“There was a footpath leading across the fields to New Southgate, and I used to go there alone to watch the sunset and contemplate suicide. I did not, however, commit suicide, because I wished to know more about mathematics.”
-Bertrand Russell, Nobel Laureate and Mathematician

It is mystical when you step outside on a snowy morning. Snowflakes are swirling around the vast sky and falling and blanketing the ground. If a snowflake lands on you, it is like a winter angel. There are no flowers around, for they cannot survive the cold; yet what lies before your eyes is an incredible beauty. And it’s remarkable, you come to realize, that no two snowflakes are alike. It is as if the uniqueness of a snowflake is controlled by a divine force. The individuality of a snowflake’s structure draws a parallel to human life. Like snowflakes, everyone has a unique story to tell.

I am not the only one who ponders about snowflakes; many mathematicians do the same. Actually, they think about the characteristics of snowflakes because they are particularly important for three basic mathematical principles: pattern, symmetry, and symmetry breaking.

A little-known scientist, Wilson Bentley, a.k.a. “the Snowflake Man” took pictures of snowflakes almost every day and observed them until he died. You can buy his book about his work on Amazon. If you wish to know why he did it, read about it at snowflakebentley.com.

“Under the microscope, I found that snowflakes were miracles of nature; and it seemed a shame that this beauty should not be seen and appreciated by others. Every crystal was a masterpiece of design and no one design was ever repeated. When a snowflake melted, that design was forever lost. That beauty was gone, without leaving any record behind.”
-Wilson Bentley

When I checked the Oxford dictionary, there were 3 definitions for the word “pattern.” Two of these definitions [listed below] are important for this article.

Pattern: 1. A repeated decorative design; 2. An example for others to follow.

When we check the pictures and delve deeper into each snowflake, we will see that the structures of the snowflakes are totally different. However, they have something in common: symmetry and a hexagonal structure.

These perfect ice crystals are genuine, even though it is hard to believe they are not fake.

When I take a close look at a snowflake, the beauty of the combination of ice molecules fascinates me every time; each flake is unique. However, uniqueness is not the point here. The things that make snowflakes important objects for mathematicians are their symmetry and their hexagonal structure. Math-loving people have a lot of interest in transformations. They love moving objects. And, surprisingly, if an object is symmetric, transformations are not even noticed by many.

To be more precise, when you have a hexagonal symmetric snowflake, or any other symmetrical object, when you rotate it in any direction, 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, 300°, or 360°, people watching you wouldn’t realize it. If you check the images below, you will see rotated shapes but no difference. It appears to be the same shape in exactly the same place.

1- Counterclockwise rotation by 120°

2- Reflection through a vertical axis

3- Reflection axes of a snowflake[1]

Snowflakes also possess reflectional symmetry. If we stand in front of a mirror, our reflection looks exactly the same. Hence, if we put a mirror in the middle of a snowflake, there will be a reflection. For a snowflake, we can put a mirror 6 different ways. Thus, we can say that a snowflake has 12 symmetries: 6 from reflections, and 6 from rotations.[2]

Now we can define symmetry as a transformation that leaves things unchanged. We can also claim that a combination of any of the transformations will give us exactly the same shape. For instance, we can rotate our snowflake 60° two or three times in a row and flip it over, and it will remain unchanged.

At this point, you might ask the question: “You have all these fancy symmetries for this particular snowflake. But, does every snowflake possess the same symmetries?”

Snow is a molecular structure of an ice crystal. And ice is a structured substance. It is a different form of water. When the water cools down, the molecules move more slowly, and this begins to impact how the molecules line up. Hydrogen atoms of one water molecule bond with two oxygen atoms. As the water freezes, the molecules arrange into hexagonal patterns. They prefer to stay as far away from each other as possible, and that makes them take up more space. The large space affects density. The density of ice becomes less dense than water. This is why ice floats. Almost all other liquids have a higher density when they freeze.

When we examine an ice crystal carefully under normal conditions, we always see a combination of molecules with six-fold symmetry. Snowflake molecules make a honeycomb structure. This results in an inordinate amount of hexagonal symmetry in these molecular three-dimensional structures.

Okay, we saw the structure of a snowflake under normal conditions. But, what if we changed those conditions? Johannes Kepler answered this question after his experiments and wrote a book about snowflakes, particularly The Six-Cornered Snowflake.

There are two key elements which affect the structure of a snowflake: temperature and moisture. Each time the temperature or the amount of moisture change, the structure of a snowflake changes. If you check the snow crystal morphology diagram below, you will see that when the temperature nears 0° and humidity is high, the structure of a snowflake will be flowery. Flowery structures are called dendrites. When you make it a little bit colder, the structure will be fancy hexagonal plates. We can apply many combinations and get varying structures.

The Snow Crystal Morphology Diagram. Source: Snow Crystals – http://www.snowcrystals.com/science/science.html

Professor of physics Kenneth G. Libbrecht is the owner of the diagram below. In a PBS interview, he said, “It’s a mystery as to why snowflake shapes go from plates to columns to plates to columns as the temperature lowers. That’s one of the things I’ve been trying to understand. It has been a mystery for about 75 years, and it’s still unsolved.”[3]

The Shapes of Snowflakes | Source

In the end, although the structure of (almost) all snowflakes are the same, some of them are not completely hexagonal. For instance, there are some snowflakes that have tree structures. Some snowflakes have branches, and each branch has tiny branches.

But, why is the structure of some snowflakes not hexagonal?

So far, we have talked about pictures which were taken at a particular instant. We have seen the pictures of the motion of the snowflakes for the smallest amount of time that can be measured. However, a snowflake never stops spinning in the air. They tend to oscillate. That means the shape of the snowflake is changing all the time. But how? When you see a snowflake in the air, it changes its place after a second because it would be whirled about, and it will be under different conditions at that time. This process will occur up until the snowflake lands on the ground. We know from the diagram that the temperature and amount of moisture always affect the shape of a snowflake. While small-scale conditions are almost the same, on a larger-time scale, conditions will differ. And these differences will change every corner of a hexagonal snowflake, resulting in a different structure. This is the main reason behind the variety of snowflake structures and uniqueness.

In conclusion, we can say that a snowflake can preserve its six-fold symmetry at all times. I think we have another reason to love mathematics! I want to finish my piece with Hermann Hankel’s words:

“In most sciences one generation tears down what another has built, and what one has established another undoes. In mathematics alone, each generation adds a new story to the old structure.”

Are cities the same as water? It’s possible to look at chemistry for new understandings of social dynamics.

The universe is a field where existence is transformed from state to state. The transformation of matter from one state to another is generally called a “phase transition” and each phase has its own characteristics. A phase transition is possible via the alteration of some parameters and variables. For instance, heat is one of the parameters required for the transition of ice (solid) into water (liquid) and later into vapor (gas); the increased heat causes ice to change states. The characteristic feature of each phase (ice, water, and vapor) is unique. For example, ice has a certain volume; however water and vapor take the shapes of their containers. In contrast to ice, water and vapor have flowing properties.

In a similar way, if the temperature of a ferromagnetic material displaying magnetic properties is elevated, at a certain temperature, it is observed to lose its magnetism; this is called the “Curie point.” In some materials, such as some solutions, the transition into different phases can be achieved by adding solvents.

Seasons can also be considered different phases. Each season has its own specific traits and features. Seasons are generated by the alteration of the angle between the axis of earth and its orbital plane.

As these examples show, the universe resembles an erase board where continuous transitions are taking place, new sentences are being written, and existing writings are dismissed to form new sentences with new meanings.

In a recently completed academic study, a new definition of a phase transition encountered in social life has been made and this phase transition is called “freezing by heating” [1]. It is well known in daily life that the less individuals are informed about their temper and the direction they are headed, the weaker the efficiency of cooperation among individuals. If people in a unit or group behave irregularly, a dead end or bottleneck could occur. Solving dead-end problems and bottleneck situations, or preventing them before they happen, is among the topics scientists study today. In Figure 1, cases showing the traffic stream of people moving in opposite directions obtained in this study are displayed.

It is stated that there is less “noise” in situations in which there is a reduced amount of irregular behavior taking place. The term “noise” is used to define concepts that can be disruptive human relations. The higher the noise, the more the degradation of human relationships, and as a result, a disruption or even an arrest (freezing) may happen regarding social events. The elevated temperature of a melting solid material provides it with the properties of a fluid, whereas in social events, an increase in temperature ends up with a jam and freeze in social life. In Figure 1a, a pedestrian traffic flow in which there is less noise present – in other words, a situation that characterizes ideal relations among people – is displayed. Here, it is observed that people with yellow marks have a stable flow towards the left and those with red marks move towards the right side. They do so via lanes of people going towards both directions. A stable flow indicates that the system is not frozen (not in an arrest), or free of a bottleneck. In such a flow, relations work in such a way that fluidity results.

Figure 1

An intermediate noise level causes an increase of irregular behaviors (in other terms, unpredictable human behavior) and shows the presence of serious problems that are experienced regarding the relationships among people. The corresponding situation for this case is shown on Figure 1b. Here, the pedestrian traffic is now jammed and the flow is almost halted. It is impossible for lanes to form since irregular behaviors are above a certain critical level. For a system to be rescued out of this state, oscillations of sufficient magnitude are necessary.

If the situation in Figure 1c occurs, forming a vertical interface (please note the vertical interface that separates people going left and right), this case is called a “frozen state” and much bigger oscillations are required to get out of this state. Figures 1a, 1b, and 1c exhibit before our eyes how elevated noise affects pedestrian traffic: an increase of the noise in the system (for instance, an increase in the number of people who do not stop at red lights and do not continue on green) changes it from a fluid phase to a frozen one, resulting in gridlock. It is possible to compare the increased noise of the pedestrian traffic to an increase in temperature; the elevation of temperature also causes an abundance of irregular movements inside matter. Just like that, the rise of heat in a society due to a particular issue (like turmoil or other problems) may generate an increase in chaotic behaviors. Let’s try to explain this with certain events happening right now.

Let’s think about motor vehicle traffic in any city. If every individual driver observes the rules of the road, this means a low temperature – less noise, and little traffic. Fluidity is present here. On the contrary, if there is not any consensus in terms of traffic rules among the citizens – in other terms, if majority of the people are failing to abide the rules – there will be “heat”; the noise will be high, and there will be a traffic jam. If drivers cannot assess the rules at a four way intersections, or if people with no knowledge of red, yellow, or green lights are driving, a city will have a major problem with traffic.

When a freezing event takes place, waiting becomes inevitable. Unfortunately, most people don’t like waiting. Thus, such “freezing” events should be avoided, so as to keep citizens happy. For example, public announcements of road closures due to scheduled road works limit the reactions against traffic problems on certain routes. However, if traffic is announced and no reason is given, people might still be very unhappy.

For a second example, let’s consider a judiciary system. Just like the example of motor vehicle traffic, the presence of irregular moves independent from rules can lock a legal system. If laws are insufficient, or existing laws are not universally implemented nationwide, or the laws are executed and interpreted differently according to individuals, it is inevitable for a bottleneck or a freeze in the legal system. Actors within the system may anticipate a “freeze” about to happen. People in a state of anticipation need to be convinced and satisfied pertaining to legal practices. Otherwise, they may not enforce the laws properly, and legal chaos may ensue.

Freezing by heating may also apply for certain economic processes. Some economic uncertainties or some actions of unknown cause can be considered as noise by elements of the economy, thus enforcing a behavioral change that is able to affect the entire economy. Therefore, any applied change is followed carefully by the actors of the market and these actors must be satisfied about the changes taking place. Higher noise levels and dissatisfaction of members who are waiting affects the liquidity of the market and can lead to the withdrawal of funds. Withdrawal of money negatively impacts the parties who are in need of cash in various ways and the economic system gains momentum towards a “frozen state.” Negative factors are not the only reason for a bottle neck. Conservation of balance and the fluidity of the economic system are considered as the essence of this issue.

The principles briefly given above can also be applied to socio-psychological events. It is impossible not to encounter a bottleneck for a society consisting of members who are aggressive, stressed, or have less knowledge of their destinations. If a decision can be made with a peaceful state of mind and there is no doubt present regarding current practices, patience becomes the most important parameter. Hence, until a state of balance is established, it is advised to wait with understanding and patience. Patience is a healing aid that plays a role in reducing the temperature in all bottleneck situations.

Fasting prayer is very important for people in terms of gaining this habit. Even for a person who observes fasting one day or two in a week, it becomes more possible to deal positively with any bottleneck situations encountered that week. Another way to lessen the impact of a bottleneck is living to be aware of the fact that each event may serve a purpose. As Nursi stated, each negative or positive event that has been experienced has a purpose. Every event will be over once its purpose is reached. For a sincere believer who is aware of this, realizing that patience also means to appreciate time; thus, it is possible for him to disperse the negative elements that this waiting will bring.

It is possible to expand the “freezing by heating” phase transition to various different mediums across many other disciplines. However, the only necessary element in all of them to prevent such freezes, or to break present freezes, is the reduction of noise (temperature). It’s possible to find guidance by acknowledging that this world is a place of wisdom and service, and rewards do not always come in this life.

References

1. Dirk Helbing, Illes J. Farkas, Tamas Vicsek, “Freezing by Heating in a Driven Mesoscopic System,” Physical Review Letters 84, 1240-1243 (2000).
2. H.Eugene Stanley, “Non-equilibrium Physics: Freezing by Heating,” Nature 404, 718-719 (2000).

“You are a forlorn one in this world
Ergo laugh not but cry o heart!” (Yunus Emre)

Forlorn ones are only a few; a few heroes of the heart, and unknown holy ones. A forlorn person is one who sighs and groans, whose heart burns and aches. A person who is forlorn is beaten and persecuted because of the sublime truths they hold. They face trouble every day, and are threatened by all different kinds of death. They are despised and held in contempt.

Forlorn ones are not necessarily away from country or home, isolated from friends and companions. Forlorn ones are the ones whose societies do not understand them. They are considered odd and scrutinized by those around them. A forlorn one’s supreme ideals and transcendent thoughts are considered strange. They contradict the rules of their society through their willingness to sacrifice personal yearnings for communal good.

The masses forlorn ones run to help persecute them, sometimes exile them, sometimes throw them into prison, and sometimes even threaten them with death. The forlorn ones, however, grapple with these threats every moment, and live to rescue other victims. At times, they challenge dangers like Heraclites. When they can, they rush to put out fires; at the very least they moan like caring mothers. Society never tires of cruelty, and forlorn ones never tire of loyalty!

Mostly, forlorn ones feel alone and separated from their society on material terms, because they cannot establish a permanent dialogue with them. Nevertheless, a feeling of altruism and the thought of living for the sake of others takes over a forlorn one’s entire spirit. This feeling is deep and multidimensional enough to make them forget their separation and loneliness. Despite the fact that they might moan with a feeling of loneliness for a moment, they can be happy and elated with the idealist worlds established in their souls.

Forlorn ones are like the early spring grass. These flowers of the dawn face snow and ice. They undertake a sublime fight against blizzards and thunderstorms, occasionally finding reprieve from the snow and ice.

Yes, forlorn ones running to the light with a thousand joyous shouts in the realms beyond the heavens are just like the snowdrops, showing off under the sun, their dimples and white muslins rising from multicolored snow. They appear before heat warms the land, before the ices melt. Their survival is a hard one; they grapple with hazards defying them, are injured and torn, are devastated and destroyed without even experiencing a breeze of the earthly joys. They go, but their going is brave. They do not go under the earth without a few hyacinths. They die once, but revive twenty times.

Every day, forlorn ones, with a dozen of the most sacred thoughts in their hearts and minds, stand on the gate of society to offer life to the dead ones, and to return the values they lost. They knock on the door a few times, cry out the inspirations of their soul, and then turn back. They are roughed up, scolded and exiled; but they never fear, they never grow tired, and they especially never resent. They always keep their eyes on the spiritual realms and expect tidings of revival every time the sun rises and sets. They are freshly enthusiastic every new day, rushing to every corner to assume responsibilities, and to show the masses the path to Khidr fountain.

Those who understand and sympathize with them achieve eternal existence. Those left apart fade away forever. They have united with Archangel Gabriel and met Khidr fifty times; as the dirt on their feet becomes an elixir of life, the earth beneath them grows very green.

Disbeliefs, heresies, and misguidance melt away like ice under their warm breath, and it is their breath that turns arid places into gardens of paradise.

They always suffer. They are disappointed and bent over double in the face of the varying emotions and thoughts and deteriorating customs of the society that raised them. Nevertheless, they are also faithful, hopeful, and marvelously motivated. Occasionally, they are left alone and unattended, and are insulted by society. Yet, they are always joyful and in peace.

No familiar face like it is empty everywhere;

Roads are curly and slopes are steep:

Suffering, agony; cry, groan and there is the path!

How sweet is this path despite everything, and how pleasant it is to be forlorn!

All sorts of sorrow and sadness are apparent in the broken hearts and misty looks of the forlorn ones. With their groans and sighs, they remind us, respectively, of Prophet Adam and Prophet David, peace be upon them. Because they are reproached and are far away from home, they say, “Now that I am left apart from the beautiful ones, I say woe, my longing!” They groan, and yearningly await the moment of reunion, the moment when they will become a constant companion with the Beloved One. They wait, and reach a distinct union and zeal in every moment with the winds blowing from the city of mercy to the longing hearts. And if they find familiar hearts to discharge the intuitions of their spirit into, they let themselves go, turning into a waterfall. The forlorn ones never demonstrate sorrow, even if their wealth is looted and their family perishes on this path they took with love. As they see that the light they’ve spread amongst the spirit of their people is shining, the forlorn ones soar to infinity singing “O friend!” with the delight of the heavens!

A thousand heralds of good news to the forlorn ones! A thousand glad tidings to those breathing hope and fulfillment, forgetting their personal pleasures and tastes for the welfare and happiness of the public in a period of anarchy and turmoil that terrorizes everyone!

And there are also forlorn ones – in other words, the poor in character – who become estranged from their own people and their own culture in their own country, and they are very similar to the former ones with their sorrow and misery. But they are slovenly, wretched, hopeless and unenlightened. More than anything, they are lackluster and debilitated in their heartfelt and spiritual lives. Their days are darker than their nights; their nights remind of the grave. These miserable ones, their spirits torn by numerous paradoxes and deprived of a root and a personality, almost forget what it is like to be human. Questions arising from their minds and afflicting their souls make it impossible for them to benefit from the joys of this life – in fact making it even more miserable. They are dark inside; their thoughts are foggy; their eyes are misty. The questions they endlessly puzzle over remind us of one stuck in hell. Would you call this experience a “life”? But because they think of death as final, they have no choice but to prefer this life comprised only of hesitation and doubt.

For them, life is torment; being a human is another misfortune; death is a maelstrom, a black hole; existence is chaos, and the only way to avoid pain is intoxication.

How unfortunate this way of thinking is and those miserable ones are! Have pity on these kinds of forlorn ones!

Animals with “Anti-Freeze”

Although it is not clear whether human beings took the idea of anti-freeze, i.e., adding a substance to water to prevent it from freezing, from animals, some animals living in cold climates have a substance in their blood that prevents them from freezing. When the skin or the operculum of fish that live in cold seas comes into contact with ice, their blood starts to freeze, and the fish soon die. The reason for this is the rapid increase of ice crystals in their blood. However, there are many fish species that live in cold areas despite such unfavorable conditions. Some species in these areas retreat to the deep water where the water is -1.8°C to prevent freezing. However, in Antarctica there are fish living in areas that are much colder than this. These fish can protect themselves against freezing in the very cold temperatures of Antarctica thanks to chemical substances in their blood that work like anti-freeze in a car. Could it be possible that this technique of anti-freeze has been codified in the genetic programming of fish not by a conscious Creator but merely by coincidence? Such an idea would be logically difficult to accept. The substance called AFGP (Antarctic Fish Gliko-Protein) found in the blood of fish in Antarctica works as a natural anti-freeze and helps fish survive in icy water without freezing. Special proteins synthesized by genes that have been codified by special programming are linked to ice crystals, and they are thus able to prevent ice crystals from forming in the body of the fish.

Researchers have discovered some of the genes that codify AFGP during their study on some species of fish that belong to the Notothenioidei suborder, which live in Antarctic water without freezing; these fish are the Notothenia coriiceps and the Dissostichus mawsoni. The genes that were discovered codify a protein in a substance that prevents them from freezing. This protein is manufactured in the pancreas, but is not broken down in the intestines. Researchers are still trying to identify the gene that codifies the AFGP. Once this gene has been comprehensively understood, the protein which the gene codifies can be produced artificially and inexpensively. In this way, a small amount of anti-freeze protein injected into the blood to prevent freezing could save many lives. However, for the time being, it seems like a far-fetched possibility that this gene can be inserted into a human genome. All the genes in our body are interrelated with one another, and therefore a new program that would change the formation of the blood, preventing it from completely freezing, might cause many adverse side-effects.

The Miracle of Salt

Many fish have substances that cause the freezing point of their blood to fall below zero. Scientists have determined that the most common of these substances are the salts found in body liquids, in particular sodium chloride. These salts account for an 85% reduction in the freezing point. It is not possible for fish, which are unaware of the physiology of the body liquid and the complex relations of the metabolism with the process of freezing, to have developed such a protection mechanism through evolution.

Fish are not the only animals with anti-freeze. From the world of insects, Cryptopygus antarcticus (the Antarctic springtail) and Achorutes nivicola (the snow flea) are creatures that can survive in very low temperatures. Many animals become motionless or die when the temperature dips below freezing. But the Antarctic springtail can easily move and jump around at these temperatures. The biological reason for this vivacity is the anti-freeze system of this insect. Some of them can even live in glaciers unharmed for a period of up to three years.

Waterproof Fur

The otter (Enhydra lutris nereis) has a different type of protection against cold. The otter has been hunted for its soft, thick, velvet-like fur, bringing it to the brink of extinction. This animal’s fur is such a fabulous protection that otters can swim for days without even getting wet. The thick fur protects the otter from the cold. Unlike many sea animals, the fat layer under the otter’s skin is very thin, and is thus not very helpful against cold. Instead, the One whose Mercy is Endless has granted them a thick fur that protects them from the cold.

Polar Bear Dens

When the dens of polar bears are examined, many fascinating aspects are discovered. If a female polar bear living in Antarctica is pregnant or has just given birth, she makes a den under the snow; this is the only way that she can survive. The cubs are usually born during the middle of winter. When they are born, they are hairless, sightless and very tiny. These totally vulnerable and very needy babies are born in the middle of winter and they need proper dens in order to survive. A typical den consists of a two-meter hole and a round cave half a meter in diameter. It is only about half a meter high. However, this is no ordinary shelter constructed by a simple procedure. In a place where everywhere is covered by snow and ice, this den is dug very carefully under the snow drifts, and every detail necessary for the lives of the cubs is ensured. These dens usually consist of more than one room. Despite the fact that polar bears lack knowledge of thermo-dynamics, they dig out a smaller den above the entrance, ensuring that the warm air in these rooms cannot escape. Throughout winter, snow accumulates at the entrance and on top of the den. The polar bear leaves only a small, narrow channel through this snow drift to allow the air in. The thickness of the roof constructed by the mother bear is somewhere between 75 centimeters to two meters. This roof works as a good insulator, keeping the existing heat inside.

A researcher from Oslo University, Paul Watts, placed a gadget on the ceiling of one of these dens to carefully measure the heat. His findings were surprising: while the temperature outside fell below –30 degrees, the temperature inside never fell below 2 or 3 degrees. The scientists were also amazed to discover that the mother bear constructs her den like an expert physicist, building her nest with perfect insulation. In this warm and protective setting the mother bear does not die of cold because the fat reserves in her body are sufficient for her hibernation period. However, the period of hibernation is an even more interesting issue: the metabolic rate of the mother bear slows down to save energy, thus enabling the cubs to be better nourished. Thanks to these characteristics, granted by the One whose Mercy is Endless, the fat stored in the bodies of polar bears is turned into protein over a hibernation period of seven months, feeding the cubs. This is how the polar bear survives without eating any food for such a long time. Its heart rate decelerates from 70 beats per minute to 8, and the metabolism slows down in accordance with this. As the bear does not eat any food, it does not need to defecate or urinate.

Parenthood in a White World

It seems as if penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) thumb their noses at the freezing cold. The mothers return back to cold seas shortly after laying eggs in order to feed. The mating pairs do not build nests, because there is nothing around them except snow and ice. Yet, they cannot leave their eggs on the ice, for the egg would be immediately frozen. So, while the mother is hunting for food, the father penguin takes care of the chicks over a period of three months. The fathers gather around in a group to carry, initially, the eggs, and then the chicks, holding them on their feet in order to protect them from freezing. The feet of penguins are covered with feathers, and are 80 °C warmer than the outside temperature, thus keeping the egg from freezing. The penguins form a circle with their backs facing out, and the chicks on the inside. Those fathers that happen to be located at the outer most part of the circle change places from time to time with the other penguins to protect themselves from freezing. This is necessary, because the temperature is around -50 °C.

Are such animals as we have discussed here capable of learning and thinking? Or are these abilities that are peculiar only to humans? Differentiating humans from animals along strict lines, Descartes (1596-1650), who said “cogito, ergo sum: I think, therefore, I am,” went so far as to claim that animals do not feel, let alone have an ability to think. Some biologist today argue that animals might not have the ability to think as we understand it, but they can still behave in some logical ways that are peculiar to them, and they can learn. Nevertheless, we cannot give animals credit for comprehending the need for anti-freeze in their blood, the protective characteristics of salt against freezing, how they should make their dens, or form circles to protect themselves against the cold. Rather, we could say that all these are manifestations of the most beautiful names of our Lord. One of the meanings of the 16th verse of the Surat al-Anbiya, It was not for nothing that We created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between, is that we are to understand that there is a Divine Wisdom and Insight in the creation of each and every one of the creatures of the universe.

References 

• Scott, M., The Young Oxford Book of Ecology, p. 47.
• Manisali, M., Antifirizli Baliklar, S›z›nt›, May 2000.
• Bilyap Aquaristic web site, Fischverhalten beobachten und verstehen, Jorg Vierke.
• O’Toole,C., Stidworthy, J., Mammals: The Hunters, p. 86-89.
• http://www.populerbilgi.com/genel/Fedakarlik2.php – Guinness Books, Remarkable Animals: A Unique Encyclopedia of Wildlife Wonders, p. 21.

Wilson Bentley took the first photomicrographs of a snowflake, thereby initiating extensive research on the snowflake. When he was 15 years old, his mother gave him a microscope as a gift. He began studying several things under the microscope, among them raindrops and snowflakes. Later on, he discovered how to photograph this delicate ice formation and presented it to the world. His enthusiasm for photographing snowflakes continued until his death 47 years later. Through his photomicro graph collection, we can see just what a complex and wonderful creation each snowflake is and why it has been the subject of such debate over the years.

The average snowflake is made up of 2 to 200 separate snow crystals; much larger ones can contain as many as 1,000 separate snow crystals. These snow crystals begin to form around tiny dust particles that have been carried up high into the atmosphere. When the temperature drops below freezing at these high altitudes, water vapor clings to these dust particles. Interestingly, the water vapor skips the liquid state and turns directly into ice, a process called sublimation. When the air contains enough moisture and the ice crystals accumulate, these crystal formations begin to fall as snow.

Scientists believe that there are only four different types (shapes) of these six-sided snowflakes; hexagonal plates, stellar stars, stellar and plate combinations, and spatial dendrites. Hexagonal plates are thin, solid, or partly snow crystals. This pattern is made up of a variety of ridges and hollows, as well as thick and thin ice. The stellar star pattern is the one many know as the symbol of a snowflake. It assumes this pattern because ice crystals tend to cling together in “cottony” clumps and have the corners of a star, unlike hexagonal plates.

The stellar and plate combination pattern is formed when plate and stellar star characteristics unite. The resulting flake is considered the most exquisite of all crystals. The plate pattern is in the middle, and the stellar star branches out from the plate. Finally, the dendrite, another stellar type, is identified by small crystals that branch out, fern-like, along each of its six “rays.”

It is believed that the shape of the snow crystals forming these snowflakes depends on the temperature of the cloud in which it is formed. Ice crystal columns are formed in the highest clouds, which have the lowest temperatures. Dendrites and star-shaped crystals are formed in the slightly warmer middle clouds, and needle ice crystals are formed in the lower clouds. These temperature variations cause each snowflake to assume a specific shape. Different sources give slightly different temperature ranges and different explanations of a snowflake’s developmental stages. This may be to the fact that scientists do not have exact knowledge of the conditions and formation of these delicate crystals, for they base their assumptions on laboratory experiments that seek to create the same weather conditions. It must be pointed out, however, that all snowflakes “created” in laboratories are always deformed and do not resemble the perfectly symmetrical flakes found in nature.

The first wonder I would like to describe is the snowflake’s construction. Nuclear physicists and crystallographers are still trying to explain this complex bridgework of molecules that form the ice crystals into a snowflake. A brief explanation behind the construction mystery is that an average hexagonal-shaped crystal may contain 100 millon more water molecules. The ice crystal grows by adding more and more molecules. Its growth proceeds in a way that is both perfectly horizontal and perpendicular, thus building a broader and thicker crystal. Amazingly, this process is always carried out within the same hexagonal symmetry.

An ice crystal’s framework is a marvelous example of solid geometry, for it always presents an ingenious grouping of molecular parts. Not only does the ice of a snow crystal grow perpendicularly by interlocking pyramids, but at the same time its horizontal ice particles extend themselves in overlapping hexagonal patterns.

But not all of a snowflake’s beauty can be seen with the naked eye. Each crystal contains an invisible masterpiece of construction resembling an ongoing pattern that becomes smaller and smaller. Such a development is produced by the ice crystals themselves, which bond to each other and thereby increase the snowflake’s size. Over a period of 15 minutes, and under the conditions necessary for sublimation, a snow crystal gradually assumes the shape of the first stage. This baby crystal is unbelievably tiny, from .008 to .009 of an inch in diameter.

The average initial crystal may appear as hexagonal plates, sector plates, various stellar forms, or as capped columns. This later shows evidence of a skeletal structure, surface design, and pattern that subtly determine the snowflake’s final pattern. Later, this plain star will begin to develop either crystal twigs or fern-like plumes. As the final ice structure becomes heavy, it begins its journey to the ground.

An additional wonder is that no two snowflakes are alike! Each snowflake has a unique combination of ice crystals, which creates a unique snowflake. No two identical snowflakes have been found.

Another mystery is why each snowflake has six sides. Johannes Kepler, a physicist and mathematician, has studied this for years. In his The Six-Cornered Snowflake, he mentions some very important and thought-provoking questions and explanations. He also states that there must be an agent for such perfection and calculation, some definite reason why a snowflake’s initial form invariably displays the shape of a six-cornered starlet. Why always six? If this were the result of chance, should not some of them at least have five or seven corners?

In his search for a logical reason for the six sides, he asserts that if you ask geometers on what plan honeycombs are built, they will respond “on a six-cornered plan.” Each cell is surrounded by six others, each of which ends in an obtuse angle, pointing downwards, formed on three planes. The architecture causes each cell to share six walls with six cells surrounding it in a row, and also three plane surfaces with three other cells from the contrary row. Each bee, as a result, has nine neighbors.

Kepler also observed that the insides of such fruits as pomegranates and peas are squeezed into six sides. Why? One reason, perhaps, is that a plane surface can be covered without gaps by only three shapes: a triangle, a square, and a hexagon. Of these, the hexagon is the roomiest, and so has the most storage space, for example, for the honey produced by bees. Therefore, bees instinctively build their hives in this shape rather than others. Why and how?

Kepler concludes that this original, well-thought-out pattern can only have been imprinted on it by a Creator: our Creator. He concludes that the cause of each snowflake’s hexagonal shape is the same cause that shapes plants and numerical constants. Nothing happens without a reason, but rather with a reason guided by a Supreme Reason.

The wonder of the snowflake is seen not only in its wealth of variety and form, which is perfectly constructed with complete beauty and perfection, but also in how these six-sided crystals are formed with perfect symmetry by various processes in the clouds.

As I mentioned earlier, such findings are merely realizations of a fact. The term realization is used because discoveries like these have been in existence since the beginning of time! They have always been around us and will continue to be. But now we can see some of these small miracles due to recent, rapid advances in technology. This displays to us more about the reality, existence, and attributes of the Creator. Yet even a tiny snowflake shows us, through sight and reasoning, the attributes of our Creator. Among these attributes are artistry in creation, finality in creation, countenance, and divine teaching and directing.(1)

Artistry in creation: “The whole of creation exhibits an overwhelming artistry of dazzling worth. Yet it is brought into being, as we see it, easily and in a very short time. Furthermore, creation is divided into countless families, genera and species and even smaller groups, and each of these exists in great abundance. Despite the variety and abundance, we see only orderliness and art and ease in creation. This shows the existence of one with an absolute power and knowledge, who is God.”

For example, each snowflake is literally a masterpiece of art, with a perfectly eye-appealing design. It is remarkable that such a masterpiece is created within minutes in the clouds, yet has perfect symmetry and a complex pattern. This is the first attribute of our Creator that we see when we look at a photo of a snowflake. Hence, our Creator is a master in artistry.

Finality in creation: “Nothing in the universe is for nothing, pointless. As ecology in particular shows, everything in creation, no matter how apparently insignificant has a very significant role in existence and serves a certain purpose…. There are many purposes for every thing, every activity, and every event in it. Since this requires a wise one who pursues certain purposes in creation, and since nothing in the world-except for man-has the consciousness to pursue those purposes, the wisdom and purposiveness in creation necessarily point to God.”

An example is the snowflake. The causes for it and its six sides, which point to certain reasons, are still being examined. If something cannot be explained at this point in time, all it means is that we have yet to understand its complexity.

Countenances: “[Uncountable] human beings have lived since man’s first appearance on the earth. Despite their common origin-a sperm and ovum, which are formed from the same sort of foods taken by the parents-and although they have all been composed of the same kind of structures or elements or organisms, every human being has an individual countenance distinguishing him or her from the others…. This obviously shows one with an absolutely free choice, and all-encompassing knowledge, and He is God.”

Just as each snowflake is different in pattern and type, no snowflake has been identified as identical with another, even though uncountable snowflakes fall each year. This truly points to a Creator with an unbelievable attribute of countenance.

Divine teaching and directing: “For man to direct himself in life and distinguish between what is good or bad for him needs a minimum of around fifteen years. However, many animals can do this very soon after they come into the world. A duckling, for example, can swim as soon as it hatches. Ants start to dig nests into the earth when they get out of their cocoons. It does not need a long time for bees and spiders to learn how to make their honeycombs and webs, respectively, while each are marvels of handiwork beyond the capacity of man…. How can you explain all these astounding facts otherwise than by attributing them to the teaching or directing of one who knows everything and has arranged the universe with all creatures in it in a way that enables every creature, big or small, to direct its life?”

The snowflake is an example of such directing. How can a snowflake, which is completely devoid of intelligence and consciousness, create itself in such an absolutely perfectly manner within a matter of minutes? Such events can only be the result of Divine teaching and directing.

In conclusion, I would like to highlight two points. First, such astonishing facts exist all around us. Yet in order to appreciate them, first we must observe our surrounding environment and consider its complexity, purpose, and perfection. Second, acknowledging that we have limited senses and that our technology continues to advance rapidly, I am excited about all of the other wonders in this world that might be revealed to us, for all of them will enable us to better understand and marvel at our Creator.

FOOTNOTES

1. The four following attributes are taken from Fethullah Giilen, Understanding and Belief: The Essentials of Islamic Faith (Kaynak, Turkey: Kaynak, 1997), 4-8.

REFERENCES

• Bell, Corydon. Wonder of Snow. New York: Hill and Wang, n.d.
• Blanchard, Duncan. The Snowflake Man. Weatherwise: 1970.
• Gulen, Fethullah. Understanding and Belief: The Essentials of Islamic Faith. Kaynak, Turkey: Kaynak, 1997.
• “How Do Snowflakes Form?” Lansing State Journal. October 8, 1997.
• Kepler, Johannes. The Six-Cornered Snowflake. Clarendon Press: 1966.

To chemically identify substances, scientists around the world are trying to develop artificial taste sensors that mimic the human tongue. Recently researchers at the University of Texas in Austin have developed an electronic sensor that has the potential to detect taste as well as to identify the chemicals of any substances.1 It has uses for food and beverage development as well as medical applications.

Besides the tongue, an electronic nose has also recently been developed to mimic the sense of smell, but it can only detect volatile molecules in the air. Since many chemicals of interest, such as those in food and beverages, are not easily transported into vapor phase, there needs to be a way of detecting a combination of them in solution, such as the electronic tongue.

A team of engineers and chemists in Austin has come up with a prototype of the artificial tongue which resembles the mammalian tongue in some ways. The surface of the human tongue contains cavities which hold chemical receptors known as taste buds. The artificial tongue consists of an array of tiny chemical sensors on a square-centimeter chip. The sensors are actually polymer microbeads placed inside micromachined wells on a silicon wafer which mimics real taste buds on a human tongue. Each bead responds to specific conditions (for example, high acidity or charged ions). A special camera records those colors, which the researchers can then monitor on a computer.

One obvious application of the electronic tongue is in the rapid testing of new foods and beverages; the results could be quickly compared with databases of known popular consumer tastes. When developed further, the electronic tongue should be able to analyze chemical processing streams, biological fluids and other complex mixtures without exposing human beings to possibly harmful substances such as antigens, toxins, and bacteria. For the tasting of ice cream, though, we will likely continue to use our own tongues.

FOOTNOTES

• J.J. Lavigne, S. Savoy, M.B. Clevenger, J.E. Ritchic, B. McDoniel, S.J. Yoo, E.V.
• Ansyln, J. T. McDevitt, J. B. Shear and D. Neikirk, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1998, 120, 6429-6430.
• See also R. Dagani, Chem. & Eng. News, June 29, 1998, 12.

Antarctica is the bottom of the world, the white continent, the harshest, most forbidding land on earth, where winds can reach 320 kph (200 mph) and temperatures can plunge below -85°C (-121° F). At the South Pole, the average temperature is -49° C (-56.2° F), while the highest recorded is -13.6°(7.5° F). The continent is the world’s largest stretch of inhospitable land. Precipitation is so sparse that it is classified as one of the world’s driest deserts. This ‘final frontier’ constitutes approximately 10% of the earth’s land surface; 98% of it is covered by ice, in places two miles thick. Antarctica accounts for 90% of the world’s ice and 68% of its fresh water. It is bigger than China and India combined, or Mexico and the US put together.

A closer look at the seemingly lifeless land and seascape reveals an amazing abundance of life. The continent is home to several species of seals, penguins and vegetation. The surrounding frigid seas are abundant in krill, protein rich shrimp-like crustaceans essential to the Antarctic ecosystem, which is one of the world’s most productive. Thirty-five species of penguins and other birds, six varieties of seals, twelve kinds of whale and nearly two hundred types of fish dwell there. The ice itself is permeated with algae and bacteria. The land is home to two species of flowering land plants, a grass and a pearlwort.

Antarctica contains traces of a wide variety of metals and hydrocarbons. Traces of cobalt, copper, chromium, gold, lead, molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silver, tin, titanium, uranium, as well as zinc, have been found in the continent. Geological surveys have postulated large quantities of oil and gas.

Hundreds of people live and work there all year round and no fewer than seventeen nations have established permanent bases to conduct scientific research. Each year, almost 5,000 registered tourists come to look at the peaks and penguins. A body called the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators has been established to regulate tourism. However, they have not been able to stop unregistered- visitors. An example was the German ship ‘Europe’ which landed more than 300 passengers on Deception Island and illegally visited a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) at Whaler’s Bay. Standards of safety and ecological care cannot be guaranteed. More alarming than the increased numbers of visitors to Antarctica is the more ‘commercial’ attitude they have towards it.

The National Science Foundation (NSF) is responsible for most American research in the area. The NSF pays the US navy for transporting personnel and supplies and other logistical support. Demands for cutbacks in the US navy have resulted in proposals for ‘contracting out’ these services to commercial companies the market place has reached the ‘final frontier’!

Exploitation and commercialism have influenced fishing patterns Paul Rodhouse of the British Antarctic Survey indicated that commercial exploitation has led to the doubling of the catch of squid during the ten years leading up to 1992. The squid industry is notorious for its ‘boom and bust’ trends in 1972 a Japanese fishery began operating in the North Atlantic near Newfoundland and within eleven years one species of squid, illex illecebrosus had been wiped out. The industry is now turning its attention to Antarctica.

The biggest threat is to the stocks of krill. The 4cm shrimp-like kill live for up to seven years and are the staple food source for five whale species, three groups of seal and innumerable fish and birds, including penguins. They are central to the Antarctic food chain. Too little is known about the krill’s lifestyle to guarantee survival against the increase in harvesting that has been maintained since the early 1970s. The countries that are involved in this abuse of Antarctica are those who are supposed to be protecting it.

The Western nations were the first to claim Antarctica as theirs. James Cook circled Antarctica between 1772 and 1775, becoming the first man to reach the mainland. Since Amundsen and Scott arrived at the Pole one after another in 1911, seven nations have claimed sectoral sovereignty over the Antarctic Peninsula based on either exploration or geographical contiguity, namely Argentine, Chile, France, New Zealand, Britain, Norway and Australia.

With the adoption of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, twelve countries began governing Antarctica. In addition to the seven claimant states, South Africa, Japan, USA and USSR became members of the exclusive Antarctic Club. Since the signing of the 1961 Antarctic Treaty, there have been twenty-six countries responsible for the management of the Antarctic Region and another sixteen party to it.

Internal bickering meant that an agreement to establish rules governing oil and mineral exploitation and development signed in Wellington, New Zealand in 1988 did not come into force. Through a protocol adopted in Madrid in 1991, the Antarctic Continent was declared ‘a natural reserve devoted to peace and science.’ Some nations have not been happy about this situation. The Malaysian Prime Minister, Dr Mahatir Bin Muhammad, said in 1982, that ‘all the unclaimed wealth of this earth must be regarded as the common heritage of all nations of this planet… It is now time that the United Nations focused its attention on these areas, the largest of which is the continent of Antarctica,’

This raised the interest of other Islamic countries. The Twentieth Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers meeting in Istanbul in August 1991, adopted a resolution reaffirming the need for all members of the international community, acting through the UN, to be involved in ‘all aspects relating to Antarctica’. In the same year, Indonesia asked a number of questions at the 1991 United Nations session as to the full participation of the international community in the management of Antarctica. The Pakistani delegate to the session, identifying his country’s growing interest and involvement in the region, referred to its expedition and establishment of an automatic weather station in January 1991. Pakistan became the first Muslim country to send an official expedition to Antarctica. Pakistan in 1992, established its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station.

There are obvious advantages for the Muslim countries. They have produced some of the top scientists in the field, including, Sayed El-Sayed of the A&M University, Texas, who is a respected marine ecologist studying the effects of ozone depletion on Antarctic life. In 1988, he discovered at Palmer Station, a US base on Antarctica, that high levels of ultraviolet damage the chlorophyll pigment vital for photosynthesis in phytoplankton, slowing the growth rate of marine plants as much as 30%.

The Islamic countries have significant commercial interest in Antarctica. In the long term, the Antarctic icebergs can solve the scarcity of fresh water. This is where the Antarctic icebergs, which amount to almost 70 per cent of the world’s drinkable water reserves, become an exploitable resource. There are predictions that in the 21st century, water will be the most precious natural resource. Current research shows that there is considerable economic interest in towing icebergs to the Gulf countries, Latin America and Northwestern Australia as a source of fresh water and energy (Crane, 1993).

Each year, 1.4 trillion tons of ice breaks off and melts into the Southern Ocean. If current difficulties can be overcome, icebergs will be enormous ‘mineable’ resources, even more valuable than the Antarctic’s huge amount of oil reserves. For example, an iceberg weighing 90 million tons would be worth almost $45 million. There are many reasons for the vegetation-poor Arab countries to be concerned with the Southern Oceans teeming with living resources. Krill stocks might be an important resource to help prevent widespread malnutrition in the poor Middle East and North African countries whose populations lack a protein-rich diet.

There are many issues related to Antarctica that the Islamic countries need to address. Should they continue to be left out while other nations exploit the last wilderness? Should they unite and pool their human and financial resources to seek advantages from Antarctica or should they be its guardians. The debate must begin.

REFERENCES

CRANE, D. (1993) ‘Below the tip of an iceberg’, Geographical, December, pp.14-17.

Many have pondered over God’s description of rain. He said:

He sendeth down from the heavens mountains wherein is hail (al-Nur, 24.43)

Traditional commentators have discussed the meanings of ‘mountains in the sky’. Literally the verse says: ‘are sent from the skies from mountains of (from) cold’. The construction is passive. The word min appears three times. The first indicates the general origin of the rain in from the skies, the second specifies the Origin further in from mountains and the third describes of what the mountains consist, what they contain or are characterised by, namely, cold This led the early generations, among them the Prophet’s cousin, Ibn ‘Abbas, to conclude that ‘there are mountains in the skies just as there are on the earth’. ‘Mountains’ can be used figuratively to mean ‘a great quantity’, as when we say that so- and-so has ‘mountains of gold’, meaning ‘he has a lot of gold’.

The language of the Qur’an is so rich that the verse could also mean that ‘mountains of cold’ descend from the skies. Anyone who has been caught in a heavy winter hailstorm will readily understand the image. Most English translators render baradin as hail. This is no doubt correct but something of the quality of the image is diminished. However, striking and powerful though the language and imagery are, we shall not be concerned with them here. Rather, we shall concentrate our attention on the scientific implications of the words used in the verse.

Hail is ‘frozen rain’ or ‘stones of frozen water’ and can be aptly described as ‘mountains’ descending from heaven or ‘comets of ice’.

Several scientists have researched the hypothesis that the source of all the oceans is storms of icy comets that enter the earth’s atmosphere at a rate of 20 per minute. These comets, which are believed to contain about 100 tons of water each, vaporize on impact with the atmosphere and fall as rain or snow.

The roots of this hypothesis are found in data received by the Dynamics Explorer 1 (DE1), a high-altitude, polar- orbiting satellite. The DE1 had been conducting the first global exploratory imaging mission of the earth. Professor Frank of Iowa University was interested in receiving the first global maps of the earth’s aurora. From a vantage point on the satellite, which orbits as far as 14,500 miles from earth, a photometer designed and operated by his team, measured the ultraviolet emissions from atomic oxygen in the atmosphere.

The bright or visible half of the earth, illuminated by the sun, is known as the ‘dayglow’. The dayglow is caused by sunlight being absorbed and re-radiated by oxygen at 180 miles above the earth’s surface. Scientists use the dayglow to learn about the structure of the atmosphere at high altitude. The dayglow images Frank received contained some unexpected features. He noticed the sky was speckled with dark spots or atmospheric holes. Frank and his partners witnessed about 30,000 such spots or holes during their 2,000 hours of observation. They scrutinized the measurements for faulty instrumentation, possible computer glitches, statistical flaws, telemetry interference, failing sensors and paint flecks on the imager. After eliminating the possibility of spurious effects, the scientists published their results on the atmospheric holes (Frank et al, 1986, pp.307-10). The images revealed that the spots were about 30 miles wide and lasted up to three minutes. So what were they? How did they appear?

Frank concluded they were being caused by water vapour in the outer fringes of the atmosphere. He calculated that it would need a 30-ft ball of loosely packed water and ice breaking up and vaporizing about 1,000 to 2,000 miles away from the earth to produce a cloud of water vapour the size of the dark spots on his satellite images.

He suggested that the holes in the dayglow were formed by small, comet-like objects entering the earth’s atmosphere. Sixty miles from the earth’s surface, the cloud of water vapour continues to plummet until it reaches a height of about 35 miles, where it gets mixed up with the air in the upper atmosphere. Winds circulating into the stratosphere turn the water vapour into ice crystals, which then fall and become part of the lower altitude’s water vapour, eventually turning into precipitation and ending up in the sea. At the observed rate of 20 per minute, this is calculated to result in an increase of the equivalent of one inch of water all over the earth’s surface every 10,000 years.

Erikson (1987. p.20) suggested the barrage of icy comets began around 4.2 billion years ago, and that they were at their most intense during the 300 million years that followed. Dr Clayne Yeates, deputy project scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, said that the comets of ice or snowballs continue to move at 10 km per second relative to the earth. At about 1,000 km above the earth they break up into hail due to tidal waves and then turn to vapour in the atmosphere. Finally, the vapour falls as rain and joins the earth’s water cycle.

Clayne Yeates (Huyghe, 1988, pp.8-11) began a direct telescopic search for these small comets using the 36-inch Spacewatch Telescope at Kitt Peak, Arizona – one of the few telescopes in the world sufficiently sensitive to detect these small comets directly. As these objects are too fast and too dark to be picked up on a photographic plate they needed to use a charged coupled detector (CCD) that counts individual photons of light and is 100 times more sensitive than a photographic plate. The Spacewatch Telescope is just such an instrument. The objects are indeed there. Telltale streaks appeared on the telescope’s images at the rate of more than one a minute, just as Frank had predicted.

Frank certainly did not set out to interpret the Qur’anic verse quoted above, nor does the imagery of the verse need any strengthening to be effective. Yet, may we not say that, with every new observation of God’s universe, we are enabled to see new shades of meanings in His words.