Mosquitoes like climates with high humidity and rainfall. While a single raindrop can weigh 50 times as much as a mosquito, how can mosquitos fly and survive under what seems to be a devastating weather condition for them? Andrew Dickerson and co-workers at Georgia Institute of Technology examined the effects of falling raindrops on the flying mosquitoes using high-speed video capture and found that rain does no damage to flying mosquitoes. Upon impact with mosquitoes, the raindrops do not splash and scatter but they merely deform and hold together. This was calculated to be due to the small diameter and the velocity of the drop. On the other hand, given the relatively small mass of the mosquito, the drop does not significantly alter its speed. A partial hit on the mosquito by the falling drop causes the mosquito to rotate around its flight path. Mosquitoes were found to easily recover and resume their flight immediately after the impact. In the case of a direct hit by a raindrop, the mosquitoes were still able to literally separate themselves from the drop after traveling with the drop for a while without lethal damage and resume flight. The researchers further analyzed the impact force of the raindrops on the mosquitoes and found the direct impact to exert around 80 times the gravitational force. This is an extremely high force for larger organisms however, for mosquitoes with a very strong exoskeleton, this turned out to be a minor fraction of 1500 X g, which the researchers tested the mosquitoes and found them to be still able to fly! The outstanding resilience of such a small organism already inspired scientists to start designing very small robots that may serve as airborne search-and-rescue vehicles. But scientists are still very much limited by the basic factor of how small they can go.

What exactly happened in AD 774?

Researchers in Nagoya University of Japan have recently discovered a cosmic mystery when they were analyzing the growth rings of two cedar trees that are as old as 1200 years. All trees are known to incorporate particles from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. Carbon-14 (C14), one of the exceptional elements in the atmosphere, is generally formed by massive solar flares or by supernovae and it is present in very low percentages. Interestingly, researchers found that the cedar tree ring produced during the growth season of AD 774 had about 1.2% more C14 than in the previous years, that is about 20-times more than the usual range of 0.05%. These results indicate that some cosmic event during AD 774 generated a major influx of radiation leading an excessive amount of C14. Only a massive supernova explosion might have been strong enough to create this much radiation. However, if this was a supernova, we should either be able to catch the traces with modern telescopes, or find historic documents reporting this extraordinary cosmic event. But, we simply have no record of anything unusual happening in our skies in that period. Alternatively, a massive solar flare might have created such a radiation. In fact, 13th-century English chronicler Roger of Wendover mentions a cosmic event that could possibly be a solar flare. However, a flare with that magnitude would have been the biggest solar flare ever recorded by our sun and probably would have destroyed the Earth’s protective ozone layer leading to disastrous ecological consequences. Thus, the flare hypothesis seems also unlikely. By now, scientists are only positive that some very energetic event occurred in 774. But what exactly was it? Frankly, their guess is as good as ours.

One recent example of such phenomena is the Schrödinger equation that explains the behavior of matter at the atomic level. This relation just happens to work, and its derivation is intuitive rather than rational. It also has the simplest mathematical form among its possible competitors in terms of expressing nature.

We will now look at another example of such axiom-like relations that we usually ignore, although it is frequently encountered in our everyday life. Before revealing it as fully as we can, let us relate one situation where this effect is very apparent.

We usually move objects by pushing or pulling them. Suppose now we are on a motorboat and we have run out of gas in a place very close to the shore. We (the strong crew members) surely do not want to be carried away from the shore by the backwash from the waves. One of us has the brilliant idea to push on the sides of the boat until we reach harbor. What would you suggest? Some of us think that it is not a good idea because the boat is very heavy and our pushing will be negligible. It is true that the boat will not move. However, the failure has nothing to do with the weight of the boat. On the other hand, some other crew members suggest using oars, which will obviously work, but why? (Personally, with all my respect to other opinions, I would suggest using the phone to call the beach police to get some help; but this would distract us from our subject matter.)

Impulse, direction, and momentum

If you think about the “why” question above, you will guess that we are talking about impulse in the loose meaning of the word. In physics, impulse has a more precise definition. This definition arose from the need to describe an object’s ability to have an impact on other objects, but the idea is still vague: How do we quantify this ability in order to put some flesh on this notion? Let us try to figure out an answer to this question.

Now, let us consider a few possible ways of defining impulse that look reasonable. We may decide intuitively that an impact should be related to an object’s speed: the higher the speed the greater the impact. If you ever played marbles in your childhood, you will recall that the easiest way to dislodge the marbles in the targeted row is to cast your own marble as fast as you can. Impulse should also have a relation to mass. Certainly, the impact of as many as a thousand bullets aimed at a train will not move the train even a meter. These are some simple observations anyone can experience or have a feeling of from their daily life.

We also expect that this strange quantity should somehow be transferred by the interaction of two objects. One object colliding with another stationary object transfers something that causes the latter to travel in a direction. With this example, another important feature of our impulse idea emerges: direction. Those who like to play the game of American pool or billiards know this very well. (I am sure everyone does it for the noble reason to experiment the laws of physics.) It makes a significant difference in a collision of two masses if they hit each other at an angle.

Wait a minute! We have been talking about the effect of an object’s impact, but the object has something that it is carrying even before the impact, and this “something” is the reason why we have an impact in the first place. So, what is this “something”? Let us call it momentum so as not to violate the traditions of physics.

All this stuff so far is good, but we are not done yet: how should these ideas appear in our equations? Now, let us bring together all our findings. We know momentum manifests itself as the impact (P) of one object on another. From its effect (impulse), we understand that momentum is related to the mass (M) of the object and its velocity (V). We also know that momentum has a directionality, which is termed vectorial. Then, perhaps momentum is something like:

P = a x M + b x V

where a and b are constants. This seems acceptable since it satisfies our observation: the more the mass, the more the momentum. But for a stationary object (V=0), there is no point in talking about impulse; so the axM terms looks unnecessary. If there is no good reason for a physical quantity to appear in a physical equation, then the simplicity principle says it should be removed. Therefore, we look for a simpler alternative relation with only one term like below:

P = c x M2 x V5

where c is a constant. But this one is a highly non-linear relation with exponential terms, so it is really not looking good. Another problem with this equation is that it does not fit our daily experience very well. If we reconsider our train example, with a high velocity power term like this, even the very small bullets can have a considerable effect on a train, enough to move it in fact. As a simple example, let c be equal to 1, take 0.1 kg as the mass of a bullet and 105 kg (100 tons) as the mass of the train, and give 400 m/s velocity to the bullet. Assuming that the impulse of the bullet is transferred to the train (conservation of momentum), we roughly get:

Pbullet = c x m2 x Vb5 = 1011

Ptrain = c x M2 x Vt5 = 1010 Vt5

By equating both sides we roughly get, 1.6 m/s (5.7 km/h) for the train velocity.

A single bullet moving a big train at such speed? This is a very counter-intuitive result. However, we will not give up easily. How about if we try an expression which is more familiar?

P = d x MV2

where d is a constant. This relation also agrees with our intuition (i.e. it has mass and velocity terms proportional to P.) I can already hear some objections from those who are acquainted with physics saying “No! This is the energy formula of a body with mass M and velocity V.” Indeed, this equation is reserved for energy which is a non-vectorial quantity. As a matter of fact, none of the above is a correct description for momentum. The actual expression is, interestingly, the simplest of all possibilities:

P = MxV

So, why not the more complex ones but this, the simplest one? The rigorous answer is subtle and requires a thorough analysis of linearity and homogeneity of space, which could be the subject of another essay. But we repeat the remark that we made in the beginning: if there is a simpler and more beautiful way of describing a natural law, then that description often turns out to be the correct one in the end. In fact, for some giants of physics like Paul Dirac, the beauty of a theory is more important than its results and is a better indication of the theory’s correctness. There is more to it than that. There are whole theories like Dimensional Analysis which are implicitly based on the idea of writing down the equations in the simplest (and most beautiful) form.

So, the final point is that, like other fundamental relations in physics, the idea of impact or momentum is best described in the simplest and most intuitive way: P= MxV. And behold! This gives us exactly the relation that has passed all the scientific tests in the range of classical physics. This result implies that the beauties we see in nature can be explained in terms of the simplest possible physical relation. Pondering all these, one cannot help but ask how in the world a mindless, blind natural law could exhibit beauty based on simplicity.

In the first stage, where the physical laws apply, the verses and hadith related to eschatology can be interpreted through the principles of dynamics. There have already been different views and comments concerning the issue. Interpretations under the light of contemporary scientific knowledge can bring new perspectives. We need to keep in mind that all our interpretations are works of the human mind and there can be error. Before we elaborate on the subject further we would like to acknowledge-like the earlier scholars did-that these are personal comments and state: “only God, the true possessor of absolute knowledge, knows best.”

Surat al-Qariah (The Sudden, Mighty Strike) in the Qur’an is about the dreadful occurrences on the Judgment Day:

In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.

The sudden, mighty strike!

What is the sudden, mighty strike?

What enables you to perceive what the sudden, mighty strike is?

The day (when it occurs) humans will be like moths scattered about;

And the mountains will be like carded wool…¹

The sudden, mighty strike mentioned here may denote the impact of a huge asteroid. People are likened not to other insects, but to moths, flying things. This seems to suggest that people will be scattered in the air. Now let’s try to imagine how a mighty strike would send people scattered about like moths.

According to the science of dynamics, every object which has a mass and which is attracted by the earth’s gravity has a weight. Thus, “weight” can be related to any object (people, houses, cars etc) on earth. It can be a description of objects scattered in the air. If we assume that the law of gravity still applies when the apocalypse starts, can an upsurge be possible?

In figure 1, there is an illustration of a possible impact scenario. An asteroid with a mass of “m” approaches the earth-supposedly along a line tangential to the earth’s orbit around the sun-with a speed of “v” and hits the earth. According to the principle of the conservation of angular momentum, the rotating speed and direction of the earth’s rotation is expected to change. An impact, as shown in figure 1, might reverse the earth’s counter-clockwise rotation to clockwise. For a strong impact to reverse the direction of the earth’s rotation and affect a dramatic increase in the earth’s angular speed, the multiplied value of m, v, and d (mass, velocity, and distance from the spinning axis) must be great enough. The earth normally spins around its axis at a relatively low angular speed and this does not have a recognizable influence. After a violent impact, the boosted angular speed might apply great centrifugal forces on objects.

Figure 2 depicts a probable reversed force of gravity and a centrifugal force emerging along the equator. An impact great enough to send people flying in the air is calculated here as being 17.06 times faster than the usual speed of the earth. Such a violent speed will send the people in the equatorial region flying into the air.

Let’s try to estimate what might happen in other regions. The man in figure 3 is standing at a 45o angle to the equator (The upper regions of North America, Europe, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Argentina, New Zealand, etc). As you approach the Polar Regions, you also approach the spinning axis and the centrifugal force decreases, so it cannot completely annul the weights of objects. The man will weigh 50% less and a force equal to half his normal weight will be applied on him parallel to the ground. This might cause him to fall flat on his face. People who are further to the north probably won’t fly or fall, but they will also be affected.

The following verses warn us about the last hour:

In the Name of God, the All-Merciful, the All-Compassionate.

O humankind! Keep from disobedience to your Lord in reverence for Him and piety and get under His protection. (Never forget that) the violent convulsion of the Last Hour is an awesome thing.

On the Day when you all see it, every suckling mother will utterly forsake her infant in dread, and every pregnant female will cast off her burden. You will see all people as if gone out of their senses, while, in fact, they are in their senses. This is because God’s punishment is extremely severe. (Hajj 22:1-2)

The statement as if gone out of their senses is also translated as “drunken” in some commentaries. As a result of a violent impact and the earth’s boosted angular speed, people might walk as if they were drunk, or as if they have taken leave of their senses. The high angular speed might influence the inner-ear fluid, and cause people to lose their sense of balance. The following verses may be describing the effects of this violent rotation:

And when the earth is flattened out, and casts forth whatever is in it and becomes empty, obeying its Lord, as is expected indeed, and it always does so… (Inshiqaq 84:3-4)

An authenticated saying of God’s Messenger supports the possibility of a “reverse”: “The end of the world will not come unless the sun rises from where it sets. When it rises from the west, everybody sees and they all accept faith. However, this faith is of no benefit for anyone who did not previously believe or who has no good deeds caused by his faith.”²

As already mentioned above, the impact reverses the direction of rotation, the earth rotates clockwise and the sun rises from the west. The fact that faith after this impact will not benefit anyone implies that life on earth will not last long. The impact will probably render the earth uninhabitable. The great scholar Said Nursi made the following comment on the hadith about the sun rising from the west:

…The sun rising in the west will be a self-evident sign of the end of the world, and because it is self-evident it will be a heavenly event which closes the door of repentance, which is tied to the will and reason. Its meaning is therefore clear, and is in no need of interpretation. One may just say the following:

“God knows best, its apparent cause will be this: with the disappearance of the Qur’an, which is like the intelligence of the world, the earth will go mad. With Divine permission, when another planet collides with it, its rotation will be reversed. Through Divine will, its journeying from west to east will be reversed to that from east to west, and the sun will start to rise in the west.”³

Although this is not directly mentioned in the Qur’an, the dialogue between the Prophet Abraham and Nimrod is noteworthy:

Do you not consider the one who remonstrated with Abraham about his Lord (in defiance of Him) because of the kingdom God had granted him? When Abraham said, “My Lord is He Who gives life and causes to die,” he retorted: “I give life and make to die.” Said Abraham: “Surely God causes the sun to rise in the east, now you cause it to rise in the west.” Thus was the unbeliever utterly confounded. God does not guide (such) wrongdoing people. (Baqara 2:258)

The Prophet Abraham states that only God has the power to cause the sun to rise in the west, and He will realize this at the end of the world.

There is another authenticated hadith that describes the end of the world: “The end of the world will not come unless time shortens. This shortening is such that, a year will be like a month, a month like a week, and a week will be like a day, a day like an hour, and an hour will be (passing fast) like the striking of a match.”⁴

Commentators of the earlier periods interpreted “the shortening of time,” and they suggested that people would not be able to make efficient use of time and it would pass quickly. However, a literal understanding of the hadith makes perfect sense under the light of physics. A day being like an hour probably means the earth will spin 24 times faster. It has been mentioned above that a rotation more than 17 times faster than usual or more can cast people upwards. As for a year being like a month, this can be an allusion to the earth’s completing its orbit around the sun faster.

All these are attempts to interpret the eschatological verses and hadith within the principles of physics. God Almighty, “Master of the Day of Judgment,” knows best.

Notes

1. Unal, Ali. The Qur’an with Annotated interpretation in Modern English, The Light, Inc., New Jersey: 2006.

2. Bukhari, Riqaq, 39.

3. Nursi, Said. The Rays Collection, “20th matter of the 5th ray,” trans. Sukran Vahide, Sozler Publications, Istanbul: 2002, p.112.

4. Tirmidhi, Zuhd, 24.

“The things that I fear most for my people are being overweight, sleeping too much, laziness and a lack of deep faith.” 1
Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him)

Effective time management occurs only when we force ourselves to perform important activities within a plan so that we can reach our goals. Goal setting and planning our activities are important steps in this. But if we fail to engage in these activities and to finish them, then we end up with an unfulfilled plan on our hands. Our mind-body is the only vehicle through which we can accomplish our goals in life. Our eating habits, including the type and amount of food we eat, affect our mind-body in many ways, such as our energy and stress level and our sleep patterns. Hence, it is crucial to examine the impact of eating habits on our mind-body. It is notable that time-management literature’s vast majority pays little or no attention to this aspect of mind-body control. In this article we will consider three factors in this respect: The impact of the amount of food we eat, the timing of meals, and the nature of our food.

“Limit eating, limit sleeping, limit talking. This is the path to the spiritual life.” – Sufi proverb

The Impact of How Much We Eat and Drink

There is little mention of eating habits in time-management literature. However, our eating habits affect our management of time in many different ways. Let us first consider the times of our day that are immediately affected by our eating and drinking habits:

1. Food preparation or waiting time,

2. Eating/drinking time,

3. Digestion and mental recovery time after the meal,

4. The time spent in the lavatory, and finally

5. The extra sleep we may need after a heavy meal.

It is easy to see that the impact of each of these factors is proportional to the size of the meal. The more food we prepare or ask for, the longer the preparation/waiting time will be. More food also takes longer to eat. The next stage, which is very important, is the time needed for digestion and mental recovery after the meal. Depending on the type and amount of food we intake, the digestion time can range from one hour up to three or four hours. When the amount of food is great, our digestive system competes with our brain for the limited amount of sugar in our body. This may prevent our brain from functioning at its peak. Consequently, we may experience a lack of focus, a lack of energy, or we may feel sleepy. Most people try to compensate for such feelings by drinking caffeinated beverages, which have their own disadvantages.

The time we spend in the lavatory is also proportional to the amount of food we eat. When we eat more, our visits are more frequent and more time is spent there. Eating foods that are rich in fiber is also another cause of frequent visits to the lavatory. But a diet deficient in fiber is not healthy, so the way to cut back on time spent there is not to cut back on fiber-rich foods, but rather to cut back on the amount of food we eat.

Finally, the type and the amount of food we eat affect our sleep patterns. First, when we eat more, we need to sleep longer. It is no coincidence that people who overeat also tend to oversleep. But the impact is not limited to sleeping time alone. Stimulating foods or drinks near bedtime disturb our sleep patterns and cause us to benefit less from our sleep. This, in turn, results in our efficiency being affected the following morning.

When we consider all these factors, we begin to realize how overeating makes self-management difficult and we can understand the wisdom behind the prophetic saying “No human being has ever filled a container that is worse than his stomach. . .”2

The Impact of What We Eat and Drink

In addition to the amount of food, the type of food we eat is also important. Certain types of food may energize our brain, while certain others make it sluggish.3 In order to increase one’s energy levels, nutritionists recommend a balanced diet that is devoid of harmful substances. An important property of the food we eat is what is known as the “glycemic index.”4

The Glycemic Index of Foods

Since sugar is the substance that gives us energy, many people are under the false assumption that the more sugar we consume, the more energetic we feel. This view, however, fails to account for the compensatory balance in our body. When we consume large amounts of sugar, either in the form of pure sugar, or via foods that are rich in sugar, the amount of sugar in our blood stream increases. Our body responds to this situation by secreting insulin into the blood stream, reducing the amount of sugar. If the increase in the sugar level is very steep, than the body reacts strongly to reduce it and causes the sugar level to fall to a very low level. This is why we feel sluggish for some time after consuming sugar-rich foods.

In order to avoid the down-time of insulin compensation, nutritionists recommend that we avoid foods that are high in simple sugars and which have a high glycemic index in carbohydrates. The “glycemic index” measures how much the levels of circulating blood sugar increase within a few hours after eating a particular food. Examples of foods and drinks with lots of simple sugars include cookies, cakes and other baked goods, candy bars, sodas, and fruit juices. These foods and drinks include large amounts of simple sugars, such as glucose or fructose. Initially, they give us a quick energy boost. In the longer term, however, the body’s monitoring system increases the levels of insulin in the blood and hence we experience a quick decline shortly after this boost. The brain can only use glucose for energy. When the glucose level drops in the blood, the brain cannot perform at its peak. We may end up feeling even more drained than before we ate or drank. In order to maximize brainpower and mental focus, we need to minimize fluctuations of blood sugar by selecting foods with lower glycemic index numbers. These will break down more slowly and release glucose gradually into your bloodstream. The insulin response will also be more gradual and we will not suffer a mental down time. The following table shows the glycemic indices of certain foods:

The Interaction of Food with Hormones

Our food intake also influences the release of important hormones, such as serotonin, melatonin, and dopamine. Serotonin gives us feelings of well-being, personal security, and relaxation. A shortage of serotonin may leave us feeling very tired, needing excessive sleep, with feelings of low self-esteem, causing negative thinking, and maybe even difficulty in concentrating. However, excessive levels of serotonin are also harmful.

Melatonin is a hormone that is believed to be involved in the regulation of sleep. Melatonin secretion is significantly higher at night, although some is produced during the day. The pineal gland, where melatonin is produced, functions as a biological clock by increasing its output of melatonin at night by more than ten times. This increase in secretion begins around sunset and reaches a peak at around 2 a.m. After this peak, it falls to a low level by the time of sunrise. High levels of melatonin can induce drowsiness.

Dopamine stimulates alertness and awareness. However, excess levels can cause an increased heart rate, muscular tension, and disrupt sleep patterns, as well as resulting in shortened attention span and excessive self-confidence. Excess levels of dopamine have been associated with ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) and risk-taking behavior.

Serotonin, melatonin, and dopamine are constantly being produced in our bodies. But we can increase or decrease their levels by changing our habits. Our eating habits, spiritual well-being, and activity all affect the hormone chemistry in our bloodstream and in our brain. These in turn affect our moods and tendencies.5 This is one reason why we can feel differently about the same task at different times of the day. Carbohydrates, for instance, can alter the level of serotonin in our brains and bring on feelings of calm and relaxation. While these effects can be desirable at night, they are certainly not what we want when we need to increase our energy level. Certain proteins can help increase levels of dopamine. Thus, we may prefer a menu rich in proteins rather than carbohydrates before a mentally demanding task. In the evening, some hours before we go to bed, we may want to avoid stimulating foods as they may interfere with our sleep. If our sleep is affected, we may wake up drowsy and drained.

The Impact of Caffeinated Drinks

Although caffeine can induce a short-term stimulation to our body and mind, it will also cause a negative rebound effect. Furthermore, in the long run the brain adapts to caffeine intake and may not be able to function at its peak when we do not supply it with the accustomed levels of caffeine. This is an unhealthy dependency. If you are already used to taking caffeine regularly to boost your energy, work on slowly eliminating it from your diet. Decaffeinated coffee and tea may help get rid of the addiction while maintaining a placebo effect. One advice for a quick lunch that will not deplete your energy, but rather increase it, is to eat pure protein. Tyrosine, one of the amino acids in protein, is well known for its ability to increase levels of alertness and energy levels. Foods such as broiled fish, sliced poultry, boiled eggs, or tuna are good sources of tyrosine.

Additional advice from nutritionists to prevent fatigue includes getting enough iron, taking advantage of herbs, and preferring natural foods over artificial ones.

Conclusion

In this article we have addressed a commonly overlooked aspect of time management: The impact of our eating habits on self-control and productivity. In addition to its negative consequences on our health, eating too much also affects how we make use of our time. Overeating is one of the primary causes for excessive sleep, fatigue, and loss of mental energy. Foods rich in simple sugars in particular are responsible for dips in performance shortly after consumption. The type of food we eat and the timing of our meals also impact our mind-body. Various hormones that affect our performance are affected by our nutrition pattern. In the prophetic saying we quoted above, Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, links excessive sleep, laziness, and a lack of reflection with overeating. It is remarkable that such sound medical advice came from a person who lived in the 7th century. The recommendation in this prophetic tradition is fully applicable today: Moderate eating is the key to self-control and effective time management. 

Footnotes

1. Suyuti, Jam’ul Jamawi, 832.
2. Tirmidhi, Zuhd 47; Ibn Maja, At’ima, 50.
3. Chafetz, M., Smart for Life, Penguin Books, New York: 1992.
4. Jennie Brand-Miller et al., The New Glucose Revolution –
5. Complete Guide to Glycemic Index Values, Marlowe & Company, New York: 2003.
6. Kotulak, R., Inside The Brain: Revolutionary Discoveries of How the Mind Works, Andrews McMeel Publishing, Kansas City: 1997.

Stereotypes and Identities: Who are “They”?

In the context of conflicts that are faith-related or that appear to be faith-related, the term “they” typically represents a media-driven stereotype of a group of persons who seem totally out of “our” world. They speak a different language, they look different, they dress differently, and their values are different. Let’s examine these factors: The fact that some people look or dress differently is not a problem for most. Mexicans speak a different language than Americans. They look and dress differently. The same can be said of Chinese or Japanese. Yet these differences, in and of themselves, do not carry any negative connotations. How about the values? Do Muslims have essentially different values than Christians, Jews and Buddhists? Not really. Indeed, the vast majority of the fundamental values are shared by all these faiths.

Defining Lifestyles: What is “Our” Lifestyle and what is “Theirs”?

If we look for common traits of lifestyle of American Christians we realize that most of these traits are shared among Christians in the so-called “Western World”; in fact these can be found, to a great extent, throughout the Christian world. If we go on to compare these traits with those of the Muslim lifestyle, we then realize that Muslims also share these traits. This also answers one of the other questions we asked at the beginning: How much does their lifestyle differ from ours? The answer is, not much; certainly not to the extent that these differences should lead to hatred. Similarly, we should not have any animosity toward other peoples of the world whose lifestyle is different from ours.

Communication of Lifestyles: How Much do They Know about Our Lifestyle?

Most Muslims around the world have never met an American Christian in person. Their means of learning about the lifestyle of Americans is through the media. So the question of “how much do they know about our lifestyle?” becomes, rather, how accurately does the media reflect our lifestyle? Most readers might agree that the answer to this question may not be very reassuring.

Impact of Lifestyle across the Borders: How Much does Our Lifestyle have an Impact on Them?

For Muslims living in the same society as Christians in the US, this impact may be significant. For most people living outside the US though, the lifestyle of the people in the US has very little impact on them. What does have a great impact is the foreign policies of the government. Therefore, if we assume that there are some people out there who are opposed to the people of this country, then, with this image, foreign policy carries a greater weight. What then needs to be explored is whether the foreign policy of a country reflects the values and choices of the people of that country accurately. Unfortunately, this may not be the case in many situations.

Hidden Agendas: Who Benefits from the Lifestyle “Explanation”?

Making the rationale for an attitude that develops into a love/hate relationship between lifestyles helps to achieve group solidarity against another group. By positioning the conflict as a conflict of lifestyles, those who are trying to hide the real reasons behind a conflict or those who benefit from the conflict tell the masses: “It is your problem, they do not like you.” Thus, various entities who cannot act by themselves begin to legitimately act on behalf of the people.

Conclusion

When we hear the phrase “they do not like our lifestyle” we should be very careful. We should analyze the context and make sure that this is not simply a spurious “explanation” put out by an entity who benefits from conflict or which is trying to hide the real reasons behind conflict.

And We have made the heavens as a canopy well guarded: yet do they turn away from the Signs which these things (point to)! (Qur’an 21:32)

We are often awed by how fine-tuned our planet is for the existence and continuation of life. One factor that makes this possible is its atmosphere, which is designed to filter out harmful radiation and meteors from space. While solar radiation is largely absorbed, some is reflected by the planet and the atmosphere. Some of the radiation reflected or emitted by Earth passes through the atmosphere, while the rest is absorbed and emitted in all directions by some gases in the atmosphere. This reflected radiation, combined with the energy absorbed by Earth, enables life to exist here.

Since this phenomenon resembles the heat reflected by glass panels in a greenhouse, it is called the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse gases that contribute significantly to this process are carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride. The greenhouse effect is necessary for life, but too much of it is undesirable. Some negative consequences are changes in average temperature, precipitation, wind and ocean circulation patterns, polar glacier melting, and more storms, droughts, and floods.

The atmosphere is an extremely complex system that is not fully understood. During Earth’s long history, its atmosphere’s composition has experienced natural variations. By analyzing tree rings and core samples taken from Greenland and various high-altitude tropical areas, scientists have concluded that Earth has undergone several warming and cooling cycles. Among the factors that can cause such changes are greenhouse gases and ocean water salinity. According to Stant: “Since 1861 the Earth has warmed by about 0.5 degrees Celsius. Most of this warming took place before 1940, but much of it has taken place in the last 15 years. The global temperature of the Earth is projected to rise anywhere from 0.8 to 2.6 degrees Celsius in the next thirty to forty years.”1

Some scientists think that the most recent atmospheric changes are part of a natural variation. But there is a growing consensus that human activity, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases and especially the carbon dioxide produced by industrial activity, has played some role. Small amounts of such gases can be absorbed by forests and oceans, and thus do not represent a serious problem. But thanks to the Industrial Revolution, this system has been thrown out of balance. Other activities, such as increased agriculture, deforestation, and the widespread use of fossil fuels for transportation, industrial processes, and heating fuels have exacerbated it.

This article will summarize the latest findings on the potential impact of global climate change.

Background

The vast majority of scientists now agree that business-as-usual may lead to irreversible change in Earth’s atmosphere. Global climate change became part of the political agenda in the developed world during the mid-1980s, a time of increasing environmental awareness and mounting public concern due to the efforts of Greenpeace, the Sierra Club, and other pro-environment groups. One assumption gradually emerged out of the numerous conferences, grassroots efforts, and publications: The developed countries are primarily responsible for the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and therefore should take the lead in fixing the problem. The latest step taken to mitigate worldwide emissions was the Kyoto Protocol (11 Dec. 1998), which devised a formula to determine the amount of gases each country could emit. Although signed by 84 countries, it has to be ratified by at least 55 countries (emissions from which make up at least 55% of global emissions) before it can be enforced. This has not happened yet.

The United States, the major producer of greenhouse gases, has signed but not ratified the Kyoto Protocol. Hopes were high that the new Bush administration would do so. However, Bush soon reneged on a campaign pledge to regulate carbon dioxide emissions from U.S. power plants, and shortly thereafter repudiated the Kyoto Protocol. His claim that the scientific evidence for the greenhouse effect and its consequences was not yet convincing was greeted with disbelief. Questions were raised about corporate America’s role in forming his views, as many companies opposed the protocol and contributed heavily to his presidential campaign.

Fortunately, there is also mounting evidence that industry opposition, led by the oil, gas, and automotive concerns, is weakening. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, “many businesses recognize global warming as a threat and realize that reducing emissions is in their economic interest. Several-including such giants as BP-Amoco, IBM and Johnson & Johnson-have voluntarily adopted emissions reductions stronger than those called for in the Kyoto Protocol.”2

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. Tasked with assessing the scientific, technical, and socioeconomic data needed to understand the risk of human-induced climate change, its mission is to provide policymakers with the most current scientific data on global climate change. The IPCC serves as a good example of how scientists from different backgrounds and countries come together to investigate a global problem. Some of its findings are summarized below.3

Agriculture and Food Security. In principle, increased levels of carbon dioxide should benefit agriculture. However, one has to consider subsequent regional changes in rainfall and the reaction of crops, soil, and pests. Moreover, excessive heat and drought might have a negative impact on crop yield.

The overall effect on crop yield is predicted to be positive, especially in such colder regions as Canada and Russia, if the rise in average temperature does not exceed several degrees Celsius. If it does, the effect will be negative. In tropical regions, where crops are already near their maximum heat tolerance, even a minimal increase in temperature is predicted to have a negative effect on crop yields. The number of people at risk of hunger, especially in Africa, is expected to increase. The most vulnerable populations will be those who depend heavily on agriculture and those living in developing countries.

Ecosystem Damage. Ecosystems react to climate changes much slower than people. Wildlife habitat distribution and composition will be directly influenced by any change in temperature and rainfall, and indirectly by any change in vegetation. Most likely, species will not have enough time to adapt. This will be exacerbated by the continuing fragmentation of wildlife habitats by human settlement, which makes migration infeasible for most species. Since migration is unlikely, species composition and dominance will change, and endangered species will face extinction. Changes in ocean circulation will affect fish abundance and habitat boundaries, as well as fish population dynamics. This might have a significant impact on fish-dependent societies.

Rising Sea Levels. This is perhaps the most worrisome impact category. The IPCC Working Group I reports that as a result of melting polar glaciers, the global sea level will rise anywhere from 0.09m to 0.88m. Oceans cover a large part of the planet and have a significant impact on its climate. Wind and circulation patterns also are affected by changes in sea level and sea-surface temperature.

If the rises are high enough, many of the generally accepted models indicate that small islands will be submerged, many coastal areas will be inundated, and freshwater resources will face seawater intrusion. In addition, large coastal areas will be evacuated, populations will have to migrate, and wetlands and mangrove forests will be lost. Such countries as Bangladesh, which depends heavily on mangroves, will be devastated. The fishery industry will suffer as fish abundance and location change.

And, as if all of this were not enough, there also might be a rise in the frequency and severity of storms and sea-surges. Countries that depend largely on coastal tourism will suffer. Although people will see the approaching catastrophes and try to protect themselves by building seawalls, nourishing beaches, and other measures, not all of the impact will be cancelled.

Health Sector. There will be fewer complaints about the cold during the winter, but more complaints about the heat during the summer. Whether the benefits will outweigh the costs depends on the region. Tropical regions will face more deaths from heat stress. In addition, the influence areas of vector-, food- and water-borne diseases will shift. For example, depending on changes in rainfall and average temperature, malaria or dengue fever might become more widespread.

Although the specific impact depends on a wide variety of local conditions, such as the health infrastructure and socioeconomic conditions, the overall effect is predicted to be negative, especially in developing countries. Such extreme climate-related events as cyclones, floods, and droughts might become more common and severe, and thus leave exposed populations with even more health problems.

What Needs To Be Done

For each anticipated impact category (and for others not included here),

there is a wide range of institutional, technological, and behavioral adaptation measures that can be pursued to minimize damage. The IPCC report contains many suggestions. Governments should become aware of the consequences of global climate change and start working to increase public awareness. As most measures might take decades to plan and implement, any delay only makes the problem harder to solve.

In addition, greenhouse gas emission rates have to be decreased. The time for playing around has passed. Governments and people in positions of power, as hard as it might be, should agree on a global approach and then set about implementing it. There have been some advances, but not enough. Developed countries, having caused the global warming problem, should take the lead in implementing the Kyoto Protocol as soon as possible.

A key ingredient is technology transfer. Most developing countries are still building industrial, energy, and distribution infrastructures. Developed countries should try to ensure that only the latest and cleanest technologies are installed so that the solution is not only postponed to a later date.

This is vital in China, now home to almost one-fourth of humanity and undergoing rapid economic growth and development. Given its size, its development policies will have a global impact. According to Mark Hertsgaard, who spent 6 weeks in China studying this issue: “China is … the world’s second largest producer of greenhouse gases, trailing only the United States. With its immense coal reserves, huge population, and booming economic growth, China is very likely to triple its greenhouse emissions by 2020 …. If outsiders want China to do something about global warming, they will have to pay for it. As one Western consultant with regular access to senior Chinese officials puts it, “They know very well they can hold the world for ransom … and whenever they can extract concessions, they will.”4

Many people in the developing world might object to “hold the world for ransom” for a quite logical reason: When the now-developed countries were developing, environmental damage and pollution were non-issues. Now that others are trying to develop, the developed world wants to maintain the status quo, which is stacked in its favor, by raising standards. This charge must be addressed in such a way that those making it will accept proposed environmental regulations and policies.

A Recent Development

On July 26, 2001, Japan and other nations joined Europe in accepting the Kyoto Protocol. But the price might have been too high: a scaling back of carbon dioxide reductions, the acceptance of “carbon sinks” (that forests and other environmental reatures would absorb more greenhouse gases), and that violators would not be penalized. President Bush has not yet revealed his promised alternative.

Conclusion

Global climate change, as the phrase indicates, is a global challenge that requires a great deal of attention and resource concentration. However, it also requires political will. This is especially true with China, which endured great famines and poverty during the twentieth century. Hoping to avoid any repetition, China has embraced the late Deng Xiaoping’s policy of “to get rich is glorious.” If it comes down to a choice between development and the environment, China and other developing countries just might choose development.

Western businesses claim that the developing world will gain an unfair competitive edge if its companies are exempt from existing environmental regulations. But instead of showing such countries see that environmental protection is in their own long-term interest and helping them acquire and implement the latest technology, many Western companies relocate in countries with lax and easily subverted environmental legislation. Such short-sighted policies increase the problem’s severity, for it shows that the developed world does not really care about the environment. If this is so, how can it expect the developing world to care about it?

Hopefully, nations will find a way to protect their environments while enjoying double-digit growth figures, and their scientists and politicians will find the necessary will to solve this problem

Footnotes

1. Linda Ruth Stant, “Changes in the Earth’s Climate for the Past Two Million Years.” Online at: http://www.gly.fsu. edu/~kish/dynamic/global/LS.htm.
2. www.nrdc.org/globalWarming/nnego.asp.
3. The findings are taken from “Summary for Policy Makers: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.” The summary of the Working Group II report is online at: www.ipcc.ch.
4. Mark Hertsgaard, “Our Real China Problem,” The Atlantic Online (Nov. 1997). Online at: http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/97nov/china.htm

Other References

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Online at: www.epa.gov/globalwarming.
• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Online at: www.unfccc.de.

I would like to focus briefly on the twentieth century in terms of technological innovations and their impact on the human soul. The Industrial Revolution radically changed our traditional lifestyle. Modern technology engendered many improvements in such areas as production and transportation. These changes were reflected in the literature and art of the period as well.

Views of Technology

In 1909, for instance, the Italian writer Marinetti published The Manifesto of Futurism, a great example of how intellectuals were affected by technology. He states that the world’s magnificence has been enriched by this new beauty, the beauty of speed: We stand on the last promontory of the centuries! Why should we look back? What we want is to break down the mysterious doors of the impossible. Time and space died yesterday. We already live in the absolute, because we have created eternal, omnipresent speed. We will destroy the museums, libraries, academies of every kind, will fight moralism, feminism, every opportunistic or utilitarian cowardice.(1)

This approach is very understandable, because its adherents assumed that modern technology would provide opportunities they had never experienced. The prospects of technology amazed them. But looking back, we see that technology shaped a new type of people who are dependent on machines. Producing tools and making money became cornerstones of modern life. These views threaten cultural values and traditional relationships among people who feel alone in these technologically separated environments. We ask: How much do machines dominate humanity, and why do people feel so deeply abandoned?

We can look at two perspectives from that period. The first is technology as a magical and wonderful creation, promoted by Marinetti and other futurists. The other is characterized by people like Charlie Chaplain who, in one of his movies, shows a worker who screws bolts every day as eventually starting to see everything as a bolt. This is the worst effect of twentieth-century technology: People have begun to feel like machines or parts of machines.

Do people need and deserve more than this? Of course, they do.

The latest version of modern technology is cyberspace, a place where people can find all sorts of information. Locating information and sharing experiences is easier than ever before. The Internet, for example, has become the information superhighway on which people can find almost everything. The Internet and other technological tools have helped create the expression being digital, which refers to people who use a lot of technology. Is this the illusion of technological globalization(2) or electronic democracy will be the end of participatory democracy?(3) Even though this digital medium provides a new source of information, we have not figured out how best to use it or what information to trust on it.

Issues

At this point, we must learn how to use modern technology and regulate information, because we cannot ignore them. These scientific and technological advances will play important roles in future developments. Science and technology in and of themselves are not the problem, nor have they ever been. The real problem is that science and technology are developed, deployed, and controlled by the predatory system of pancapitalism. The mainstream development of knowledge and technology is guided by increased efficiency in militarized production of violence and/or by potential corporate profits in civilian markets.(4)

There is another significant point here: Modern technology has been trying to create a cyberbody. In the future, scientists will be able to produce digital flesh to enhance our abilities. So here is the problem we have to solve: People who have these enhancements installed may begin to wonder if they are humans or robots. We already have seen that people can adjust their bodies in many ways: laser surgery to correct their vision, or synthetic material to replace their teeth.

Cyberfeminism focusing on women’s role in cyberculture is another interesting example of changing the human body. This already has caused some problems. The challenge here is rather how to combine the recognition of postmodern embodiment with resistance to relativism and a free fall into cynicism.(5)

Technology has limited privacy. When we are born, we get a birth certificate that quickly goes online. Educational files, social security files, insurance files, criminal files, consumption files, and so on are all in cyberspace. The Internet has become an on-line marketplace and is continuing to grow.

On the other hand, even though we are so connected, our social relationships with others have fallen apart. Every relationship between teachers and students, buyers and sellers, parents and children, for example, will be changed radically in the next few decades.

The most important question is how can we find a good balance that gives happiness and hope for both our bodies and our souls? We are not just bodies that need to eat, sleep, and rest, among other things; our souls must be nourished. In this technological age, this has led to a conflict”the crisis of modernity”between religious and metaphysical ideas. Nietzsche said that God was dead. Of course he was wrong, because he, like other philosophers, could not have realized that spiritual needs would become so important in modern times.

Today, we still are seeking for something to feed modern society’s spiritual hunger. We will have to find or build a way of thinking that will include metaphysical ideas, scientific innovations, and religious thought. After that, we will be able to put ourselves in a place where people can regulate their spiritual and physical needs. Otherwise, we will never feel that we are free

Footnotes

1 F. T. Marinetti, The Manifesto of Futurism, Le Figaro (February 20, 1909).

2 Steve Gibson, www.kk.kau.se/mct/MCTO199/steve/ right.html.

3 An Interview with Paul Virilio, www.nettime.org/ nettime.w3archive/199904/msgn00456.html.

4 Critical Arts Ensemble Staff, Critical Art Ensemble, The Flesh Machine: Cyborgs, Designer Babies, and New Eugenic Consciousness (Autonomedia: 1998), 7-8.

5 Rosi Braidotti, Cyberfeminism with a Difference, www.let.ruu.nl/womens_studies/library.html.Other Negative Effects The majority of electronic media content, especially TV programming, contributes to materialism and consumerism. Material well-being and possessions are viewed as lifes greatest values. The AAP labels child-directed advertisement as inherently deceptive and exploitive. Numerous studies conclude that children under the age of approximately 8 cannot understand the intent of advertisements. This vulnerability leads them to accept such advertisements as true,(11) which leads to unnecessary spending in some families and to childrens keen disappointment in others. Part of the reason for the Wests decreasing spirituality may be attributed to increased materialism via electronic media programming. The electronic media contributes markedly to obesity by displacing many more active alternative activities. Advertising also is a factor, as many of food advertisements are for unhealthy products. In particular, child-directed toy and food commercials may result in increased conflict between parents and children because of the parents inability or un-willingness to meet the childs demands. Most electronic media content glamorizes and normalizes alcohol, tobacco, and drug usage. The implicit message usually associates these substances with fun, prestige, humor, and excitement. But their negative consequences are usually depicted rather poorly or not at all. When Sweden banned alcohol advertising on TV in the mid-1970s, alcohol consumption decreased by 20 percent. If this was the result with a clearly stated message, we can expect the effect on an implicitly stated message to be even more dramatic. The implicit message concerning sexuality is roughly the same: Everybody, especially the young, is sexually active. There is nothing to worry about. The drawbacks and consequences of such depictions are rarely, if ever, mentioned. Abstinence is either not presented or is portrayed negatively. Another concern is the medias provision of ready-to-use gender, occupational, race, religious, and other stereotypes. Many viewers accept these passively and then generalize them. The impact is much greater on children than adults. Finally, the electronic media affects school and job performance. If we consider the people we know, we would find that academically or professionally successful people rarely invest much time in the electronic media. Similarly, many heavy users have accomplished nothing significant at school or on the job. Recent studies have pointed out that more than 1 to 2 hours per day of TV viewing has an adverse effect on academic performance, especially a childs reading and comprehension scores.(13) As we read in Drabman and Thomas: A socially interactive environment that stimulates curiosity and exploration enhances the development of an effective brain. Thus, excessive childhood involvement with electronic media that limit social interaction could hinder the development of a brains social system.(14) Heavy electronic media viewing might lead to attention deficit disorder (ADD) or a decreased attention span. A person with ADD cannot concentrate on any task for long, and so does not acquire the necessary persistence required both at school and at work to achieve something. Such children also may become accustomed to learning through visual images. But learning at school is primarily verbal, via teacher lectures, and contains few images. Thus they may be unable to learn as much, for this is not the way they have learned to comprehend. The impact also is seen in ones imagination, which may be considered a precursor for creativity. Carlsson-Paige and Levin conclude that before TV, children usually made up their own war-play themes. Today, most of it comes from imitating electronic media content.(15) Such imitative, in lieu of imaginative, play impairs the proper development of childrens cognitive systems. Media Literacy or Media Education One rather radical solution to counteract these negative effects is to remove all electronic media from our lives. However, this is not a realistic option for those with children. Electronic media has the potential to enhance peoples, especially childrens, knowledge, experience, and perception. Isolating children from its harmful effects is impossible, for they will be exposed thorough their school and friends. Such isolation may have an even more adverse effect. A more elaborate and sensible alternative is to improve critical electronic media usage skills through media education or literacy. Such strategies can be defined as eliminating negative effects while taking advantage of its benefits by educating children, adolescents, and adults. According to the AAP, a media-literate person should understand that(16): All media messages are constructions produced by people to be viewed Media messages shape our understanding of the world People interpret media messages uniquely Electronic and mass media have powerful economic implications. People can become more media literate if they: Get involved in sports, camping, hiking, reading, and other non-media activities. Provide immediate and elaborate content-related explanations to children and adolescents via content interpretation and explanation Ban all violent, offensive, and indecent electronic media content, including non-educational video games and cartoons Restrict electronic media usage to those with high educational content Have one TV per house Put the TV and other electronic media in the houses less-prominent areas Keep TVs, computers, video games, and so on out of childrens rooms Do not use the electronic media, especially TV, to babysit, punish, or reward Turn off all electronic media during meals, when most family interaction occurs Do not fight boredom by using more electronic media, for if directed properly, boredom may lead to creativity Prepare a weekly schedule of programs to watch Keep children under 2 years old away from the TV and other electronic media, for such children require a great deal of interaction for healthy brain growth and the development of appropriate social, emotional, and cognitive skills. For older children, limit it to 1 to 2 hours. Conclusion The electronic media has potential benefits. However, it also has negative, harmful effects, especially on children. As it cannot be banished, both parents and children should become media literate. Rather than waiting until unacceptable behavioral patterns are learned and then dedicating substantial resources to cope with them, it is far better to redirect efforts and resources toward early prevention programs, particularly for children and adolescents Footnotes 1 This is the American Academy of Pediatricss definition. 2 Judith Van Evra, Television and Child Development, Children, Youth, and Family Consortium (CYFC), (1990). 3 Pediatrics: Policy Statement on Impact of Music Lyrics and Music Videos on Children and Youth, American Academy of Pediatrics 98, no. 6 (December 1996): 1219-21. 4 Said Nursi, Letters: Seeds of Reality (Turkey: Sozler Nesriyat, 1994), 545. 5 Victor C. Strasburger, Children, Adolescents, and the Media: Five Crucial Issues, Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews 4, no. 3 (October 1993); Van Evra, Television and Child Development. 6 R. S. Drabman and M. H. Thomas, Does TV Violence Breed Indifference? Journal of Communication 25, no. 4 (1975): 86-89. 7 R. Sylwester, The Effects of Electronic Media on the Developing Brain, Media Literacy Online Project (College of Education, University of Oregon: 1994). 8 Surgeon Generals Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior, Television and Growing Up: The Impact of Televised Violence, Report to the Surgeon General, United States Public Health Service (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1972); D. Pearl, Television and Behavior: Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the Eighties, US Department of Health and Human Services, Publication No. ADM 82-1195, vol. 1, (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office 1982); A. C. Huston et al., Big World, Small Screen: The Role of Television in American Society (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1992). This book is the APA Task Forces report on television in society. 9 C. Anderson, Video Games and Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Behavior in the Laboratory and in Life, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78, no. 4 (April 2000): 772-90. 10 C. Kalin, Television, Violence, and Children (M.Sc. Synthesis Paper, College of Education, University of Oregon, 1997). 11 Pediatrics: Policy Statement on Children, Adolescents and Advertising, American Academy of Pediatrics (February 1995); Surgeon Generals Scientific Advisory Committee, Television and Growing Up. 12 In the context of this article, spirituality is defined as implementing the requirements of religious orders in ones life. For instance, the size of the Sunday service congregations has been declining for several decades. 13 Victor C. Strasburger, Does Television Affect Learning and School Performance? Pediatrician 38 (1986): 141-47; M. Morgan, Television and School Performance, Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews 4 (1993): 607-22. 14 Drabman and Thomas, Does TV Violence Breed Indifference? 86-89. 15 Huston et al., Big World, Small Screen. 16 Pediatrics: Policy Statement on Media Education, American Academy of Pediatrics 104, no. 2 (August 1999): 341-43.

Historical perspective

In European history the ‘dark ages’ encompass the period of the scholastic thinkers and go as far as the dawn of the ‘modern’ age, around the beginning of the seventeenth century after Christ. During this long period, it can fairly be said that there was no significant development in the philosophy or principles of law: The principles and rules of Roman Law were accepted without question, with very little amendment and interpretation. But the same period in the Islamic world saw significant developments in the principles and rules of law, as well as in the social and natural sciences. Europe’s ‘dark ages’ (insofar as the label is justified) were not ‘dark’ for the Islamic world.

One example of this is the development of the concept of al-Siyar or international law, the term was first used in the discourses of the great jurist, Imam Abu Hanifah. During the Abbasid Caliphate, these discourses were written down and edited by Imam Muhammad al-Shayhani in his famous Kitab al-Siyar al-Saghir and Kitab al-Siyar al-Kabir. Another example is that, in the time of ‘The Karahans’, the first Muslim Turkish state, Serahsi, the greatest jurist of his age, wrote a five-volume study of international law, Sherhu’s Siyar al Kabir (see Akgunduz,199l). During the Ottoman period, this book was recommended by Sultan Mahmut II for teaching to the Janissaries.

International law before Islam

The concept of an international law was certainly known before Islam – envoys were sent and received between states, for example. But the concept was very limited – for example, there were no recognized rules for the treatment of prisoners of war and in any case applied only to a limited number of states or city-states whose people had the same race or religion or language.

Among the ancient Greeks, international law was only recognized between the city-states of the Greek Peninsula: non-Greeks were considered ‘barbarians’. A sort of ‘League of Nations’ had been established and the principle of protection for civilian objects’ and non-combatants – which meant not destroying a town or cutting off its water supply – was acknowledged between the Greek city-states but only between them. Roman Law was likewise applied only for states which were allied by treaty to the Roman Empire: inhabitants of states not protected by such a treaty could be enslaved and their property confiscated , Roman Law did not recognize any rights for belligerents or non-belligerents in a situation of war. And Roman Law in principle and practice protected only Roman citizens (Shaw, 1991).

al-Siyar as international law

The law of Islam was the first to give formal recognition to a truly international law to manage affairs between groups of people. M. Hamidullah (1973) says that “when Islam came and founded a state of its own, the earliest name given by Muslim writers to the special branch of law dealing with war, peace and neutrality seems to have been siyar the plural form of sirah meaning conduct and behaviour.’ One of the features of al-siyar was that there was no discrimination against foreigners or non-Muslim states.

One can see that the principle of international law was enshrined from the inception of Islam. An example is the treaty of Hudaybiya which was made during the time of the Prophet Muhammad, upon him he peace. The negotiation of the articles of the agreement had ended, and the Prophet, upon him he peace, had consented for them, but the agreement had yet to be signed. Abu Jandal then came to the Muslim camp seeking refuge. When Suhail saw his son, he said to the Prophet:

‘The matter between you and me has already been settled.’ The Prophet, upon him be peace, said: ‘You speak the truth.’ On hearing that, Abu Jandal said: ‘0 Muslims, am I to be returned to the idolaters to be deprived of my religion?’ But Abu Jandal was returned to the non-Muslims according to the terms of the agreement despite the objections raised to it by many of the Companions. This event illustrates the degree of importance attached to a treaty as one of the sources of international law in Islam.

As regards the sources of international law in Islam, Abdurrahman Doi (1984) has pointed out that, as well as treaties, custom, reason and authority were also relevant. However, these terms have a different meaning from that specified in Article 38 of the statutes of the International Court of Justice. The concept of international law encompasses ‘all public functions conducted by the state or its citizens in any intercourse not necessarily subject to private regulations in the performance of the public functions.’

It is worth noting here that traditional international law does not include individuals as a subject of its rules, that is, its jurisdictional application is limited to ‘states’ only. As Shaw (1991) points out, individuals are recognized as subjects of modern international law primarily through the establishment of human rights law after World War II. In Islam by contrast, international law governed not only the conduct of the Muslim state with other states, but also the relation of non-Muslim states and non-Muslim individuals living in the Muslim state.

The impact of al-siyar as international law

There was an impact of al-siyar on the earliest European writers on international law – among them, Pierre Bellow, Ayala, Victoria, Gentiles. All came from Spain or Italy and were influenced by Islam and Muslims during the Renaissance that was, in part, a response to the impact of Islam on Christendom. Moreover, Islamic international law must have influenced Grotius, as this impact can be seen from his discovery that postiliminium was known to Muslim law (see, Doi, 1984, p.421).

Leading authorities on international law such as Oppenheim have speculated on the long gap (about a millennium) between the period of Roman Law and the period when Grotius wrote his Do Jure Belli (1623). Given that many concepts of modern international law and relations are prefigured in Islamic codes, the impact of Islamic legal concepts should and could be seen to bridge that long gap in European legal studies.

Earlier human rights declarations

In the Western tradition, fundamental human rights and freedoms have been ‘declared’ in very well known documents – among others, the Bill of Rights consequent on the English Revolution of 1689, the Bill of Rights promulgated by the state of Virginia in June 1776, the Declaration of Independence issued by American States in July 1776, the French Declaration of Rights of Men and Citizens issued by the Constituent Assembly of France in 1789. In Western thought on the subject, Sultan Abdul-Mejid’s ‘Gulhane Hatt-i Humayun’ of 1839 and Islahat Fermani of 1856, the Ottoman Imperial Restricts, are also counted as documents on international human rights, but, there is a substantial difference between them and the Western documents. The latter announced and initiated reforms in fundamental rights and freedoms; by contrast, the Ottoman documents (as Akgunduz, 1990, has pointed out) formalized in writing what had already been practised in the Ottoman Empire, i.e. in the Islamic countries. On the Gulhane Hatt-i Humayun, Kuzu (1991) points out that its prohibition of the separation of people as Muslims and non- Muslims was practically meaningless because there was no problem in the Ottoman Empire of the freedom of conscience and religious belief.

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

• AKGUNDUZ, A. (1991) Belgeler Gercekleri Konusuyor Vols 3-4, Nil Yayinlari, Izmit
• CIN, H and AKGUNDUZ, A. (1990) Turk Hukuk Tarihi Istanbul.
• DOI, A, (1984) The Islamic Law. Ta-Ha Publishers, London.
• GAUHAR, A. (1978) The Challenge of Islam. (ed), Islamic Information Services, London.
• HARRIS, n.i. (1991) Cases and Materials on International Law, Sweet & Maxwell, London.
• KUZU, a. (1992) Demokrasi – Resmi Ideoloji – Sivil Toplum’, The Magazine of
• Ankara Universtiy, Faculty of Political Sciences ,47, p.346.
• LAGUEUR, W. & RUBIN, B. (1979) (eds) The Human Rights Reader, New American Library. New York.
• MCCAUBRY, H. (1990) International Humanitarian Law: The Regulation of Armed Conflict, Dartmouth, Hants.
• SHAW, NI. N. (1991) International Law, Grotius Publications Limited, Cambridge.
• SIEGHART. p. (1986) The Lawful Rights of Mankind, Oxford University Press, Oxford.