacity utilized [5]. Such dynamic flexibility, also called Brain Plasticity [6], is essential to our intelligence. At this time, no self-evolving computing hardware has been worked out. However, promising developments have been reported with respect to cognitive computing machines that can learn – that is, they can make deductions and reach conclusions that are not preprogrammed.

Along the way, human supervision will be the ultimate guide in perfecting such imitation. Therefore, human cognition, taken for granted in our daily lives, remains to be the final frontier for our thousands-years long technological journey. Once again, the creation set the boundaries for human development.

Adem G. Aydin holds a Phd degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering. He works as an engineer scientist at IBM.

References

[1] Virginia Rometty, 2013, http://smarterplanet.tumblr.com/post/32816006311/i-b-m-chief-on-watson-cognitive-computing-and-her

[2] Marvin Minsky, 1968, http://www.akri.org/ai/defs.htm

[3] “WellPoint and IBM Announce Agreement to Put Watson to Work in Health Care”, http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/35402.wss

[4] “Largest neuronal network simulation achieved using K computer” http://www.riken.jp/en/pr/press/2013/20130802_1/

[5] William James, The Principles of Psychology

[6] Bryan Kolb and Ian Q. Whishaw, Brain Plasticity and Behavior, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 49: 43-64

Honor killings are not a new type of murder or unique to any particular time or place. They are not associated with Islam, and there is no difference in their base causes or those of Femicide and crimes of passion. Several religious and cultural traditions have held the view that women are second class citizens compared to men; that their place in society is to benefit men; or that they are possessions to be dealt with in a manner befitting a man’s choice. In Ancient Rome, “honor played an important part in the structure of Roman society… justifications for honor killings can be found in the family law of the Roman Empire” (Shah-David, 2011 p. 191). The legal differentiations between honor killings and other forms of homicide are based in Roman law. The father, or pater familias (head of the family), had jus vitae ac necis (power of life and death), thus no punishment could be imposed on a father or husband for killing their female family members (Bettiga-Bourerbout, 2005). It is also said that Judeo-Christian religious tradition claims men and women were punished because of Eve’s decision to eat the forbidden fruit; women were punished further by being made subservient to men, and made to suffer through the pain of child birth and menstruation (Azeem, n.d.). Yet as Shah-David claims, killing in the name of honor is also found in other societies, such as Hindu communities and in Sardinia and Sicily. Despite these incidences, “this does not mean that Roman Catholicism encourages it” (2011 p. 191). In Australia, in a case of a Western Caucasian couple, a man strangled his wife, and community members claimed, “It is an honor killing…to avenge his male pride, to reassert his status in the world. He saw himself as the patriarch of the family and refused to accept her right to leave.” (The Age, 2006). The question must be asked why Islam remains as justification for femicide and why its occurrence is amplified when committed in Muslim societies.

Islam calls people to unburden themselves from the restraints and false claims of the material life and to return to God and the true way of life. As such, a society with material values will stand against such an ideal (Abushouk, 2006). Honor killings are a cultural practice, just as the Western media magnifying their occurrence is also cultural. It is statistically recorded that crime incidents against women in some Western countries are drastically higher when compared to Muslim and some non-Western countries. (Nation Master, 2011). These statistics support that Islam is not behind the underlying attitudes of violence towards women.

Honor killing is the murder of a person who has supposedly brought dishonor to a family and where a public display condemning that person is required to restore family respect. This supposed shame is most commonly attributed to a family member who commits – or is accused, or suspected of committing – an indecent sexual act. Even rape is sometimes considered to “blacken” a woman’s chastity, and thus tarnishing her family’s honor. There is a belief that blood will remove the stain upon the family. This means the death of the woman – and sometimes, though less often, the death of the man, too. These deaths are very often public.

Honor killings may also occur when a woman will not enter into a forced marriage, seeks to obtain a divorce, or acts in any way which may be considered sexually promiscuous and a male family member feels dishonored by such displays (Merry, 2009). Being “too Western” is also a reason given to justify this type of crime (Chesler, 2010).

However, Islam gives very clear instructions about behaviors regarding women, adultery, divorce and legal testimony; these instructions go against any justification for honor killings. Women are considered the spiritual equal of men, their responsibilities towards God the same. There are differences between a man and woman regarding their respective worldly duties, but there is plenty of evidence in the Qur’an and in the practice of the Prophet that women should be treated fairly and gently. They are to be treated with a deep respect, going so far as to lay heaven under a mother’s feet (Hadith, Ahmad Nasai), and are entitled to receive honor and the best form of care: “The best among you is the one who is the best towards his wife” (Muslim).

Therefore, the relationship between men and women is to achieve mutual benefit and pleasure, and to help each other achieve their purpose in life. With regard to adultery, both men and women are equally responsible. Even though couples are encouraged to stay together, divorce is still halal (permissible) in Islam if a man and woman feel they cannot be equitable to each other and if they have exhausted all possible solutions. As such, claiming that wanting a divorce is grounds for dishonor and murder cannot in any way be ascribed to Islam. The Qur’an also states that four reliable witnesses be brought to testify against a women they claim is impious (An-Nisa 4:15). This is far from a support for honor killings on grounds of suspicion. A lack of Islam and cultural reasons can be the only other basis for this rationalization. And many people – both Muslim and non-Muslim – have expressed concern over “Western values” spreading through the Islamic world (Abou El Fadl, 2005). Sexual promiscuity may be seen as encouraged by Western media and Hollywood. Yet the concerns people express over this is by no means an excuse or justification for murder, but rather an example of why Islamic values must be holistically implemented, especially in Muslim’s lives.

Any justification for killing in the name of honor goes against true honor from God. Culturally developed and encouraged desires have an influence over people and their self-control, allowing a justification and belief to develop that they have a right and responsibility to commit heinous acts. No example in Islam can support honor killing. Therefore, we see that it is a cultural practice caused by the incorrect or incomplete application of Islam in Muslim societies. There are many examples, as given above, which prove that honor killing or other forms of femicide are among many very serious human problems. It is a grave form of human violence, and a true and comprehensive interpretation of Islamic values proves that Muslims can, and must, positively contribute to solving this problem, not the other way around. If some disgraceful practices are being attributed to Islam, it is not because they are part of Islam but because some Muslim communities are simultaneously practicing and propagating a blend of Islamic, contemporary, and Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic ignorance) teachings. Islam is a holistic religion; a person’s life, death, actions, beliefs, feelings, obligations, and their very nature is addressed in the Qur’an and the Prophet’s practice. Through the revealed scriptures and the examples of the Prophets, God has taught humanity about our vices and virtues, but also how to overcome and strengthen them so we can achieve balance and happiness. A proper understanding of how to achieve this balance entails a thorough, rather than partial, reading of the wonderful sources at our disposal.

Kim Soltani is a student of Islamic Studies at the Centre for Islamic Studies and Civilisation, Charles Sturt University, Sydney, Australia.

References

• Abou El Fadl, K. 2005. The nature and role of women. In The Great Theft. New York: Harper SanFransisco.
• Abushouk, A. I. 2006. Globalization and Muslim identity challenges and prospects. The Muslim World. 96(4), 487-505. Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur.
• Azeem, S. (n.d.) Women in Islam versus Women in the Judaeo-Christian Tradition: The Myth & The Reality. Canada: Queens University.
• Bettiga-Bourerbout, M., 2005. “Crimes of Honor” in the Italian Penal Code: an analysis of history and reform. In Honor: crimes, paradigms and violence against women. (eds S. Hossain, & L. Welchman,) Victoria: Spinifex Press.
• Chesler, P., 2010 Worldwide Trends in Honor Killings. In The Middle East Quarterly. Retrieved from http://www.meforum.org/2646/worldwide-trends-in-honor-killings
• Hadith. (n.d.). Ahmad Nasai, Retrieved from http://www.soundvision.com/Info/mothers/inquran&hadith.asp
• Kaandhlawi, Z., 2004. Faza’il-e-a’maal (A. R. Arshad, Trans.). India:Millat Book Centre.
• Merry, S., 2009. Gender violence: a cultural perspective. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing.
• Murad, A., (n.d.).Boys will be Boys. Retrieved from http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/ahm/boys.htm
• Nation Master. 2011. Crime Statistics Rape (per capita) (most recent) by country. Retrieved from http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_rap_percap-crime-rapes-per-capita
• Quran. (n.d.). Trans. Sahih International. Retrieved from http://www.quran.com
• Shah-Davis, S. 2011. A women’s honor and a nation’s shame. In Gender, Sexualities and Law (ed J Jones, A Grear, R Fenton, K Stevenson). New York: Routledge.
• The Age. 2006. Honor killing in the suburbs. Retrieved from http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Honor-killing-in-the-suburbs/2004/11/05/1099547388469.html%E2%80%9D
• United Nations Department of Public Information. 1996. Women and Violence. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/rights/dpi1772e.htm

There are lots of interesting examples of how plants communicate with insects. For instance, in self-defense against insects eating its leaves, a plant emits a volatile chemical that signals other insects, who are predators of those insects eating the plant. A byproduct of such insect communication may allow plants to signal danger to other extremely close, downwind plants. Professor of Entomology, Richard Karban and other researchers from the University of California showed that a cut sagebrush “told” nearby, downwind wild tobacco plants about its injury, and the tobacco plants apparently responded to protect themselves from damage. Over three seasons, researchers clipped leaves of sagebrush plants to mimic insects eating their leaves. The cut sagebrush released volatile chemicals (methyl jasmonate), which the wind carried to nearby downwind plants. The tobacco plants apparently sensed the chemicals-at least the tobacco plants increased production of a defensive agent-that caused their leaves to taste bad to insects. These downwind tobacco plants experienced less than half the leaf damage from grasshoppers and cutworms than control plants (Anon.). In one case study an acacia tree responded to browsing, or being beaten with a stick, by increasing the levels of tannin in its leaves within minutes. Amazingly, the tannin levels then rise in neighboring trees, and, due to its bitter taste, repel the browsers before they can do any further damage (Jacob 2001; Anon.).

What’s more is that plants can also talk to mammals. A study done by Professor Steven Johnson and his research team from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, demonstrated how ground-dwelling mammal pollinators are attracted by a rare parasitic plant’s unique “perfume.” This specific floral aroma is comprised of over 30 compounds, especially ketones, fatty-acid derivatives, mono- and sesquiterpenoids. The three most abundant scent chemicals were 1-hexen-3-one, 3-hexanone, and ethyl butyrate. When the impact of these chemicals was tested on mice, it turned out that mice, like humans, find 3-hexanone to have a pleasant smell. The molecule is routinely used in artificial flavoring to produce a sweet fruity grape-like flavor. In addition, 3-hexanone has also been found in some bat-pollinated flowers, so it may be a general mammal attractant. Remarkably, scent cues are particularly important to plants pollinated by small ground-dwelling mammals because these animals are usually around at night when visual cues are less effective (Johnson et al. 2011; Anon.).

In addition to pests, plants have to deal with numerous microbial pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and oomycetes, and viruses in the natural environment. A proper response to pathogens can lead to resistance mechanisms that enable plants to survive. Plants can recognize potential pathogens by detecting pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). This recognition activates a defense mechanism. A well-organized communication between the pathogen-invaded plant tissues and non-invaded ones is essential for the timely manifestation of defense mechanisms that limit the systemic spread of pathogens (Shah 2009). Salicylic acid, an important mobile signal, is transported from infected tissue to the rest of the plant body. It activates the systemic acquired resistance, which is a “whole-plant” resistance response that occurs following an earlier localized exposure to a pathogen. Plants not only communicate within themselves about a microbial invasion, they also talk to one another. For example, Tobacco plants warn each other against tobacco mosaic virus attack by releasing methyl salicylate, which is then converted to the protective salicylic acid in uninfected plants (Jacob 2001).

In contrast to harmful pathogenic interactions, there are also symbiotic, advantageous interactions between some microorganisms and plants. Establishment of such a beneficial symbiosis (which literally means “living together” in Greek) is complex. For successful infections, a molecular dialogue between partners is essential (Vadassery and Oelmüller 2009). Among these kinds of interactions, legume-Rhizobium symbiosis is of particular importance in agriculture, because by forming the symbiosis, atmospheric nitrogen can be used to sustain the growth of legume crops, such as soybean, pea, and bean, which occupy 12% to 15% of the land that can be used for growing crops throughout the world (Sugiyama, Shitan, and Yazaki 2007). Rhizobia are soil bacteria that fix nitrogen (diazotrophs) after becoming established inside root nodules of legumes such as alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupins, mesquite, carob, soy, and peanut.

Rhizobia require a plant host, since they cannot independently fix nitrogen (Anon.). Plant roots secrete signaling molecules (e.g. flavonoids) to attract Rhizobia. When Rhizobia sense these chemicals, they colonize around root tissues of the host legume plant. So, the rhizobial infection in legumes is an invasion by invitation (Murray 2011). The attached rhizobia secrete Nod factors, which are perceived by the plant. This initiates a series of events that leads to the formation of nodule, where Rhizobia fix nitrogen. Thus, Rhizobia make legume independent of soil nitrogen and the legume supplies nutrients to the bacteria. In addition, the legume plant supplies one critical component of nitrogenase, which is the key enzyme for fixing nitrogen. It all happens because the plant can talk to the bacteria.

The plant has many interests in being colonized by mycorrhizal fungi. Apart from providing nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, the fungi protect plants from diseases, parasites, and other stresses. Plants even grow as much as 40% more when colonized. In laboratory experiments, carrots that were colonized grew 20 times more than the carrots that were not! In fact, they are such close “friends” that the fungus cannot live without a plant, and between 80-90% of all plants on earth are somehow associated with mycorrhizal fungi. The origin of this incredible friendship is communication (Montréal 2012).

As a result, plants can talk to microorganisms, pests, and mammals, but do they communicate with people? Are they intelligent creatures who can communicate with us? In 1848, Dr. Gustav Theodor Fechner, a German professor, suggested that plants are capable of emotions and that one could promote healthy growth with talk, attention, and affection. An Indian scientist, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, conducted experiments on plants in 1900. Bose found that plants grew more quickly amidst pleasant music and more slowly amidst loud noise or harsh sounds (Sir Patrick Geddes and Geddes 1920).

Moreover, according to Royal Horticultural Society, talking to plants helps them grow, especially if the one talking to the plant is a woman. Even though there are lots of divisive experiments done with plants to understand if they can talk to human beings, there is no serious finding about this subject yet. Even if, plant biologists do not currently know how to talk to plants, they strive to comprehend how plants communicate with other organisms in order to use this new and exciting language for improving the resistance of plants against pests or pathogens. Instead of using chemical pesticides, genetically engineered plant defense and communication pathways in crops are a preferred avenue.

Communication of plants with other organisms is such a complex problem. Plants can have a network with so many different creatures. They pass on information to each other or to other organisms that speak other languages. How did they obtain these amazing communication skills? Even the most advanced creatures, human beings, experience problems in communication, how can plants have robust communication systems in a heterogeneous environment?

The next time you hear a strange rustling among your garden plants, maintain distance. They might be having an argument. Plants also talk and they respond to attacks like we do. So, be careful and do not hurt plants as they might even curse or scream to you (Anon.).

Safiye Arslan is a research fellow in the area of molecular biology in Nevada.

References

• Adler, Frederick R. 2011. Plant signalling: the opportunities and dangers of chemical communication. Biology Letters. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3061173tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Anon. Do plants talk? What are the chances it’s a boy? – USATODAY.com. http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/aprilholladay/2006-07-24-plant-talk-baby-boys_x.htm.
• Anon. jacobson’s organ and the remarkable nature of smell. http://books.google.com/books/about/Jacobson_s_Organ_and_the_Remarkable_Natu.html?id=liKKQgAACAAJ.
• Anon. BBC – Earth News – “Perfumed” parasitic plant lures in pollinating mammals. http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9376000/9376474.stm.
• Anon. What is Rhizobia. http://www.bionewsonline.com/y/what_is_rhizobia.htm.
• Anon. Biotechnology: Plantlinguistic: – “Plants Communicate With Each Other.” http://bioinformations4all.blogspot.com/2009/08/plantlinguistic-plants-communicate-with.html.
• Jacob, Tim. 2001. “The science and myths of smell.” EMBO Reports 2 (10): 880. http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v2/n10/full/embor301.html.
• Johnson, Steven D, Priscilla M Burgoyne, Lawrence D Harder, Stefan Dötterl, and Proc R Soc. 2011. “Mammal pollinators lured by the scent of a parasitic plant Subject collections Mammal pollinators lured by the scent of a parasitic plant.” Society 278 (January): 2303-10. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.2175. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3119003&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Montréal, Jardin botanique de. 2012. “Chatting with a plant’s best friend – Science +” (June 3). http://www.aucoeurdelarbre.ca/en/thematics-texts/thematics-texts-details.php?id=8.
• Murray, Jeremy D. 2011. “Invasion by invitation: rhizobial infection in legumes.” Molecular plantmicrobe interactions MPMI 24 (6): 631-639. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21542766.
• Shah, Jyoti. 2009. “Plants under attack: systemic signals in defence.” Current Opinion in Plant Biology 12 (4): 459-464. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19608451.
• Sir Patrick Geddes, and Sir Patrick Geddes. 1920. The life and work of Sir Jagadis C. Bose. Longmans, Green. http://books.google.com/books?id=EPtCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA97&q=”continuous”#v=twopage.
• Sugiyama, Akifumi, Nobukazu Shitan, and Kazufumi Yazaki. 2007. “Involvement of a soybean ATP-binding cassette-type transporter in the secretion of genistein, a signal flavonoid in legume-Rhizobium symbiosis.” Plant physiology 144 (4) (August): 2000-8. doi:10.1104/pp.107.096727. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1949875&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.
• Vadassery, Jyothilakshmi, and Ralf Oelmüller. 2009. “Calcium signaling in pathogenic and beneficial plant microbe interactions: what can we learn from the interaction between Piriformospora indica and Arabidopsis thaliana.” Plant signaling & behavior 4 (11) (November): 1024-7. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2819509&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract.