Then it happened. A driver behind him surged forward, flashing headlights and shouting from a rolled down window. Something inside John, something he didn’t recognize as fully himself, rose like a flash-flood. He stepped out of the car. Words flew, harsh and hot. A minor shove. A misstep. A fall.

And suddenly someone was hurt. The police came. The reports were written. And John, sitting alone in a small, echoing cell, realized that sometimes a life doesn’t crumble in a long, slow descent—it collapses in thirty seconds of unguarded anger.

It wasn’t planned. It wasn’t wanted. It simply…happened. Like an anaphylactic reaction, sudden, overwhelming, and profoundly destructive.

Medicine offers a remarkable parallel. Some of the body’s most violent reactions appear to erupt without warning, yet they are often the culmination of processes that have been unfolding quietly for years.

Johanna had no reason to fear a peaceful Sunday picnic, until a single bite of a cookie made with a trace of hazelnut awakened an old immune memory buried deep within her body. Within minutes her lips tingled, her skin flushed, and her throat tightened as her immune system, mistaking the harmless nut for a mortal enemy, unleashed a tidal wave of histamine that constricted her airway and dropped her blood pressure. Panic blurred the moment, but a friend quickly injected epinephrine, the medicine racing through her bloodstream like a calming command that opened her airways and steadied her pulse. The episode seemed instantaneous, but in truth the reaction was years in the making. Before that picnic, Johanna’s immune system had already encountered the allergen, misidentified it as dangerous, and stored that mistake in its memory. The cookie did not cause the reaction out of nowhere. It merely awakened a response that had been waiting silently beneath the surface.

In medicine, anaphylaxis is the body’s form of a lightning strike; a rapid, life-threatening allergic reaction. It is a serious, potentially fatal medical emergency that is rapid in onset and requires immediate medical attention regardless of the availability of on-site treatments while not under medical care.

Within minutes, a simple trigger like a peanut, a bee sting, or even a medication can send the immune system into chaos. The body panics. The airways narrow. Blood pressure collapses. The entire system reacts disproportionately to a threat that, under normal circumstances, would be harmless, like Johanna above gasping for breath after eating a cookie, or a hiker stung by a bee feeling her throat close, or a patient given an antibiotic erupting in hives, dizzy, and pale.

When a severe allergic reaction occurs, every second matters. The first and most important treatment is epinephrine, a medication usually injected into the thigh. It acts quickly, interrupting the body’s dangerous overreaction before it becomes fatal. The airways relax, blood pressure rises, and circulation begins to stabilize. Additional doses or intravenous fluids may sometimes be required, but the principle remains the same: the faster the reaction is interrupted, the greater the chance of recovery. Doctors may also administer intravenous fluids to support blood flow, while the patient is laid flat with the legs slightly elevated to help restore circulation to the heart and brain.  

Other medications, such as antihistamines and steroids, may help relieve symptoms, but they are not substitutes for epinephrine. Individuals who have previously experienced anaphylaxis are strongly advised to carry an epinephrine auto-injector (commonly known as an EpiPen) and wear medical identification. Even when symptoms improve after treatment, emergency medical evaluation remains essential, as the reaction can recur unexpectedly.  

Fortunately, anaphylaxis is relatively rare. Although estimates vary, it affects only a small percentage of the population, and with prompt recognition and treatment, survival rates are exceptionally high. It tends to occur more in young people and in women. Nearly everyone who receives timely hospital care recovers.  

What actually causes anaphylaxis?

Before someone ever has an anaphylactic reaction, their immune system must first “learn” to recognize an allergen (such as peanuts, bee venom, or certain medications). During this first exposure, sensitization (immune memory formation) takes place, and the immune system mistakenly identifies the allergen as a threat. Then, it produces IgE antibodies that attach to mast cells and basophils. These IgE-coated cells “wait” for the next exposure.

Anaphylaxis happens during the next exposure (which might be years later). When exposed, the allergen binds to the IgE antibodies and mast cells release massive amounts of histamine and other mediators. This causes anaphylaxis in the form of hives, swelling, low blood pressure, airway tightening, etc.

Anaphylaxis symptoms usually occur within minutes of exposure to an allergen. Sometimes, however, anaphylaxis can occur a half-hour or longer after exposure. In rare cases, anaphylaxis may be delayed for hours. Signs and symptoms include:

• Skin reactions, including hives and itching and flushed or pale skin

• Low blood pressure (hypotension)

• Constriction of the airways and a swollen tongue or throat, which can cause wheezing and trouble breathing

• A weak and rapid pulse

• Nausea, vomiting or diarrhea

• Dizziness or fainting

Genetics can predispose someone to allergies (e.g., family history of atopy), but anaphylaxis itself is not genetically predetermined. It still requires exposure, sensitization and IgE antibody production.

Lessons from anaphylaxis

Just as the immune system can overreact to a small trigger, the heart can overreact to a small frustration. Anger can arrive suddenly without invitation, without calculation. A word misunderstood, a gesture interpreted as disrespect or a horn honked impatiently.

And instantly, the soul releases its own internal “mediators” such as adrenaline, cortisol, and tunnel vision. Then, judgment collapses, empathy becomes constricted, and perspective disappears.

What anaphylaxis is to the body, anger is to the spirit. Both are reactions far greater than the triggers that provoke them. Anger may appear to erupt in an instant, but like anaphylaxis, it is built slowly. Years of unprocessed stress, patterns of reaction learned in childhood, ego sensitivities left unexamined, and emotional habits repeated until they become automatic all lie beneath the surface. A single insult may ignite the explosion, but the invisible fuel has been accumulating quietly for years. Just as immune memory primes the body for anaphylaxis, emotional memory primes the mind for anger.

Even prophets teach us that anger is human, but mastery of anger is divine guidance.

Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) understood the physiology of emotion long before modern neuroscience. He taught: “When one of you becomes angry while standing, let him sit. If the anger does not leave him, let him lie down” (Sunan Abu Dawud 4782). And in another teaching, he advised ablution (wudu), saying anger is “from fire” and water extinguishes it. These are not merely symbolic instructions—they are antidotes. Sitting eases the body’s tension, lying down disarms the fight-or-flight response, and washing with water cools the face, slows the heartbeat, and interrupts the physiological surge of anger before it gains control.   

These are emotional epinephrine, quick, simple, and deeply effective. They not only calm the immediate reaction, but they also slowly re-educate the emotional-memory system, changing the default response. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was teaching the spiritual equivalent of resetting immune memory, reducing oversensitivity and interrupting automatic reactions.

In the Battle of Uhud, when the archers disobeyed the Prophet’s explicit command and abandoned their posts, the consequences were severe. The Muslim army suffered painful losses. Yet the Prophet (peace be upon him) did not publicly shame those responsible, did not single them out by name, and did not allow anger to fracture the unity of the community. Even his Companions refrained from identifying them.

His calmness repaired what disobedience had damaged. His mercy became more memorable than the mistake itself. His positive approach was confirmed in the Qur’an: “So by mercy from God, [O Muhammad], you were lenient with them. And if you had been rude [in speech] and harsh in heart, they would have disbanded from about you. So, pardon them and ask forgiveness for them and consult them in the matter. And when you have decided, then rely upon God. Indeed, God loves those who rely [upon Him]” (Al Imran 3:159).

Jesus (peace be upon him) reminds us that spiritual maturity is not the absence of passion but the discipline of response: “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called children of God.”—Matthew 5:9.

James is quoted in the New Testament as follows: “Be slow to anger, for human anger does not produce the righteousness of God.”—James 1:19–20.

Moses (peace be upon him) struggled with a fiery temperament. When he struck the Egyptian man, he regretted it deeply (Qur’an 28:15–16). When he saw his people worshipping the calf, he reacted strongly—but afterward prayed for them (Qur’an 7:150).

Fethullah Gülen reminds us to shape our hearts into sanctuaries, each with a humble chair reserved for every soul God sends our way. He uses the metaphor of the heart as a sanctuary to call for emotional restraint and moral readiness in the face of others. By reserving a “humble chair” for every person we encounter, Gülen emphasizes unconditional hospitality rather than judgment or dominance. This image challenges the reflexive nature of anger, encouraging a pause between stimulus and response. In this way, it suggests that compassion can regulate emotional reactions much like balance in the immune system prevents anaphylactic overreaction.

Just as the immune system can be trained away from overreaction, the soul can be trained away from explosive anger. Both require memory to be re-written, habits to be relearned, and the inner terrain to be cultivated patiently.

To prevent anaphylaxis, we avoid triggers, strengthen resilience, and carry epinephrine. Similarly, we can prevent destructive anger, if we can cultivate the following in our spiritual journey:

With mindfulness, we can notice irritation before it grows. With self-awareness, we can know the history behind reactions. Practicing patience through remembrance (dhikr), meditation, and stillness can strengthen our resilience. Reducing chronic stressors can help us build healthy boundaries. Having generous, merciful assumptions about others reduces anger.

There is a Turkish proverb that “Sharp vinegar harms its own container.” Anger is vinegar. Before it burns others, it corrodes the heart that holds it.

Anaphylaxis teaches us how the body collapses when overwhelmed. Anger teaches us how relationships, reputations, and inner peace can collapse in a fleeting moment of emotional shock.

Let us learn to love people, to be gentle with their faults, and to show mercy, not because they are perfect, but because mercy is the epinephrine of the soul.

References

1. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anaphylaxis/symptoms-causes/syc-20351468.

2. Shaker MC, et al. Anaphylaxis — A 2020 practice parameter update, systematic review, and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) analysis. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2020; doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2020.01.017.

3. Cardona V, Ansotegui IJ, Ebisawa M, El-Gamal Y, Fernandez Rivas M, Fineman S, Geller M, Gonzalez-Estrada A, Greenberger PA, Sanchez Borges M, Senna G, Sheikh A, Tanno LK, Thong BY, Turner PJ, Worm M. World allergy organization anaphylaxis guidance 2020. World Allergy Organ J. 2020 Oct 30;13(10):100472. doi: 10.1016/j.waojou.2020.100472. PMID: 33204386; PMCID: PMC7607509.

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphylaxis

De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem (On the Structure of the Human Body in Seven Books) by Andreas Vesalius is a collection of books on human anatomy published in Europe during the Renaissance. It can be considered as the most famous book of its kind with quality anatomical pictures and accurate depictions for that time. Hundreds of studies have been conducted on human anatomy since the first edition of this famous book was published in 1543. New atlases of anatomy have been published as more organs are described and depicted in illustrations. Today, modern anatomy books, including Sobotta Atlas of Human Anatomy in particular, are decorated with perfect illustrations, drawings, and descriptions demonstrating that human body is a source of infinite miracles. The science of anatomy has paved the way for many to feel awe in this magnificent creation of God. This was true even during the science’s infancy when it was dealing with organs at a macro level in terms of proportionality, balance, and perfect fitness to their functions. As the science moves deeper into the micro levels, the magnificence of divine art and embroidery increases and helps people attain more profound faith.

Even when people suggest that it is no longer possible to discover a new organ or tissue, new developments in the field are announced, bringing novel purposes into the spotlight. An article published in the journal Science on January 5, 2023, refers to a new “protective shield” discovered by scientists in addition to the existing ones. This shield is like a watchtower, so to speak, for the cells of the immune system.

According to the article, this novel anatomic structure acts as a barrier and serves as a platform for cells of the immune system so that they can watch over and monitor the brain. The study conducted on mouse and human brains found that this protective shield facilitates the cleaning of waste resulting from brain activities and functions as a “sentry tower” for immune system cells that look for signs of infection.

The brain is wrapped by a cerebrospinal fluid that acts as a protective cushion. The ependymal cells that line the four interconnected ventricles in the brain are given the task of producing up to 500 ml of cerebrospinal fluid on a daily basis. The fluid in these ventricles is made to circulate around the brain and the spinal cord so that it can protect the brain from mechanic concussions and clears away waste. This fluid is eventually sucked by capillaries into the blood’s circulation.

This system of removing waste products coming from the cerebrospinal fluid is called the glymphatic system. Studies suggest that this process occurs mostly during sleep. A 2013 article indicated that in mice, the gaps between the cells in the brain expand by 60 percent during sleep, allowing faster removal of amyloid beta (plaques found in Alzheimer’s disease) by the glymphatic system compared to when the mice were awake. One of the reasons for the great importance of sleep is that it helps to clear away this neurotoxic waste via the glymphatic system [1].

The novel discovery reported in the above-mentioned study is that a thin tissue having a thickness of only a number of cells was observed to divide horizontally into two the subarachnoid space of the middle one of three membranes surrounding the brain (namely, the dura mater (thick membrane); arachnoid mater (the membrane resembling a spider web); and the pia mater (delicate membrane)). This space between several different tissue layers located between the inner surface of the skull and the outer surface of the brain is actually not empty, but contains the cerebrospinal fluid, large blood vessels, and a spider web-like connective tissue [2].

This fluid surrounding the brain acts as a shock absorber just like a cushioning inside a bike helmet. This fluid does not stay in the subarachnoid space but circulates through the tubing and cavities inside and around the brain, filtering the waste products and bringing them to the blood’s circulation. The authors of the above-mentioned study believe that the newly discovered “shield” may assist the cerebrospinal fluid in controlling this cleaning function.

Dr. Maiken Nedergaard, one of the authors of the study, notes that the newly discovered anatomic structure that helps to regulate the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid inside and around the brain not only assists the cerebrospinal fluid at flushing away the waste but also plays a very important and strategic role in the protection of the brain by the immune system.

This shield, referred to as the subarachnoid lymphatic-like membrane by the authors, separates the space beneath the arachnoid mater into two compartments, one closer to the skull and the other closer to the brain. The experiments on mice showed that the pia mater prevents most proteins from migrating between compartments, allowing only extremely tiny molecules to pass. In addition, tissue samples taken from adult human brains provided evidence of this new tissue.

The studies on the newly discovered membrane-like tissue layer demonstrated the link between the dirty cerebrospinal fluid containing waste products and the amyloid plaques found in Alzheimer’s disease, showing that the cerebrospinal fluid can help to segregate and flush them. However, more extensive studies should be conducted into the functioning of this protective shield in a healthy brain as well as brain defects caused by its dysfunction.

Researchers revealed that numerous and various immune system cells may be embedded into this shield and the number of these cells increased in mice in response to inflammation and advanced aging. This finding supports the view that this tissue serves as an “immunologic observatory” where immune system cells monitor the cerebrospinal fluid for signs of infection and inflammation and call for additional firepower when needed.

The cells of the capillaries that nourish the brain form a boundary called the “blood-brain barrier,” preventing large molecules from entering the sterile inner area of the brain and allowing certain special proteins to carry food and molecules required for the vitality of neurons. If the newly discovered shield is destroyed, the immune system cells coming from the skull’s spongy bone marrow can occupy the brain surface which they cannot normally reach. This explains why traumatic brain injuries usually lead to extended inflammation of the brain and disturbs the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid, but these hypotheses need to be tested.

In addition, there is increasing support to the theory that traumatic injuries to this newly discovered protective shield are linked to increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.

Most of our brain cells are not neurons

The surface of the human brain has a folded structure due to deep crevices called sulci and smaller ridges called gyri. There are approximately 100 billion brain nerve cells (neurons) in this thick layer called the cerebral cortex. This folded surface creates larger space and more processing power inside the limited skull cavity.

The widely-held belief that we can use only 10 percent of our brain power is not correct. Yet, it has recently been demonstrated that neurons constitute only 10 percent of all brain cells. The remaining 90 percent are called glia, meaning “adhesive” in Greek, and these glial cells correspond to approximately half of the brain’s weight. They are not only adhesive cells that keep neurons together but also have important functions such as cleaning excessive neurotransmitters, fortifying the immune system, and ensuring the growth and functioning of synapses.

The more excellent or splendid a work of art, the higher care or diligence is needed to protect it. Indeed, a sculptor will not allow his work to be subjected to rain, wind, or storm after working on it for months. Rather, he or she will secure it with supports from all sides and ensure that it stands on a sound platform and is fastened with ropes, and he or she will drape protective covers and sponges on it. Likewise, the Creator of our body ensures that our brain, the most excellent living organ ever created, is covered with three layers with different characteristics for protection, and a cushioning layer consisting of a special fluid is placed under each cover. It is further placed inside a protective case made of bone and its surface fashioned with a skin. There are still unknown aspects or characteristics of the human body and spirit. Apparently, we will continue to be surprised with new discoveries in coming years.

Footnotes

1. L. Xie et al. “Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain”, Science, Oct. 2018; 342 (6156). 2013, s. 373–373.
2. M. Nedergaard et al. “A mesothelium divides the subarachnoid space into functional compartments”, Vol 379, Issue 6627, 2023, s. 84–88.

No craftsman leaves work he has built unprotected and open to destruction. Sometimes protection mechanisms are more complex than the work itself. Our body, too, has not been created without protection. New scientific discoveries reveal some of the protection measures preventing the body’s thousands of systems, each a marvelous work of art, from being destroyed by a virus or bacteria.

When we are healthy, we tend to ignore how this mechanism ensures all of the mind-stopping biological events continue to function in our body. But at all times, there is a very perfect army protecting our body.

This perfect army, known as the immune system, has unfathomable combat tactics against both the mutated and cancerous “anarchist” cells within itself and the viruses, bacteria, and fungi that may come from outside. As science develops, almost every day a new secret about this system is revealed in immunology labs. One of these is a glazed group of cells emerging in the mother’s womb. This immune system cell, called the “B-1 cell,” was identified as in women’s wombs during a study to map the cells in the human body and classify cell groups. However, it was not easily understood. In fact, while B cells are known as a general group, these mysterious cells of a different character were first discovered in mice in the 1980s [1].

These cells, which appear in the womb in the early stages of the development of mice, produce various antibodies when they are stimulated and activated. While some of these antibodies normally attach to microbes and render them harmless, they also attach to the mouse’s own cells and help expel dying or dying cells from the body. If the defective cells, which are now old and exhausted, are not eliminated from the body, the areas where they are located become garbage, and inflammations that we can call “putrefaction” appear. B-1 cells, then, produce as the first line of defense antibodies against pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria.

After the discovery of B-1 cells in mice, a research group in 2011 reported that they had also found equivalent cells in humans, but these results have not yet been accepted as conclusive evidence. B1 cells are different in many ways from the B cells we have long known. Their most obvious feature is that they play a role in the production of immunoglobulins, which are vital in protecting against disease agents. B1 cells are strategically important in fighting autoimmune and malignant diseases, but the number of B1 cells decreases with age, which makes the elderly more prone to disease. Since the nature and behavioral patterns of B1 cells during health and disease are not yet well understood, discussions about these cells continue [2].

The development of the immune system is a process that is seen with the development of all other systems and organs of the embryo. This takes place in a controlled manner at any time, taking into account new conditions and the possibility that tissues, which develop in a protected and sterile environment (such as the uterus) and differentiate every day, will encounter an abnormal situation, like an alien microbe.

In a sense, the embryo that has embarked on the journey of life is facing elements that can cause thousands of diseases until and after birth. However, it is maintained by a structure that emerges in the whole body, gradually showing the network landscape. In other words, as the embryo develops, each new cell group and tissue is memorized by being marked and encoded by the cells of the immune system for easy future identification. This is how our organs, such as the kidney, pancreas, heart, and our whole body can decode and separate the microbes without making mistakes at the time of infection. What happens if a mistake is made? Autoimmune diseases can develop. During this “misprogramming,” the system that’s supposed to protect the body can instead destroy it.

There is strong evidence that B1 cells are created in the first and second trimesters of human development. Dr. Nicole Baumgarth, a professor at the UC Davis Center for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, said that B-1 cells can play critical roles in early development, and by studying them further, scientists can better understand healthy immune systems in humans.

The human immune system is developed in various parts of the embryo throughout pregnancy. Immune cells begin to be produced from special cells on the vitellus (yolk) sac, which are initially membranes surrounding the embryo from the outside, and then in the liver and bone marrow, the mesodermal that will form the kidneys, sex organs, and dorsal aorta without moving on to the tissues that produce the actual blood cells. It continues to be created from stem cells in the region. The immune cells produced from these basic blood-forming sites are then sent in the form of seeds to developing lymphoid organs and other organs. These studies show that the entire immune system in the embryo develops after being restructured as a distributed network between tissues, specifically focusing on one or several organs.

To make a detailed schematic of the immune system, cells of at least six organs were extracted between the 4th and 17th week of pregnancy using the yolk sac, prenatal spleen, and skin-separated cells, and the distribution of early blood-forming tissue and cell amounts in the lymphoid organs, which are critical for B and T cell development. It has been determined in which period and in which organ about 900,000 cells belonging to more than 100 cell types are grown and encoded and sent to the appropriate places. Finally, the characteristics of the B and T cells created before birth in humans were defined, and the functional confirmation of the unknown antibody secretion of human B1 cells was made.

 These studies can be considered as the first step in what can be done to repair the genome of defective organs by reading them before their formation and to take precautions against congenital immune system disruptions with new technologies that we can call “cell engineering” [3].

Notes

1. N. Baumgarth, “A Hard(y) look at B-1 cell development and function”, Journal of Immunology, Nov 15, 2017, 199 (10): 3387–3394.
2. D. O. Griffin, “Human B1 cells in umbilical cord and adult peripheral blood express the novel phenotype CD20CD27CD43CD70”, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Apr. 11, 2011, 208(4): 871.
3. C. Suo ve ark. “Mapping the developing human immune system across organs”, Science, 2022, 376/6597.

We learn from the history of religions that Prophets performed miracles, by God’s permission, to convince their people into faith. By God’s leave, Abraham was not hurt when he was thrown into the fire; the sea divided by God’s leave so Moses could lead his people across it; Jesus revived the dead by God’s leave; and Muhammad healed many by God’s leave, peace be upon them all.

These miracles, according to Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, set the zenith humanity should strive to reach through the sciences [1]. For example, the miracles of Jesus (peace be upon him) raising the dead and making the blind see can be considered the ultimate goals of medicine. As gleaned from these examples, it is as if God is encouraging humankind to achieve extraordinary accomplishments by showing these wonderful miracles through His Messengers.

The greatest miracle of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is the Qur’an, but with the permission of God, like other Prophets, he also presented other miracles when necessary. On more than one occasion, as reported in hadith collections, he used his saliva to heal people. For example, Ali, his son-in-law, had sore eyes due to a severe illness, and he was cured the minute the Messenger of God applied his saliva to his eyes [2]. In another example, he “replanted” the hand of Muawwiz ibn Afra, which was severed during the Battle of Badr, by applying his blessed saliva [3]. Of course, we do not claim that today we can apply saliva and re-connect a severed limb, but we do say that saliva should be studied to see if it can be of any benefit for healing purposes. Some recent scientific research shows that it can be beneficial.

The potency of saliva

Numerous studies have been published on saliva, mainly in relation to oral health protection. Several significant enzymes found in saliva, such as amylase, lysozyme, and lipase, are known to initiate digestion in the mouth. Saliva is also rich in antimicrobial compounds such as hydrogen peroxide, lactoferrin, and lysozymes that are crucial in the defense against microbes. It is also thanks to our saliva that we can taste, chew, and swallow food.

Saliva has been revealed to have protective and healing properties against disease-causing microbes, especially when combined with the non-harmful and beneficial flora in the oral cavity. A study by Professor Mary Ann Jabra-Rizk and her colleagues from the University of Maryland reported that human saliva contains numerous antimicrobial compounds and has wound-healing properties. The histatins group, one of the several antimicrobials found in saliva, are a type of protein and exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against a wide variety of microorganisms in the mouth. In particular, histatin-5 has strong activity against the fungus Candida albicans.

According to a study published in 2018 by researchers from Boston University School of Medicine, saliva protects the intestine from infection by altering the mechanisms by which diarrhea-causing Escherichia coli bacteria bind to the small intestine. Thanks to this first “line of defense” in the mouth, E. coli bacteria transmitted from external sources is reduced to a harmless amount. E. coli can enter our body in bigger amounts and cause intestinal infection when, for instance, hands are not washed well after excretion.

The lysozyme enzymes in saliva also damage the cell walls of bacteria and prevent their proliferation, allowing beneficial flora to take hold in the mouth and making it difficult for bacteria such as Streptococcus and Porphyromonas.

Antimicrobial peptides in saliva play a vital role in innate immunity. These positively charged proteins easily bind to the negatively charged membranes of microbes, poke holes in them, and kill them by allowing their cellular fluids to flow out. Some of these antimicrobial proteins (defensins, cathelicidins, and histatins) have broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties and are produced both by neutrophils in the blood and by salivary glands and are involved in wound-healing, stimulating the immune system, and the formation of new blood vessels. This feature of the saliva can be related to the fastening of severed organs and their immediate healing, thus to the miracle of the Prophet.

Traumatic or accidental injuries, like when caused by biting the tongue and cheeks due to misshapen teeth, often heal much faster than skin injuries. This healing capacity of the oral cavity is mainly attributed to the wound healing properties of saliva and its cell growth factors. The main growth factors found in saliva with reported wound-healing properties include epidermal growth, vascular endothelial growth, transforming growth factor alpha, transforming growth factor beta, and nerve growth factors. The healing of mouth sores is also related to additional factors that promote the growth of fibroblasts, prevent the degradation of essential proteins, and increase cell migration into the oral cavity. Histatins strengthen the regeneration process of epithelial tissue and promote the adhesion of cells in the inner lining of blood vessels (endothelium).

Over 100 molecules detected in saliva samples are being evaluated as markers for potential diagnostics and preliminary information, including dental caries, gum disease, cancer, diabetes, and several other systemic disorders. Saliva is an impressively reliable source of material for measuring doses of metabolic compounds, microorganisms, cancer markers, and drugs, and for diagnosing some diseases [4].

Saliva as a painkiller

The zinc-containing ectopeptidase enzymes found in mammals function specifically in the transmission of sensory signals. These enzymes play significant roles in shutting down and stopping pain signals that come through nerves or hormones at the cell surface. The enzyme opiorphin, a quintuple peptide molecule discovered in human saliva, shows strong pain-relieving activity in chemical and mechanical pain. To measure the pain-suppressing power of opiorphin, acute mechanical pain was induced in rats, and the test showed that it was as effective as morphine. This substance in saliva has been shown to have the potential to stop pain, especially pain associated with mood-related conditions [5].

When Catherine Rougeot and her colleagues at the Pasteur Institute in Paris “injected a pain-inducing chemical into rats’ paws, 1 milligram of opiorphin per kilogram of body weight achieved the same painkilling effect as 3 milligrams of morphine.” This substance was also found to be six times more effective than morphine at blocking pain in a test in which rats were made to stand on upended pins. The substance was so successful at blocking pain that, in a test involving a platform of upended pins, the rats needed six times as much morphine as opiorphin to render them oblivious to the pain of standing on the needle points. Opiorphin heralds the possibility of a new generation of painkillers that relieve pain “without the addictive and psychological side effects of the traditional drug” [6, 7].

Anti-depressive effect

According to researcher Catherine Rougeot, the painkiller’s effect is similar to that of morphine, but since it is not a pure painkiller, its side effects need to be studied. It is also possible that it could be an anti-depressant. Rougeot and his colleagues discovered that the painkiller works in the nerve cells of the spine. Rougeot says that opiorphin is a simple molecule and that it may be possible to produce it in large quantities without having to synthesize it and isolate it from saliva, adding that it may also be possible to find drugs that trigger patients to produce more of this molecule in their own bodies.

Pulmonary fluid mixed with saliva

Another research claimed that special proteins found in pulmonary fluid could be used to develop new methods for diagnosing and treating cancer. According to this study, special proteins found in fluid from the lungs could serve as a rich source of biomarkers for tumor diagnosis. It’s possible that if a cancer tumor develops, it will release its own molecules into its surroundings.

Our body’s immune system is endowed with the ability to distinguish between what belongs to us and what does not. This mechanism can be called the HLA system (Human Leucocyte Antigen) or “tissue compatibility certification,” which can ask for identification, recognize, and fight against foreign substances. It’s like the officials who check passports at the borders. If this system fails to recognize foreign substances (viruses, bacteria, etc.) entering the body and mistakes them for its own, it cannot fight them. The tissue type differs from a person’s blood type. HLA genes recognize foreign proteins that attach to our cells and signal our body’s defense cells to attack them.

Scientists from the Israel Institute of Technology and Sheba Medical Center discovered that HLA molecules are present in pulmonary fluid and devised a method to separate the molecules from the fluid. They studied liters of fluid taken from patients’ lungs and showed that the HLA proteins in this fluid actually “store” adequate information to detect types of lung cancer [8].

At a later stage, Dr. Michael Peled from the study team suggested that cancer could be diagnosed using proteins in the pulmonary fluid and eventually a cancer-fighting vaccine could be produced. Since these molecules are made with a rich army of antigens originating from cancer cells and their environment, an important step has been taken for early detection and to fight cancer.

If these antigens are used to stimulate the immune system by studying the fluid that mixes with saliva from the lungs of cancer patients, they can be used to attack the tumor and pave the way for immunotherapy. This is because our immune system is already prepared for this battle, but if the immune system becomes inactive and dysfunctional due to various factors, cancer cells are activated. This new method has the potential to reactivate idle or dysfunctional immune cells [9].

In the light of all these, it is worth considering the miracles of Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, when he healed people by God’s leave. In another example with his blessed saliva, the Prophet also practiced “tahnik,” which he did when a newborn was brought to him: he would chew a date and then rub it on the baby’s palate, in the way mothers at times soften small morsels in their mouths before feeding them to their offspring. The fact that birds feed their young with half-digested food from their mouths and that injured animals lick their wounds and apply saliva to them may also shed light on other beneficial aspects of saliva in the future.

Saliva functions and components

1. Antifungal / Histatin 5; ß-Defensins; Cathelicidins
2. Wound healing / Growth factors; Histatins; Secretory leukycte protease inhibitor; Trefoil factor; Leptin
3. Buffer / Bicarbonate; Phosphate; Proteins
4. Teeth mineralization / Cystatins; Histatins; Proline-rich proteins; Statherins
5. Food digestion / Amylase; Mucins; Lipase
6. Coating & lubrication / Amylases; Cystatins; Mucins; Proline-rich proteins; Statherins
7. Antiviral / Cystatins; Mucins
8. Antibacterial / Amylases; Cystatins; Histatins; Mucins; Peroxidases
9. Painkiller / Opiorphin

Vila T, Rizk AM, Sultan AS, Jabra-Rizk MA (2019) The power of saliva: Antimicrobial and beyond. PLoS Pathog 15(11): e1008058. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1008058

References

1. Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said, The Twentieth Word, Second Station.
2. Nursi, Bediuzzaman Said, The Nineteenth Letter (Miracles of Prophet Muhammad); Sahih al-Bukhari, Jihad, 102, 143, Fadail al-Ashab, 9, Maghazi, 38; Sahih al-Muslim, Fadail as-Sahabah, 34.
3. Nursi, The Nineteenth Letter; Qazi Iyad, Ash-Shifa.
4. T. Villasi et al. “The power of saliva: Antimicrobial and beyond”, PLoS Pathog, 2019, 15(11): e1008058. doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1008058
5. A. Wisneret al. “Human Opiorphin, a natural antinociceptive modulator of opioid-dependent pathways”, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., November 21, 2006. 103 (47) 17979–17984, doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605865103
6. A. Coghlan, “Natural-born painkiller found in human saliva”, New Scientist, 13 Nov. 2006
7. “Painkilling saliva beats morphine”, New Scientist, 15 Nov. 2006.
8. S. Khazan-Kost, “Soluble HLA peptidome of pleural effusions is a valuable source for tumor antigens”, Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer, 2022, Vol. 10, Issue 5 e003733. doi:10.1136/jitc-2021-003733
9. N. Jeffay, “Lung fluid may provide basis for cancer-treating vaccines: Israeli research. Scientists say specific proteins found in lung fluid could theoretically be used to develop new methods for diagnosing and possibly treating cancer”, The Times of Israel, 30 August 2022.
10. Vila T, Rizk AM, Sultan AS, Jabra-Rizk MA (2019) The power of saliva: Antimicrobial and beyond. PLoS Pathog 15(11): e1008058. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1008058.

The elements of the innate immune system are dendritic cells, macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells. The adaptive immune system has two basic elements, the B and T cells.

The human body rarely has serious reactions against antigens which are not harmful. However, the body responds to harmful substances with the bodily defense system. We can think of the situation like this: imagine that a man visits a certain country and enjoys himself. If he begins to cause harm to that country and its citizens, he will be arrested by the security forces of that country. The human body reacts similarly to unwanted visitors. Invasive substances that cause a defensive response are called immunogens. Disease causing germs are made up of structures such as fats, carbohydrates, proteins, DNA, and RNA. As cells of the immune system attack the organic structures of germs, the strongest reactions happen against the proteins of complex structures. The question is: how does the body recognize these harmful molecules and organic structures?

Different elements of the immune system recognize pathogens through different ways and means. The different elements are equipped with specific receptors, which enable them to work together as a defensive unit. These receptors can be compared to locks, alarms, and other controls used to protect a house. They make it possible to alert the body to most unwelcome visitors. The innately granted immune system has many different ways of recognizing aliens. These include the killer-activation and killer-inhibition receptors, the complementary system, and Fc receptors.

Natural receptors of the immunity system

People are born equipped with the innately granted immune mechanisms. These loyal and dutiful elements quickly recognize and respond to pathogens. If we continue thinking of the structures formed by the immune system as a key and lock, then the lock can be defined as the receptors of the innate defense system. Once this mechanism is ready, different signals given to the core of the cell trigger the release of certain molecules (cytokine and chemokine). Similar to cannonballs punching holes in castle walls, these molecules upset the membranes of germs. Thus the process of eliminating harmful pathogens begins. If it is not possible to handle the situation in a short time, the defensive cells call other elements of the defense system to help. Sometimes, natural killer cells and eosinophils take charge. The defensive line works in total cooperation. The key and lock relation constitutes the beginning of this defensive line.

Toll-like receptors won the Nobel Prize

Toll-like receptors have an interesting story. A German scientist spotted a certain gene found in drosophila (the vinegar fly) and named it “toll” (meaning great, fantastic, or stunning in German). Later on, since the structure and placement of nucleotides are similar to the “toll” gene, the newly discovered immune system receptors were named toll-like receptors. The scientists who made this discovery won the 1995 Noble Prize in medicine.

These receptors, found in the membranes of defensive cells, are responsible for recognizing and capturing germs. There are 13 types of defined TLRs in the human defense system. While some TLRs (TLR 3, 7, 8, and 9) are found inside the cells and arrest the harmful intruders, some are found in the cell walls and function like guards patrolling a border. By means of these guards in the cell walls, germs are spotted so other elements can eliminate them. These dutiful guards fulfill the duty they are created for – and they do it in a wonderful fashion.

Killer-activated receptors

Harmful intruders, such as viruses and parasites, sometimes invade the body’s cells. Some germs continue their lives by using the genetic material, metabolism and energy of the cells they invade. Moreover, they continue their expansion to healthy cells. If they expand enough, they can threaten the entire body.

As part of the body’s defense system, molecules signifying stress appear on the surfaces of these invaded cells, a sort of “warning” that the cell is occupied. In such a case, the killer-activated receptors recognize the cells with stress molecules on their surfaces and connect to them. Then a necessary sacrifice is made: the “occupied” cells are eliminated to prevent the germs from expanding to the rest of the body.

Killer-inhibitor receptors

All cells with a nucleus possess the tissue conformity complex known as MHC-I, which can be compared to an ID card, which shows a certain cell to be a healthy piece of the body. When some cells are invaded by germs, or lose their qualities due to reasons like cancer, they cannot show their IDs anymore. Namely, MHC-I is either too weak or is not seen on the cell’s surface. Killer-activated receptors, which are constantly on patrol, demand every kind of cell to show its ID in order to verify there are no alien invasions. The MHC-I identity of a cell is recognized and controlled by the killing-inhibitor receptors—or the bar code readers—of the natural killer cells. At this control, the cells that fail to show their ID card are accepted as invaded or as having contracted cancer. The cells in such condition are eliminated by the natural killer cells for the health and continuity of the entire body.

Complement system receptors

After entering the body, many viruses can reach different parts of the body by joining the bloodstream. In addition, blood also contains the harmful substances of any disease-causing elements dissolved in it. In order to recognize these harmful elements and toxic substances, a special defense team (the complement system) is assigned to the task. Many molecules in the protein structure take part in the complement system. By means of this system, the body recognizes and eliminates the potential threats which pass through the body’s physical, chemical, and biological barriers, and which might reach all the body’s cells via the blood stream.

This defense system is an interconnected and cooperative one. In situations like the deficiency of the elements that make up this system, the body is not properly defended and suffers from different diseases. The pioneering element of the complement defense system, known as C3b, binds to the lipopolysaccharide molecules on the membranes of microorganisms and triggers the complement system’s reaction. As a result of this reaction, the other elements of the defense team (C6, C7, C8, and C5b) are activated and embedded in the cell membrane of the microorganisms. By opening holes in the membrane, they cause the microorganism to die.

The design of our immune system shows how perfectly equipped humanity is for life on this planet. Though we consciously protect our homes and property, we never think about what is happening inside our bodies. If somehow we were supposed to consciously take care of these defensive processes, we would never be able to have “inner peace.” Thankfully, we are not alone.

The word “obesity” originates from the Latin obesus, which literally means, “having eaten until fat.” Obesity is a disorder involving excessive body fat that damages our well-being and increases the risk of health problems. For example, an obese individual is ten times more likely to have heart disease and five times more likely to have diabetes as opposed to a person of normal weight. Some other symptoms of obesity are high blood lipids (e.g. triglycerides), high blood pressure, and low good cholesterol, which helps remove bad cholesterol from your arteries. Besides leading to a number of diseases, the large waistline formed due to the fat buildup also triggers our immune system, which plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of obesity-associated diseases. Before going into the details of the altered immune response due the increased storage of fat, let’s first explore the perfect order in our immune system, especially in a subset of immune cells called macrophages.

The amazing immune system

Our astounding immune system is in charge of defending our body by clearing out thousands of germs that can make us sick. Our immune cells serve in the context of cleansing the human body from invading germs. The immune system has two branches: the innate and adaptive branches, as defined with respect to the characteristics of their responses. The cross-talk and mutual communication between the two arms constitutes the integral immune response.
The adaptive immune system operates slowly, by developing for specific pathogens. In addition, it has a memory of previous exposures. The innate immune system provides a first line of defense against the invasion of disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens). It has three defense layers: anatomical barriers, humoral barriers, and cellular barriers. The skin is an example of the physical barriers, which prevent pathogens from getting access to our body. The chemicals found in tears, saliva, and mucus impair bacterial growth, and they represent the humoral barriers. Once an invading bacterium somehow evades these barriers, or a tissue injury occurs, various types of immune cells are recruited to the site of infection for the protection of the host. These cells constitute the third barrier of the innate immune system. As an initial defense system, innate immune cells and their components exhibit a fast, non-specific response with minimal memory of past exposures.

Macrophages: the big eaters

Macrophages, a subgroup of such innate immune cells, form a front-line component of our bodies’ defense. The term “macrophage” is derived from a combination of two Greek words – “macro,” meaning big, and “phage,” meaning eater. As the early combatants of our immune system, they are armored with perfectly-tuned ingestion capabilities. Macrophages function like the policemen of our body because they are charged with patrolling nearly all of our body’s tissues, except the heart. They are intensely positioned in tissues where infections are likely to arise, such as the gut and lungs.

There are approximately 200 cell types in our splendid body. Each specialized type of cell is charged to operate like a government or an army. Macrophages are organized to be combative and to secure the body. They possess flawless intelligence, coordination, communication, and movement traits. They are created from differentiating monocytes. Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow and then released into blood circulation. In case of an infection or dangerous threat, they migrate into tissues as early combatants.
To collect intelligence, macrophages are equipped with a large repertoire of sensors or receptors, which are positioned in the cellular membrane and intracellular part of the cellular architecture. These receptors are called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), whose function is to detect certain structural patterns of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. Such specific patterns are named pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). On the other hand, molecules generated by host cells under extraordinary stress are called danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) which are detected by other specific PRRs. Additionally, macrophages are ornamented with other types of receptors that help recognize and eat extracellular material, including pathogenic microorganisms by a membrane-bound vesicle. This process is phagocytosis, where the pathogen-containing vesicle is ultimately fused with the degradation machinery of the cell (i.e. lysosomes) to eliminate the pathogen.

Once the intelligence is collected by sensors, macrophages become “activated,” meaning that they are mobilized by transmitting and processing the information into the interior of the cell via – from a biologist’s perspective – downstream signaling pathways that initiate the program in the cell nucleus to secrete “alarm” molecules. Such molecules are named cytokines, whose duty is to adjust immune response by aiding cell-to-cell communication and stimulating the movement of macrophages towards the combat zone – in other words, the sites of inflammation.

Metaflammation: a chronic disease caused by obesity

The areas possessing redness, heat, pain, and swelling represent the combat zones of classical inflammation. Such wars are usually short-term and area-specific, with respect to infection and injury; they end with the elimination of the infection and the repair of the damaged tissue, respectively. Unfortunately, chronic inflammation is a different type of prolonged and disorganized immune response. Such a chronic state manifests, a) a low grade increase in immune system markers (inflammation-inducing cytokines); b) a persistent stress response; c) inflammatory effects covering the whole body rather than localized symptoms; and d) a sustained state of the disease. In other words, chronic inflammation corresponds to a lasting state of low-level war all over our body that gradually escalates and leads to various chronic diseases. Interestingly, intense research on the obesity epidemic demonstrated the presence of such low-grade chronic inflammation as the main driver of obesity-associated diseases such as insulin resistance, diabetes, atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, and chronic liver disease. Such an inflammatory state is also termed metabolic inflammation or metaflammation.

The molecular details underlying metaflammation are increasingly better understood. From a scientific standpoint, obesity is characterized by the increased storage of lipid molecules in an expanded fat tissue mass. The macrophages residing in such fat tissues of obese individuals are likely the major source of inflammation-inducing (pro-inflammatory) cytokines, as they seem mobilized mainly due to two reasons. First, the excessive presence of lipid molecules accumulated by overeating are sensed as danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) by various macrophage sensors. Second, macrophages residing in fat tissues have significantly higher level of threat sensors, leading to their easy mobilization. Therefore, the level of such sensors in obese individuals was found to be directly correlated with the severity of obesity-related diseases, such as diabetes and insulin resistance. Moreover, fat tissue macrophage populations are directly associated with the accumulation of fatty tissues in different experimental mouse models. The studies performed in obese and diabetic mice models and patients demonstrated high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in blood circulation and fat tissues, contributing to metaflammation.
To simplify metaflammation, excessive fat buildup is sensed as a threat by the big-eating patrollers of our amazing immune system, leading to their abrupt mobilization and continuous secretion of cytokines as “alarm” molecules. The intensity and locality of cytokines simply determines the state of war (i.e. the category of inflammation). In obese individuals, the low concentration of cytokines in blood circulation and fat tissues represents an ongoing low-level war found all over the body, which is metaflammation. Paradoxically, the degree of the war escalates by the enhanced sensitivity of macrophages to cytokines and the gradual increase of cytokines as a result of additional fat accumulation, hence throwing the body out of order and making it vulnerable to numerous diseases.

Apart from excessive food intake, there are other nutritional, environmental, and behavioral factors that give rise to similar chronic inflammation in our bodies. Things such as processed food, traffic-related air pollution, inactivity, inadequate sleep, and stress, can have similar effects as obesity. To protect our splendid bodies from the harmful effects of chronic inflammation resulting from overeating and other factors, we need to carefully think about our external and internal responsibilities. We may need to make intensive, external lifestyle changes, including restricted energy intake, more exercise/physical activity, and a diet high in healthy, unprocessed foods.
As for the internal responsibilities, the most essential part is strengthening our self-control. By doing so, we may improve our willpower, which is needed to resist the temptation to overeat. Otherwise, disrupting the balance of our wonderful body by overeating is an offense and disrespect to its perfect order. Such an imbalanced state pushes our body further toward a biological cliff, to such an extent that the delicately and perfectly organized immune system declares war against the harmful lipid molecules and leads to the emergence of various inflammation-associated diseases. Therefore, to eliminate the risk of imbalances in our superbly designed bodies, we have many internal and external responsibilities to fulfill.

Nigella sativa, commonly known as black cumin or black seed, is native to the Mediterranean region, but has also been grown on the Arab peninsula, Africa, and western Asia. It belongs to the Ranunculaceae family and is one of the numerous plants from this family that has been shown to have great potential for therapeutic use. With more than 100 nutrients and compounds, black cumin is rich in unsaturated fatty acids and essential oils (about 0.4%), including but not limited to thymoquionone and carvacrol. The antioxidants in black cumin attributed to the compounds in the essential oil relieve oxidative stress by scavenging activity through free radicals. Other nutrients include proteins, carbohydrates, and many, many vitamins. The plant can grow up to 30 cm and have white flowers with black seeds no more than 3 mm in length.

Historically, black cumin has been used for two different purposes: as a seasoning and flavoring in foods, and as a medicine for the treatment of ailments. Ibn Sina (980-1037), also known as Avicenna, refers to black cumin as stimulating the body’s energy and helping it recover from fatigue. Recent research shows that if it’s taken over time, black cumin can greatly boost the immune system. Another report from the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, similarly puts emphasis on consistent use of black cumin with the phrase, “hold onto the use of the seed.”

Research highlights

Recent research highlights the benefits of black cumin in the induction of apoptosis (cell death) in cancer cell lines and in decreasing blood sugar levels, which can help limit complications from diabetes. Numerous medicinal properties of black seed extracts and oil have been shown to strengthen the immune system, radioprotectivity, antihistaminic, antihypertensive (reduces high blood pressure), analgesic (pain reliever), anti-inflammatory (reduction of swelling/inflammation), hypoglycemic (suffering from an abnormally low level of sugar in the blood), antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor and protective effects against oxidative stress, hepatotoxicity (toxicity to liver) and nephrotoxicity (damage to the kidneys). Black cumin seed extracts also inhibits NO production. Thymoquinone found in black seed improves liver antioxidant capacity while increasing expression of antioxidant genes. Black cumin reduces the risk of various other maladies such as respiratory disorders, skin disorders, and allergies.

Supportive role in the immune system

Studies done decades ago suggested that the use of black cumin on regular basis enhances human immunity, especially in immune-compromised patients. In the 80s and 90s, different studies done on human volunteers show that black cumin acts as a natural immune enhancer. Use of black cumin for this purpose has been patented as well. These findings suggested that black cumin could play an important role in the treatment of cancer, AIDS, and other diseases associated with immuno-deficiency.

In 2010, Xuan and colleagues at University of Tubingen, Germany conducted a study on thymoquinone, a component of black cumin, to test its effect on dentritic cells, which take key role in the innate and adaptive immunity. By using mouse bone barrow derived dentritic cells as model, they showed that thymoquinone cooperate in the maturation, cytokine release and survival of dentritic cells.

Black cumin also has radioprotective effects. A study by Assayed in 2010 on rats aimed to investigate the radioprotective potential of black seed oil against exposure to radiation. Gamma irradiated rats fed black seed oil demonstrated that black seed oil is a promising natural radioprotective agent against the immunosuppressive and oxidative effects of ionizing radiation. Those findings suggest that black cumin might be used as protection against the adverse effects of radiation in the case of a nuclear leakage from nuclear plants, such as the one that happened in Japan following the massive earthquake in March 2011.

Reducing blood sugar in diabetes

A study performed in Japan by Fararh and colleagues on the hypoglycemic effect of black cumin oil in streptozotocin-induced diabetic hamsters showed that treatment with black cumin oil has both a regulatory role in blood glucose levels and an immunopotentiating effect. In this study, black cumin oil decreased blood glucose from 391+/-3.0 to 179+/-3.1 mg/dl after the fourth week of treatment. Hepatic glucose production from gluconeogenic precursors (alanine, glycerol, and lactate) was also lower in the treated hamsters. In addition, they showed that black cumin has an immunopotentiating effect through inducing the phagocytic activity of macrophages and lymphocyte count in the blood. Approaches for the treatment of diabetes using black cumin are noteworthy, including patented ones (US Patent No 6042834).

Studies on inflammation, cancer, and oxidative stress

Black seed oil has an anti-inflammatory effect and it could be useful in relieving the effects of arthritis. Thymoquinone, an active ingredient of black cumin, shows a remarkable anti-inflammatory potency. Research on thymoquinone also demonstrates that it increases T cells and natural killer cell-mediated immune responses.

Moreover, black cumin is known to show protection against cancer growth due to the induction of cellular death. A study on mice back in the 90s showed that fatty acids derived from black cumin could inhibit the various cancer cell lines, including Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and Dalton’s lymphoma ascites. This study concluded that black seeds contain a potent anti-tumor agent, and this could be long chain fatty acids.

Another study also found that black cumin oil could inhibit eicosanoid generation; thus, black cumin demonstrates anti-oxidant activity. This inhibition of eicasanoid production, however, was higher compared to thymoquinone alone, suggesting the presence of other compounds within the oil that increases anti-inflammatory reactions.

A model based on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) done by researchers at Gaziosmanpasa University in Turkey showed that black cumin may be protective against oxidative stress in the brain. Black cumin also regulates tissue NO levels, at least to some extent.

Black cumin as an anti-histamine agent and a fighter of bacteria

Bronchial asthma is associated with allergic reactions, and sometimes this could arise from the production of histamine from bodily tissues. Back in the 60s, it was shown that dimer dithymoquinone (nigellone) from black seed oil suppressed symptoms associated with bronchial asthma. In 1993, Chakravarty demostrated that nigellone inhibits histamine through the inhibition of protein kinase C, a protein known to induce the release of histamine. A clinical trial on 152 patients with the allergic disease done in 2003, in Germany, also demonstrated that black seed oil is an effective agent for the treatment of allergic diseases. These studies offered alternative treatments using black cumin to people who suffered from bronchial asthma and other allergic diseases.

Studies in Bangladesh showed that black cumin extracts exhibit anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties as well. A study comparing the volatile oil of black cumin with five antibiotics (ampicillin, tetracycline, cotrimoxazole, gentamicin, and nalidixic acid) demonstrated that black cumin oil is effective against various strains of bacteria, including V. cholera, E. coli (a common infectious agent), and strains of Shigella.

Final remarks

It has been suggested that black cumin could support metabolism, improve digestion, and drive out worms and parasites from the intestines. It could also be used for soothing coughs, stimulation of menstrual periods, the promotion of lactation (the flow of breast milk), increasing sperm count and hair growth, and perhaps even more.

Modern technology and studies based on synthetic compounds for new therapeutics have diverted the attention of researchers to where they could seek cures that already exist in the natural world. Pharmaceutical drugs show a lot of benefits to human well-being, and have cured a number of diseases, but they also have unwanted side effects.

Black cumin could be a treasury for medicine. Research findings and historical practices shed light on the curative aspects of black cumin. However, the quantity, quality, and extent of studies on black cumin are not comparably high. This urges researchers to put more, and more intense efforts into understanding and discovering treatments for diseases that we are facing today by using black cumin – a natural cure that people have been using for 1400 years.

References

• Xuan et al. (2010) Effect of thymoquinone on mouse dendritic cells. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2010;25(2-3):307-14. Epub 2010 Jan 12.
• Assayed ME. (2010) Radioprotective effects of black seed (Nigella sativa) oil against hemopoietic damage and immunosuppression in gamma-irradiated rats. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 284-96.
• Abdel-Zaher AO et al. (2010). Blockade of nitric oxide overproduction and oxidative stress by Nigella sativa oil attenuates morphine-induced tolerance and dependence in mice. Neurochem Res. 2010 Oct;35 (10):1557-65.
• Butt MS and Sultan MT. (2010) Nigella sativa: reduces the risk of various maladies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2010 Aug;50(7):654-65.
• Salem ML. (2005) Immunomodulatory and therapeutic properties of the Nigella sativa L. seed. Int Immunopharmacol. 2005 Dec;5(13-14):1749-70.
• Kalus et al. (2003) Effect of Nigella sativa (black seed) on subjective feeling in patients with allergic diseases. Phytother Res. 2003 Dec;17(10):1209-14.
• Fararh et al. (2004 ) Mechanisms of the hypoglycaemic and immunopotentiating effects of Nigella sativa L. oil in streptozotocin-induced diabetic hamsters. Res Vet Sci.:123-9.
• Schleicher, P., and M. Saleh (2000) The Magical Egyptian Herb for Allergies, Asthma, and Immune Disorders. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.
• Luetjohann, S. (1998) The Healing Power of Black Cumin. Twin Trees, WI: Lotus Light Publications
• M. Ali Albar. The Revival of Prophetic and Herbal Medicine. Fountain Magazine. Issue 14 April – June 1996.
• Ziya Aydin. Asirlarca Once Mujdelenen Sifali Bitki: Corek Otu. Sizinti Dergisi.
• Nigella sativa. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigella_sativa
• Research. http://www.blackcuminseedoil.org/research.php
• US Patent No 5482711 and 6042834.

The most striking example of immune system memory is that we only catch certain microbial diseases once in our lives. For instance, in the past, a commonly observed skin disease called “Oriental sore” would heal by leaving a pit on the skin. When this infected the face, it would cause a permanent ugly mark. People aware of the situation would let the disease occur somewhere out of sight on a child’s body. So, they would take a droplet of fluid from the infected tissue of a patient and apply it to a child’s back. The sore would develop on the back of child and then heal. The reason this was effective is because the immune system would permanently store the Oriental sore microbes in its memory and would build up an immunity to the microbe.

The elements of the immune system are created to recognize microbes, and the tissues of foreign plants, animals and even humans. The immune system is created to respond to these foreign substances. However, due to the immaturity of the system’s recognition, the risk of developing a disease upon the initial entry of microbes to the body is very high.

This is because the system does not sufficiently know the microbe. The way the immune system fights microbes is with blood cells called lymphocytes. Once lymphocytes are produced inside lymph nodes, they enter the blood stream, and then into the body’s tissues. This way, they reach all over the body to scan for potentially harmful foreign cells. When a microbe enters the body, lymphocytes proliferate in higher numbers to join the fight against these microbes.

There are two types of lymphocytes: T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes. T lymphocytes are white blood cells in charge of direct encounters with microbes. B lymphocytes, however, kill microbes, via antibodies they synthesize. In other terms, while T lymphocytes kill the enemy via face-to-face combat, B lymphocytes resemble artillery soldiers, striking from afar.

When a microbe enters the body, the lymphocytes specific to that kind of microbe enter the arena and start battling with the microbes. During this battle, strange things happen: certain T and B lymphocytes travel to the battle but return without participating in the fight. This is not an escape from war; these lymphocytes are tasked with gathering information and preparing the immune system for the future. These are called memory-B and memory-T lymphocytes.

Memory cells reorganize their tools against microbes they recognize. For example, when they recognize a microbe, they generate a genetic “handcuff” that keeps the microbe from being effective. Lymphocytes that have never encountered a germ also produce “handcuffs”; however, there can be slight mismatches between the microbe parts and the handcuff. Memory cells are created solely to generate weapons to capture, disable, and destroy a specific microbe. These weapons are deadly enzymes and antibodies. Thus, the body regains immunity against a special microbe via a key-lock fit, which is called acquired immunity.

Again, the difference between memory cells and normal cells is noticeable. B lymphocyte cells that have never met a microbe are in charge of producing antibodies called immunoglobulin M (IgM); because these antibodies are not tailored to the microbe, they are usually slow and ineffective. Memory B lymphocyte cells, however, synthesize special immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies that are suited to the dimensions (size and shape) of the germ; this makes it impossible for the microbes to develop a disease.

These mechanisms are also utilized in vaccinations. Acquiring personal immunity happens through two ways. The first is the identification of a microbe during a disease, which is a risky method. If the body’s resistance is low, the patient can endure great suffering – or even die. If the body’s cells defeats the microbe during the first fight, immunity is gained. Memory cells do not let the disease develop again. Certain illnesses like measles, smallpox, and mumps can only occur once.

The second method of acquiring immunity is to provide the body with the microbe without permitting it to cause an illness. This is a vaccination. There are vaccinations for diseases like measles, typhoid fever, whooping cough, diphtheria, tetanus, tuberculosis, and hepatitis B. In vaccinations, the microbe is first treated chemically and this way its ability to infect is eliminated. Then, the disabled microbes are injected into the body; in other terms, the shapes and sizes of the germs are made available to the memory of the immune system.

These mechanisms show us that humans do not only memorize with their brains. Lymphocyte cells are created in a fashion to memorize things permanently.

Another feature of the immune system is the ability to distinguish friends from foes. Lymphocytes cells go through training when babies are approaching their birth and during the first few months after birth. In this training, the cells are introduced to every tissue in the body. This operation takes place in the thymus and other organs related to the immune system. The thymus is an organ located at the upper region of lungs, on the trachea, and T lymphocytes obtain their diplomas from here. Other immune system organs like bone marrow and the liver are also in charge of B lymphocyte training. During this training, they learn two things:

1. To kill foreign microbes and defend the body
2. Not to attack their own body and organs

Humans sometimes can obtain diplomas without sufficient literacy from schools; however, no diploma can be obtained in these organs without properly learning how to fight germs. Our immune system functions perfectly.

The immune system rejects blood, tissues, and organs of foreign origin by causing reactions and thus removes them. However, no reaction is developed against our own tissue or organs. With aging, the immune system becomes more sensitive towards our own tissues, thus increasing the risk of autoimmune diseases developing as we get older. Autoimmune diseases form as the result of our immune system targeting our own tissues and organs.

Of course, we’re more frequently damaged by outside microbes. Each encounter with a microbe means a war. In a war, both sides may suffer damage. Therefore, our immune system is equipped with suppressive T lymphocytes which prevent extensive fighting. Suppressive T lymphocytes prevent the overreaction of our immune system and are in charge of stopping any damage to the body.

Here we might need to mention the relationship between cancer and the immune system. In fact, cancerous cells also form in healthy people. Members of the immune system, especially T lymphocytes, scan the body from head to toe to detect and eliminate cancer cells. A person constantly wins the fight against cancer without even realizing it. However, in persons of low body resistance, cancer may form by crossing the immune system’s barriers. Aging reduces the ability to fight against cancer. Grief, sadness and similar psychological stresses are also significant factors in cancer development. All these intricate mechanisms show us that these systems are not just lucky incidents occurring on their own. These systems have been created to function perfectly. We are still living in an infantile age of understanding the wonders of our body’s systems and organs. It ought to be hard to claim that such an amazing body formed itself, after random collisions of atoms and molecules.

Microbes, in particular bacteria, are associated with many diseases, being the deadliest pathogens along with viruses. But, this doesn’t mean that all bacteria are harmful. Indeed, most bacterial colonies that reside in our gut have mutualistic relationship with humans. Our intestines carry approximately ten times more bacteria than the total number of cells in human body. This vast number of bacteria residing in our intestines are not only harmless, but they are also beneficial for us in many ways, by digesting food to supply energy for the body, by outcompeting the disease-causing bacteria in the intestines, and by producing vitamins and hormones. This study brings a new dimension to our understanding of the interactions between the host immune system with the gut microflora. The main components of immune system are the T cells that can recognize the pathogens. Each T cell recognizes one particular pathogen and distinguishes self-cells from the pathogens. In the thymus, T cells that recognize self-molecules are either eliminated or transformed into a special category of T-cells called regulatory T cells (Tregs), whose job is to maintain tolerance towards self-antigens. Lathrop and colleagues demonstrated for the first time that naïve T cells are developed into Tregs in the gut upon encounter of commensal gut bacteria. What is striking is that these Tregs responded to the bacterial antigens, unlike the thymus originated Tregs that were generated by self-antigen recognition. These data suggest that gut bacteria train host’s immune system to be silent against themselves and act only against invading pathogens. Mechanisms involved in distinguishing harmful vs. beneficial bacteria by the immune system may provide new ways of tackling with bacterial diseases.

2- Cancer meets memory

Original Article: Odajima, J. et al., Developmental Cell 21, 655 (2011).

The recent discovery in the field of neuroscience reminded us the phrase “context is everything.” A study conducted by the scientists of Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School addressed somewhat contradictive observation that why human brain has high levels of cyclin E protein, a well-known culprit in many cancers. Cyclin E protein plays an important role in cell cycle where it helps to regulate the timing and the frequency of cell division in normally growing cells. However, overexpression of cyclin E has been associated with uncontrolled cell growth in various cancer types. It is surprising that the human brain, which has a group of non-dividing cells, also express cyclin E at high levels. The study showed that when cyclin E deficient mice were analyzed, there was a serious defect in the formation of nerve connections as well as the formation of memory. “It is overexpressed in many different cancers, but it also is expressed in high levels in the human brain. We have found that cyclin E is needed for memory formation and is a very important player,” said senior author Peter Sicinski, PhD, a cancer biologist at Dana-Farber. The study showed that cyclin E achieves its functions in the brain by binding to Cdk5 enzyme whose activity is associated with Alzheimer’s disease. “There is good evidence that hyperactivity of Cdk5 contributes to Alzheimer’s disease and inhibiting this enzyme can ameliorate symptoms in animals,” said Sicinski. “Manipulating cyclin E levels might be another way to accomplish this,” he added.

3- Designing perfect plastic 

Original Article: Read, D.J. et al., Science 333, 1871 (2011).

Plastic is used everywhere in our daily lives. Up until now, production of different types of plastic was done by trial and error. Only a small fraction of these trials give rise to a usable product. After ten years of hard work, scientists have now developed a computer program that can predict properties of plastic without actually manufacturing it. The program has two parts. The first part can predict how a specific polymer will flow based on the connections between the macromolecules that make up the polymer. The second part predicts the shape of these macromolecules when they are made at a chemical level. Using this code, one can effectively construct a recipe book for plastic. This will make it possible to design plastic that can better handle a specific job. It will also be possible to make plastic out of renewable materials instead of oil based materials which will be easy to recycle.

4- The key to long life?

Original Article: Kim, E.B. et al., Nature (published online before print, 2011).

Who would want to live a long life at the cost of looking ugly? One type of rodent species, naked mole rat, seems to have said “yes” to this intricate question. While an average rodent, a house mice or a rat living on streets, can live up to 4 years, naked mole rats can live up to 30 years. Mole rats are hairless, buck-toothed and almost blind rodents that are only found in dry sections of the Horn of Africa. They live in underground colonies with a social structure similar to ant colonies. There is a queen rat that chooses to mate with only few males, and rest of the colony takes the big responsibility of maintaining and protecting the colony. Scientists have always been puzzled with the extraordinary life span of these exotic animals and they finally generated the complete gene map of these intriguing animals. A quick look of the genomic map revealed that many genes associated with vision, circadian rhythms, perception of pain and perception of bitter tastes seem to be completely turned-off. Perhaps, these specific modifications allow animals to tolerate harsh living conditions and help them to adapt a lifestyle which lacks so-called the luxuries and expectations of a normal animal. Scientists believe that comprehensive analyses of naked mole’s genetic map might shed light on fundamental cellular mechanisms that are disrupted in aging and aging-related diseases.

I, the protective system that you call the “immune system,” am divided into different groups and sections, each of which has its own area of expertise. Just like a military unit, each of my groups has to be partially or fully trained before it begins life in my system so that it can properly fulfill its defensive function. “Soldiers” in this protective troop work according to what expertise they have and the type of “enemy” (alien microorganisms) they encounter. Some are equipped with heavy weapons against tough enemies; some produce a special poison with which they kill their enemies by injecting it into their bodies, some work like a waste disposal, smashing up the dead bodies of the enemies, and some of them eat the alien intruders alive when they attack your body. Others produce raw material to arm your body, some turn that material into weapons, some work as defenders, some are signalers, some are rangers and some are equipped with a special intelligence which allows them to recognize the previous invaders and destroy them more easily at their future encounter. In this intelligence system, which works like an information center, the soldiers check the dangerous invaders and remember their previous experience with them. Then, they develop a strategy to fight against those invaders. If the enemy is known well, the defense against it will be easier.

Now, using this analogy, I will talk about your enemies and the features of my soldiers that are placed in your body to fight against them. However, I have to remind you of something first: as you know, every army has to have a top commander. Similarly, there is someone who has placed such a perfect system like me in your body, someone who has boundless knowledge and power, and has no one else superior to Him or has no one to receive orders and instructions. That is our Lord God Almighty. Since He knows very well what kinds of enemies you will face, He has created me with all my troops so that you can be defended against those enemies.

The enemies of your body are germs, which enter your body through different passage ways, including digestion, respiration, excretion and the skin. “Germ” is a general term referring to many kinds of micro-organisms. Some of them are bacteria, some are fungi and some are viruses. Your body needs different special tactics to defend against each group of germs and my soldiers are quite talented in those tactics. I have to be always watchful against germs coming from outside. Not only that, but I also have to be careful about inner enemies, that is, the cells in your body which suddenly turn into “terrorists” becoming harmful and spoiling the system. You call those cells “cancerous.” It is a great challenge for me to cope with those cells because they originate from among your very own cells and they know our tactics very well. Nevertheless, with God’s help, we can defeat them. However, when too much stress and anxiety weaken me I might miss some of those cancerous cells, which will grow and become tumors. In fact, cancerous cells develop much more in number than is commonly known. But my soldiers constantly check every single cell that is formed in your body and try to see whether it is normal or not. As soon as they discover a cancerous “terrorist” cell, they try to quickly destroy it. However, some cancerous cells are disguised like a wolf wearing a sheepskin so that they can avoid detection. My soldiers make rounds and check the cells from outside by only looking at their skin. Thus, they can be manipulated. All of your cells, including those with germs or cancer, contain protein with a special code which identifies the cells as being yours. When my soldiers encounter our fellow cells carrying those coded proteins, they release them. But the enemies who do not carry this code (or password) are immediately caught and destroyed. When we have diseases like cancer, however, the cancerous cells may evade our “rounds man” because they know this password. Sometimes the opposite may happen: my soldiers get confused and cannot identify their fellow cells despite carrying the right password, assume that they are enemies and start to attack them. These types of diseases, called Autoimmune diseases, emerge with a quite complicated mechanism which is a puzzle even for me! For example, during rheumatoid arthritis, which is among the many long-lasting and unrecoverable diseases, my soldiers attack and gradually destroy the tissues like cartilage, cardiac muscle, eye lenses, and the tubes of the kidneys with which they share a body. In fact, when we are created as a whole system (when you are only an embryo in your mother’s womb), some of my soldiers make an agreement with the other cells of your body, announcing that they will forever stay friends with them, will show tolerance to them and will only attack the enemies. But, somehow this agreement is broken later; my soldiers do not obey me anymore.

Now it is time for my group of soldiers to introduce themselves:

The most general term by which we are identified with is white blood cells or leukocyte. We appear approximately 6,000 to 7,000 times in each cubic millimeter of human blood. The other blood cells, which are called red blood cells (erythrocyte) are red in color; it is for this reason that we are called white. Since blood vessels can reach to the remotest edges of the body, we roam around the body through those vessels and look for work to do. Of course, not everyone can do everything. So, we are first divided into two sections. The cells in the first section contain microscopic granules, so they are called granular leukocyte. The cells in the second section do not contain such granules, so they are called agranular leukocyte. Those sections are divided into groups among themselves. The first section has three groups: neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. The second section has two groups named monocyte and lymphocyte.

Eosinophills: You may not know much about these soldiers that make up 12% of the whole protective body. However, during allergic reactions and diseases caused by parasites, the number of these soldiers increases. They complete the effect of the antibodies produced against the antigens. Some chemical substances like histamine appear as a reaction to antigens, such as itchiness, rash, and swelling. Eosinophils reduce the effects of those substances and the symptoms.

Basophils, which are the least in number, make up the 0.5% of the body. Those soldiers are present mostly in the scars that are healing or in highly infected areas. The granules inside basophils contain two very important substances called heparin and histamine. Histamine helps expand the blood vessels and accelerates the release of active substances within me from the blood vessel walls, enabling them to reach to the affected area. Heparin also prevents the blockage of blood vessels because of blood clot.

Lymphocytes of the second section are the group of soldiers which goes through special training and has expertise in many subjects. They make up 20-25% of the soldiers in my system. Those soldiers detect antigens and germs and remove them from the body. Every soldier has a detector which identifies a certain antigen. Therefore, in your blood, there are millions of lymphocyte soldiers, which are different from each other and do not have a pair. For any antigen of a germ, you will definitely find a lymphocyte that finds and kills it. Those soldiers can be grouped according to their appearances, as small, medium, and large lymphocytes. Each group has different special features. We can also divide them according to their maturation and training process as B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. Although both of them originate from stem cells in the bone marrow, T-lymphocytes mature in the thymus before they move to the other lymph tissues such as the spleen, liver, and tonsils (Thymus is a gland in the chest that talked about itself in the previous issue). B-lymphocytes, however, mature in the bone marrow, and go directly to the tonsils, appendicitis, spleen and other lymph tissues. When the T lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow, they acquire different new features. Some of them work as T helper cell, some work as natural killer T-cells and some work as suppressor T-cell. A helper T-cell, which is triggered by an antigen that is specific to it, secretes lymphokines, which makes B-cells produce antibodies. Among those lymphokines, interleukin-2 activates the natural killer T-cells, which kill the infected cells. The killer T-cells do not bind directly to an antigen. Rather, they secrete a substance that kills the infected cell after joining with the antibodies that were previously bound to the infected cells. On average, T-cells live 2-4 years; some, however, live more than 10 years. Today, the defense mechanism of the T-lymphocytes creates an issue in terms of organ transplantation. If, for some reason, a foreign organ (a kidney or heart, for example) is transplanted into the body, the T-lymphocytes attack that organ immediately. Those “headless” soldiers do not know that the body really needs that organ and try to eliminate it, therefore, leading to transplant rejection or tissue incompatibility. The T-lymphocytes treat the foreign organ the same way as they do to the cancerous cells: they attack and try to destroy it. For this reason, the immunologists are trying to discover medicines that will help them control the soldier T-lymphocytes whenever they need to be stopped.

Dear Peter, have you ever thought about how all this happens? While you have no idea about a germ that might enter your body, those memory cells, which are placed in your blood with a boundless compassion by our Creator, remember an enemy that they saw years ago, and begin to make weapons right away. Since those cells are devoid of reason and consciousness, to operate them there has to be Someone with a great knowledge and will.

The lymph nodes are production centers for the lymphocytes found at some particular places in the body. They resemble variously sized military headquarters. The lymphocytes are produced mostly at infection sites, which are the little lymph tissue groups located under the epithelium that lines along the walls of the digestive tube, respiratory track, and the bladder. When fighting with bacterial infections the lymph nodes swell and enlarge as much as 1–2 cm. In addition to the lymph nodes that extend through the lymph vessels, the areas such as nape, groin and the axilla (underarm) also contain lymph nodes. If you get an upper respiratory tract infection, the lymph nodes at your tonsils and neck areas become swollen. If you get a urinary track infection the nodes in your groin area become swollen. As for digestive track infections, it is the responsibility of the lymphocytes in your appendix to fight against germs. Some scientists view this organ, which is an extension of the cecum (the blind gut), as a “dead” piece of intestine. Both the appendix and tonsils are quite useful organs that produce lymphocytes in normal circumstances; they are not some useless remnants. For that reason, it is not right to remove them when it is not really necessary. However, we have to remember the proverb that says, “We salt the food so that it does not smell bad; but, what do we do if the salt itself smells bad? Then, we have to get rid of the salt.” Similarly, in some bodies where my system is weak and so is lymphocyte production, those areas become home to germs and you have to remove them.

Other than the soldiers of the immune system, several organs in your body have their own ways of protecting your body. Those organs do not have soldiers like in my system; theirs are like a “civil defense.” Chief among those are your skin which works as a natural barricade against the entrance of the germs, the mucous membrane that lines along the walls of your mouth and inner nose, interferon which is a substance produced by your cells against viruses, and an antibacterial substance called lysozyme which exists in your tears and sweat. Therefore, sweating, crying, and runny nose are not things to be ashamed of; they are only the protective systems that have been naturally placed in your body by our Lord God.

Dear Peter, I think I should stop here although there are still so many features of me that you have to discover. After all, beneath all diseases and deaths you will find disorders related to me. The biochemical processes in which many of my soldiers operate are not exactly known yet. If those are revealed, doctors will likely succeed in healing many other diseases. However, sooner or later you will reach the destined end: death. No creation can be immortal; there will definitely be a problem and you will have to leave this world, wherein you are only a guest. If you carefully contemplate the works of art in your body, in the hereafter you will have solved the riddle of the delicacies of those works. Of course, everyone’s time of death is unknown. Therefore, in this limited time, give your organs their due and give thanks to the God Almighty who gave you those gifts. Live according to His will, and always remember to glorify Him. Goodbye, Peter! May you and your troop be healthy!

Irfan Yilmaz is a professor of biology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey