inheritance – Fountain Magazine

Fethullah Gülen Hocaefendi and His Will

The Fountain — Fri, 01 Nov 2024 00:00:37 +0000

How would I summarize Hocaefendi’s life in one sentence? A single sentence that could encapsulate his entire life. In the first few days of my endeavor seeking an answer to this question, I found myself weary under the weight and intensity of the thoughts crowding my mind as I tried to form such a sentence. I have spent nearly thirty years immersed in his ideas and thoughts, organizing and analyzing them from religious, social, historical, and contextual perspectives. In recent years, my focus has been on exploring the authentic, legitimate foundations, both material and spiritual, that shaped his ideas and the movement of volunteers he inspired. Throughout my studies, I have constantly searched for a way to distill it all into a single sentence.

The soundness and legitimacy of a cause can be tested on multiple grounds, drawing testimony from religion, humanity, conscience, history and societal common sense. Hizmet is a movement of volunteers which derives legitimacy from all these areas and has won the conscientious approval of millions worldwide. Only a handful religious and social movements in history have received an acceptance and recognition as broad as the one Hizmet has.

As everyone knows, Hocaefendi’s will was opened recently and shared on social media. Personally, I view this historical document as both a testament to his modest life and as a validation of his religious, humanistic, moral, and conscientious legitimacy. As a founding leader, he demonstrated to millions the depth of his ethical consistency in managing the movement’s resources.

Having spent some years in his teaching circle, I’ve been somewhat aware of this will for the past thirty years. He would occasionally reference it in different contexts. Decades ago, we were already aware of his deep regret for small debts incurred fifty years earlier and his relentless efforts to track down and repay those creditors.

We witnessed him rigorously accounting for every aspect of his life. Everyone close to him could attest to his unwavering scrupulousness in religious, moral, and conscientious matters. Yet, even with this awareness, I must admit that reading his will left me unsteady, prompting an unprecedented level of self-reflection. At that moment, it felt as if time stood still. I am at a loss of words to describe the sense of humility and shame I felt in the face of a life spanning more than eighty years lived in simplicity while leading a massive movement whose influence, message, and synergy have reached millions across the globe.

And yet, for years, people have said so many things about him. Some even fabricated outrageous claims: that he controlled billions of dollars, owned vast olive groves stretching from Edremit to Ayvalık (in Turkey), and lived a life of luxury in gilded mansions on private estates—slander so shameful that I blush merely repeating it. Even those who spread this slander knew he had spent his life on a simple mat. In any case, I do not wish to taint your mind with such falsehoods. For me and for millions, his will has now become a historic document that summarizes the life of this towering figure. It stands as the greatest witness to both his spiritual character and to the movement of volunteers he founded—affirming the religious, human, moral, social, and historical legitimacy, as well as the ethical consistency, of the movement. I see it as a historic testament to the integrity of the volunteers who embody this service.

What remains from a spiritual and moral hero is this humble, simple, yet profoundly historic document. He was a religious leader and a guide who carefully kept his closest ones away from the material resources of the movement and settled in the hearts of millions. Yes, of course, there are the schools, myriads of volunteers, lives devoted to humanity, monumental services, and historic bridges of dialogue built among diverse cultures, all bearing witness to this legacy. Yet, the message conveyed by this modest document feels like a universal call to humanity’s conscience and common sense, inviting us to a life of selflessness and prophetic integrity in an increasingly materialistic, worldly, and self-centered world.

When I read his will, the first thought that came to mind was the incident following the Prophet’s passing. His wives sent Uthman ibn Affan to Caliph Abu Bakr to request their share of inheritance from Khaybar and Fadaq. When Aisha heard about this request, she quoted the following words from the Prophet: “We Prophets do not leave wealth as inheritance; what we leave behind is charity.” Upon hearing this, they withdrew their demand. Although there are different narrations, in one version, it is stated that scholars are the inheritors of the Prophets. This inheritance, when taken in its absolute meaning, suggests that true inheritors are not only those who inherit knowledge and wisdom but also those who inherit the pain, suffering, trials, poverty, and deprivation endured by the Prophets. This document stands as a testament to a life marked by hardship and sacrifice.

They once asked Rumi about the “state” of a lover (of God), and he responded, “It is like the sleep of one who rests on a pillow of thorns.” When I first read this in high school, I thought it was merely a poetic metaphor. I was somewhat familiar with the kind of life dervishes like Rumi and Yunus Emre led from Sufi literature. However, until I met Hocaefendi, I always looked to the past, to the ascetic lives of the dervishes of the eighth and ninth centuries, as the embodiment of this statement. I had assumed that such a life could no longer be practiced in modern times. Hocaefendi, I came to realize, was the sole exception.

Without a doubt, any attempt on my part to describe Hocaefendi’s state would be a second- or perhaps third-hand account. However, as a note for history, I can attest to this through my own observations, using Rumi’s metaphor: not only was Hocaefendi’s pillow thorny, but his entire bed and cover seemed laden with thorns. He lived his entire life that way. I believe that his fellow volunteers, close companions throughout different phases of his life, as well as his relatives and others who knew him well, would affirm these words.

In sum, this will stands as the greatest testament to his life of suffering, hardship, and profound concerns for humanity. May his soul rest in peace, may his place be the highest level of Paradise, and may his memory be cherished in our minds. I extend condolences to all who love him throughout the world.

The Will & Testament of M. Fethullah Gülen

In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.

God is a witness over this.

This is the will of Fethullah Gülen from Erzurum.

Praise be to God, peace and blessings be upon the Beloved of God to the number of atoms of the universe, and upon his Companions to the degree of perfection of that noble Messenger.

From those who know me and happen to be at the place I die, I request the following. As to which items in my home belong to me and which do not have also been identified.

Firstly: Assuming the possibility of inadvertent misuse during my service, donate 300 TL (Turkish Lira) to both the old and the new foundations.

From the money in my wallet, a shroud of the cheapest cloth is to be purchased, and the remaining amount should be given to charity, without any expectation of reward.
When once I was in financial hardship, (such and such person) in Erzurum had given me 3,000 TL (approximately $87) on one occasion and 500 TL (approximately $14.50) on another. Any of my books not already in his library should be given to him to compensate for that amount.
I borrowed 2,000 TL (approx. $57) from (such and such) in 1966. Although he considered it alms and did not seek repayment, I do not have a clear conscience about it. Therefore, books equivalent to the value of that amount should be given to him.
My clothes in the wardrobe and the bedding are to be donated to students. Except for the plain red blanket, everything was provided for my use on the assumption of my service. These items, without exception, should be distributed to the individuals I name below. The tape player, radio, and cassettes should also be given to students (…) and (…) at the foundation. Both wooden bookshelves should likewise be delivered to the friends named below.
As for the books in the drawer of the little cabinet, the names of their owners are written inside. They too are to be delivered to their owners. If any money is found between the pages, it should also be given to the individuals named below.
In 1958, I borrowed 20 TL from a craftsman who was laying the lead for the dome of the Kurşunlu Mosque in Erzurum. Efforts to find him were unsuccessful, but he should be located, and the debt paid according the value of that day. I also borrowed 75 TL from a student whose name I have forgotten. While I believe I may have repaid this debt, I remain uneasy about it.

Any carpets, rugs, and other spreads, as well as the fridge and washing machine, should all, without exception, be delivered to the following individuals: (…), (…), (…), (…), (…) A copy of this will can be found in the pocket of one of the jackets in my room.

M. Fethullah

Note: The names directly mentioned in the original text are kept private. It has been reported by his family and students that Fethullah Gülen already paid all the debt listed in the will at different times since then.

Can Genes Alone Explain Everything?

Louima Cunningham — Sat, 01 Nov 2008 00:00:00 +0000

Genetics is probably one of the fastest developing contemporary sciences with an incredibly large accumulation of knowledge. This knowledge of genetics has been extensively utilized in a broad spectrum of areas including unveiling the genetic secrets of different traits. This has paved ways to improving human health and sustaining agriculture, and preserving biological diversity on this planet. In addition to its practical implications, genetics is a major issue for philosophy, ethics, ecology, and economy. Genetics has also been readily incorporated into the public perspective through different means of mass communications, that is, electronic and print media.

The complex nature of genetics and its wide implications for all living organisms from viruses to humans provide raw materials for creative imaginations. In the present scenario, many consider it vital to comprehend all the genetic information necessary to support life on this universe. One of the common constraints on the understanding of genetics is the assumption that genes are the sole causes of all activities of living organisms and can explain all aspects of biological life on earth. For example, some believe the behavior and development of an organism can be predicted, if its genetic information is known-this belief is called “genetic determinism.” However, it is true that neither all aspects of inheritance are in all cases well explained, nor that the mere effect of genes on complex traits is well interpreted. The boundaries of the effects of genes on physical existence, development, survival, and the behavior of organisms are not always simple and straightforward. The capacity of humans for genetic manipulation-at least as it is commonly assumed or claimed-is limited in several ways and some of the basic causes of such barriers have yet to be explained. The focus of this article is to point out the limitations on attempts to appoint genes as the driving force of life.

The Central Dogma

Genes are small fragments of genomic DNA, encoding mRNAs which are later translated into proteins that participate in different biological metabolisms, hence conferring different traits on an organism. The biological functions and transmission patterns of genes over generations were being investigated well before the discovery of DNA as hereditary material and date back to the recognition of Mendel’s laws in the early twentieth century. Genetic information is coded in the form of a short string of DNA called a gene, which is employed in the expression of a trait(s) or mechanism(s) through synthesizing a chain of amino acids called proteins. These proteins either can be stored in different body parts or serve as enzymes in various biochemical reactions such as fighting infections. This flow of genetic information from gene–mRNA–protein synthesis is called the “Central Dogma” in biological sciences. In this biological doctrine, a very solid and predictable mechanism is assumed. Prior to the release of the human genome sequence information, the number of genes in the human genome was estimated as ~100,000. However, this estimate was far more than the actual number of genes (~35,000), which led us to question the validity of the “Central Dogma” as an explanation of the complexity of human beings. Out of these ~35,000, only 300 genes are unique to the human species.¹ This is another blow to the authenticity of the original central dogma theory. Are those 300 genes the foundation of all humankind and do they distinguish us from the rest of the mammals? Reducing humankind to its biology and explaining it based on genes has been questioned extensively and could be the subject of another discussion. But even considering such a view valid for purely practical purposes, the big gap between humans and other mammals cannot be due to the existence of this small number of genes.

Recent scientific discoveries have revealed a key point about the structure of genes-that each gene has a set of sub-segments called exons. Each exon can make a new protein. Hence, the gene can be the template for more than one protein. In the presence of other genes and proteins, the code of a particular gene can yield different kinds of proteins under variable circumstances. The flow of information can be both ways, and hence there are no predetermined factors controlling the flow of information. That means, we might know the information on what genes are present, and we can even decode it to know what is in there, but we cannot be sure what result (proteins in this context) will come out at the end when it is in the context of real life.

From physical characteristics to their genetics

Working back from a particular trait and trying to infer the genes that are involved in expression of such trait is a different approach to reveal the role of genes but surely it is not an easy task. Traits that are expressed by a single gene or a small number of genes are known as Mendelian/qualitative traits and their pattern of inheritance is simple and detection of the gene(s) is straightforward. Some of the disease resistance in plants and blood groups in humans are classic examples of Mendelian traits. The main distinction between such traits and the quantitative ones is their discreteness. For example a human being can have only one of four blood types: A, B, AB or O, and each of these groups is solid and no other blood types exist in between. In this type of trait, the role of a particular gene(s) is usually predictable and the pattern of transmissions over generations both for the future and the past can be inferred.

However, only a small percentage of traits is qualitative and expresses Mendelian inheritance. Most traits, such as intelligence, skin color in humans, height of an organism, seed yield of a grain, and diseases that have genetic causes like cancer, are quantitative traits and complex in nature. The ultimate phenotype (what we can see or measure from a trait) emerges from the joint effect of many genes as well as interaction with the particular environment in which the individual develops. The number of genes that is involved in the expression of a particular trait can be hundreds or even more. An objective assessment of each trait and quantification (called the phenotype) is impractical in most cases and could lead to another discussion. But assuming that we can measure a trait feasibly, the inference of genetic bases could still be controversial. Considerable efforts have been devoted to unveiling the effect of genes in the expression of complex traits whose inheritance pattern deviates from Mendelian inheritance. A special genetic technique, known as genetic mapping, is used to identify multiple genes that underlie a complex trait and this has practical applications for crop improvement. In humans, efforts are directed toward the detection of genes which predispose to complex inherited diseases. In this type of situation, the effects of genes on a trait are additive and can only explain a certain amount of change in the trait that we are interested in. Detection of all genes involved in the expression of a quantitative trait is practically impossible. The environment is an important factor with a pivotal role in the expression of such traits. The term “environment” is not restricted to what is present within the cell or surrounding the cell or individual. It rather refers to larger scale effects in the process of biological life that cannot be explained by genetics and the term can be used interchangeably with non-genetic effects.

One of the most striking examples of the role of genes on the expression of the phenotype is the presence of differences between identical twins. Despite the fact that they have completely identical sets of genes, studies have shown that twins can indicate different degrees of psychiatric diseases such as bipolar disorder.² Similar phenomena may be observed in crop species. In crop breeding programs different varieties are usually tested in different environments. In most cases varieties rank differently based on their performance in different environments.³

Genetic background

Genes that do not code any information for the trait of interest can also be a part of the process of expression of the trait. In other words, certain genes can be employed to stop or alter the function of a particular gene. Modifying the utility of a gene can also be done by a series of complicated reactions within each organism through mechanisms known as epigenetics. This type of alteration in gene function is also observed empirically during the process of transferring genes between different organisms through genetic engineering.⁴ Most transferred genes are silenced (turned off) by different mechanisms in a new organism regardless of patterns of inheritance. This is particularly interesting because it clearly indicates that the existence of a particular gene in the body does not necessarily guarantee that it will be functional. Even if it is functional in one individual, it might be silent in others. Even if a gene is functioning in all the individuals carrying it, the degree of expression may be variable.

The end of genetic determinism

With the discovery of the code of genes, we now know more about the biology of living organisms than ever before, as new genetic tools have enabled us to better understand what kind of information is stored in each gene.

Most of the traits of living organisms are affected by the existence of many genes as well as non-genetic effects (denoted as environment in genetics). Although Mendelian traits can be predictable to some degree, yet we can not completely infer all the genes that are employed in the expression of a complex trait, nor the amount of contribution from each single gene and portion attributed by non-genetic factors. So we cannot determine the presence of genes by simply observing the phenotype or expression of a trait.

Considering each individual gene separately will allow us to understand its possible functions more clearly and accurately. Nevertheless, the knowledge of possible functions and structure is not enough to predetermine if the information coded in the gene will be used by the organism, and, even if it will be used, how much of that information will be processed is uncertain. Whether the information that is processed will be observed or not is another ambiguity.

Assuming that we can and will know all components of life by having the knowledge of genes is known as genetic determinism. In some cases, genes are described as independent entities that drive living organisms and manage life because of the assumption that their presence will be enough to predetermine all the biology and the behavior of an organism.

Simply, in order for a gene to be an independent agent by itself, it needs to have the knowledge of all other genes as well as all the non-genetic factors for expression of a simple trait. In reality, genes contain a very limited amount of knowledge which makes them no more than tools or parts of living organisms that are employed in the existence of life on earth. Biological life itself is incredibly complex and its sustainability requires a more comprehensive knowledge that is beyond our current understanding based on the genetic code.

Seyyidhan Mirza is a PhD candidate of Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics. He can be contacted at seyyidmirza@gmail.com.

Notes

Siepel A., M. Diekhans, B. Brejová, L. Langton, M. Stevens, C. L.G. Comstock, C. Davis, B. Ewing, S. Oommen, C. Lau, H. Yu, J. Li, B. A. Roe, P. Green, D. S. Gerhard, G. Temple, D. Haussler, and M. R. Brent. 2007. “Targeted discovery of novel human exons by comparative genomics.” Genome Research. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; ISSN 1088-9051/07; www.genome.org
Cardno, A. G., Rijsdijk, F. V., Sham, P. C., Murray, R. M. & McGuffin, P. “A Twin Study of Genetic Relationships Between Psychotic Symptoms.” 2002. Am. J. Psychiatry 159, 539-545
Epinat-Le Signor, C., S. Dousse, J. Lorgeou, J.B. Denis, R. Bonhomme, P. Carolo, and A. Charcosset. 2001. “Interpretation of genotype x environment interactions for early maize hybrids over 12 years.” Crop Sci. 41:663–669
Kooter, J.M., Matzke, M.A., and Meyer, P. 1999. “Listening to the silent genes: Transgene silencing, gene regulation and pathogen control.” Trends Plant Sci. 4: 340–347