In the United States, immigrants often face a crisis of identity that is familiar to many who live abroad. This crisis can be thought of as a struggle between the desire for cultural integration and the fear of cultural assimilation. On the one hand, immigrants usually come to a new country because they want to participate in its culture and economy and, at some level, reap the economic, cultural, or political benefits of this participation. On the other hand, such participation can lead to anxiety if it causes the immigrant to feel alienated from the traditions of his or her home country. In this article, we will look at how immigrant communities navigate this dilemma and how they seek to preserve their identity through shared experiences of language, religion, politics, and the consumption of media, all the while their identity is constantly being revised and altered by their encounters with mainstream American culture.

The three main groups entering the US in recent decades are Latin Americans, Asians, and, in significantly smaller numbers, immigrants or refugees from Muslim countries. These immigrants come to the United States for a variety of reasons, but most come seeking a better life than the one available to them in their home country. And for asylum seekers, life in their home country may not be an option anymore, due to political persecution, violence, or other reasons. They come to find peace and solace as well as opportunities to achieve self-realization. Statistically, immigrants believe in the American Dream more than Americans do. According to the General Social Survey conducted by NORC, almost 70 percent of immigrant parents say their children will prosper relative to themselves, compared with only 50 percent of native-born parents [1]. Clearly such newcomers desire some degree of cultural integration, and in their optimism regarding the possibilities of American life, they could even be considered “more American” than the native-born population.

Whereas immigrants come to the US with great expectations, attitudes toward immigrants vary. The belief that the growing number of immigrants threatens traditional American customs and values is less prevalent (averaging about 43 percent) than the belief that migrants strengthen American society (52 percent) [2]. Another common finding is that Americans clearly want immigrants to be integrated with US society. One indicator of this can be traced in a recent survey in which 76% of Americans said that they support the requirement of English proficiency for legal citizenship (Pew Research Center, 2013) [3]. Since bilingualism is one of the most visible manifestations of cultural difference, this group of Americans sees it as a threat to American culture and native-born leadership. However, some Americans believe that multilingualism among immigrant communities benefits American creativity and dynamism (Huntington, 2004; Alba, 2005). In the professional world, bilingualism is often highly rewarded, so immigrants who are able to maintain fluency in their native language while also gaining proficiency in English may find themselves more qualified for employment than if they had “lost” their first language. This is one example of the possible benefits of cultural integration as opposed to full assimilation into monolingual American culture. According to research, bilingualism has also been linked to other positive cognitive outcomes, including increased attention control, working memory, metalinguistic awareness, and abstract and symbolic representation skills (Adesope et al., 2010). Hence, for immigrants, it is important not to succumb to the pressure to assimilate to monolingual English-speaking culture, as there are many benefits to a more bilingual integration. In light of all of this, the best possible deal would be to retain one’s native language while also becoming proficient in English.

Such an approach would also resolve a major concern of first-generation immigrants: linguistic isolation. There is a strong correlation between the English proficiency level of a first- or second-generation immigrant and his or her level of cultural integration. Many studies show that English proficiency changes marriage patterns and increases a person’s ability to engage in native civic organizations and political discourse, which are very important factors in integration. In 2013, 22 percent of children living in immigrant families lived in linguistically isolated households. These children were observed to struggle in education due to their parents’ difficulty communicating with school staff and monitoring their children’s progress (Batalova and Fix, 2010; Fix and Capps, 2005; Gifford and Valdes, 2006). Data shows that these linguistically isolated kids have higher anxiety.

It’s observed that after the third generation, an immigrant family usually loses their native language to English.

Is there a middle way between cultural integration and isolation? There are some patterns that might prove beneficial to immigrants and families navigating this difficulty. For instance, in the Latino community, families maintain Spanish proficiency for up to five generations on average. While one major reason for this linguistic continuity is the frequent replenishment of the Spanish-speaking population in the United States, the prevalence of and access to Spanish-language media in the United States plays another important role. Immigrants from Latin America reported that they typically watch Spanish TV, unlike other groups who watch primarily English channels. Access to native language TV and a sizable (enough) community of native language speakers can effectively preserve language habits in immigrants, which can allow them to integrate bilingually.

Religion is another important aspect of culture that can face dramatic changes in the process of cultural integration. Even though it is difficult to measure religiosity—we can’t easily determine the strength of people’s beliefs—one reliable indicator could be religious service attendance. According to the data, roughly a quarter (27%) of all Christian immigrants in the survey attended religious service once or twice a month. By comparison, about six in ten (62%) of all Christians in the United States say they attend religious services at least once or twice a month (Pew Research Center, 2013). Muslims also saw a drop in religious attendance after immigration, with only 32% of immigrants attending regular services. According to Massey and Higgings (2001), one reason for the decline could be that some immigrants do not intend to stay permanently, so they may be less motivated to get involved in religious groups. The only exception to this trend is Jewish immigrant communities, where attendance remains essentially unchanged; every other major religious group observed a drop in weekly attendance of services.

Even though evaluating religiosity depending on religious service attendance is plausible, for Muslim communities this might not be a reliable indicator. Since Islam does not strictly require attendance to mosque for women, the data only represents male religiosity. One interesting finding that supports this fact is reflected in a study in which Muslim immigrants are found to be more religious than other major immigrant groups. According to the study, 65% of first generation and 60% of second-generation immigrants perform salah, the daily ritual prayer, every day. Additionally, 30% of Muslim women in immigrant communities wear headcovers when they are in public.

Yet, regardless of what the data on religiosity says, one significant factor to having thriving religious communities is the presence of welcoming religious institutions that offer community outreach and engagement opportunities. For those immigrants who do continue to attend regular religious services, religious institutions play a major role in integration. Membership in religious groups provides an alternative source of respectability for those who feel denied social recognition in the United States. Also, religious communities provide an array of resources for immigrants such as information about jobs, housing, and classes in English. Temples, mosques, synagogues, and churches can help immigrants gain upward social mobility by providing classes like English and SAT preparation. Also, involvement in religious institutions prevents youth from using drugs or joining gangs. For many immigrants, religious institutions are the most welcoming venue by which to get involved in society. It is even noted that some Latin American immigrants left Catholicism for smaller Evangelical churches because these churches provided more opportunity to culturally integrate through personal and supportive relationships.

The question for immigrants is how to maintain their cultural traditions while still integrating into a new social landscape. In addition to changes in linguistic and religious practices, immigrants also face adjustments to their culture and/or lifestyle. These also include changes in their mindset and their political views and attitudes. As immigrants spend time in the US for longer periods, we see that they tend to change their views on various political issues. One interesting finding is their view on the role of federal government [4]. On average, one-third of native-born people think that “the government in Washington is trying to do too many things that should be left to individuals and private businesses,” while a quarter disagree and believe the government should do more to solve the country’s issues. Immigrants differ from native-born citizens on this topic, as they are considerably more likely to feel that the government should do more (36%) rather than believing that it does too much (15%), which is a near reverse of native-born citizens’ views. However, it is observed that immigrant views ideas converge with native-born as they spend more time in America.

Furthermore, immigrants’ cultural integration may also affect their health. According to research, foreign-born immigrants live, on average, 3.4 years longer than the native-born population. The main reason is thought to be their change in eating habits. Immigrants consume less processed food than the native-born population, which lowers their rates of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and cancer.

Another dramatic change and a clear mark of cultural integration is intermarriage, which is becoming more and more common in America. Between 2008 and 2012, more than half of marriages involving immigrants had one native-born partner (Lichter et al., 2015a). In 2010, about one of every seven marriages were found to be interracial or interethnic, which is more than twice the rate in 1980 (Wang, 2012; Frey, 2014). Intermarriage has led a dramatic increase in the mixed-race population. In the United States, the percentage of multiracial babies increased from 1% in 1970 to 10% in 2013.

To turn our attention to American society, there is a group of native-born Americans who oppose immigration of any kind, regardless of how it might benefit society. One reason given for this opposition is the belief that immigrants commit more crimes. However, the data shows that foreign-born males are jailed at one-fourth the rate of native-born men in the 18-39 age group. There is no evidence that immigrants are more dangerous or criminal than native-born Americans. On the other hand, crime rates in the second and third generations of immigrants tend to be similar to those in the native-born population, a finding which some researchers interpret as a negative consequence of integration. Yet, healthy integration is something to aspire to, given its benefits both for immigrants and natives.

Whether one desires it or not, immigrants in America face dramatic changes in their culture, especially after the second generation, which is usually the generation that shows the last remnants of their grandparents’ culture. Indeed, after the second generation, immigrant culture becomes almost identical with American culture. But whether or not these changes result in integration or a more total assimilation has much to do with the support of religious institutions, immigrant support groups, and access to native-language media and communities.

Notes

1. Data from NORC’s General Social Survey (GSS) at http://www3.norc.org/Gss+website/ [September 2015].
2. See http://www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/3-28-13%20Immigration%20Release.pdf [November 2015].
3. See http://www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/6-23-13%20Immigration%20Release%20 Final.pdf November 2015]
4. See NORC’s General Social Survey website for variables and wording of questions at http:// www3.norc.org/GSS+Website/Browse+GSS+Variables/Subject+Index/ [November 2015].   

References

• Fry, R., and Lopez, M.H. (2012). IV. College graduation and Hispanics. Pew Research Center Hispanic Trends. Available: http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/08/20/iv-collegegraduation-and-hispanics/ [July 2015].
• Burt, L., and Batalova, J. (2014). Refugees and Asylees in the United States. Washington, DC: Migration Information Source. Available: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/ refugees-and-asylees-united-states [March 2015].
• Huntington, S.P. (2004). The Hispanic challenge. Foreign Policy, 141(2), 30-45. Iceland, J., and Scopilliti, M. (2008). Immigrant residential segregation in U.S. metropolitan areas, 1990-2000. Demography, 45(1), 79-94.
• Adesope, O.O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., and Ungerleider, C. (2010). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Review of Educational Research, 80(2), 207-245.
• Massey, D., and Higgins, M.E. (2011). The effect of immigration on religious beliefs and practice: A theologizing or alienating experience? Social Science Research, 40(5), 1371-1389.
• Wang, W. (2012). The Rise of Intermarriage. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

Definition of concepts

Religion: It seems proper to begin this section with a brief overview of what religion is and what it stands for. There are many definitions of religion classified broadly into two main domains, i.e. (1) Subjective and (2) Functional perspectives. The subjective definitions of religion relate to beliefs and belief systems in supra-natural beings, whereas the functional definitions of religion relate to the binding and unifying forces of religions. Nevertheless, just a few of such definitions would be highlighted here. To begin with a dictionary definition on the subjective perspective, the Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary (1983) defines religion as “The personal commitment to and serving of God or a god with worshipful devotion.”

Edward Taylor (1903) made an early attempt to define religion—a definition he considered as a “minimum definition.” This minimum definition has been given as the “belief in spiritual beings.” In this definition, Taylor stressed that “all things, organic and inorganic, contain a soul or spirit which gives them their particular nature and characteristics.” According to Furseth and Repstad (2006), the definition of religion offered by Taylor seems to underscore the belief that all human beings have souls; a stand-point which transforms to the belief in spirits, gods, devils and other spiritual beings. Though an early attempt, the definition of religion given by Taylor has attracted a number of criticisms. One critic has seen Taylor’s definition of religion as being “naively evolutionary and ethnocentric.”

Another sociologist of religion, Roland Robertson (1982:1912) considers religion as being above the empirical. Religion to Robertson is “supra-empirical.” Robertson (1982) argues that there is a difference between “an empirical and a supra-empirical, transcendental reality,” and religious culture and activities came out of this distinction. Giving a full definition of religion, partly given by Robertson, Michael Hill (1973:42-3) has defined religion in his “Introduction to Religion” as:

The set of beliefs which postulate and seek to regulate the distinction between an empirical reality and a related and significant supra-empirical segment of reality; the language and symbols which are used in relation to this distinction; and the activities and institutions which are concerned with its regulation.

Finally on the subjective perspective, Emile Durkheim (1982/1921:47) has referred to religion as systems of beliefs, practices, and sacred things set aside and are forbidden, and a church.

On the functional perspective, a definition of religion has been given by Durkheim (1982/1921:47) in which he notes that religion is a powerful force that produces integration in a moral community. And according to Thomas Luckman-a German sociologist-religious process is the formation of self, where “human beings develop their understanding of self by placing themselves in a meaningful totality where they are creating a frame of reference for interpreting reality.”

Social capital: Social capital refers to networks, contacts, connections, socialisation, opportunities, etc. The social capital theoretical perspective-the proponents being the French sociologist Pierre Bourdier and the American Sociologist Robert Putnam-has gained wider acceptance in the literature. This is perhaps due to the ability of this perspective to undertake and predict the norms and social relationships that enable people to coordinate action to achieve desired goals (Putnam, 1993; Narayan and Cassidy, 2001, p. 59).

The proponents of social capital perspective have argued that while economic capital is in people’s bank accounts and human capital in their heads (or brains), social capital inheres in social interaction. In other words, social capital is relational. It is obvious here why efforts to identify and overcome the likely factors that inhibit interaction, most especially inter-group interaction, are worth mustering. And religious values are formidable in that direction.

Social capital and development

Social capital, as earlier noted, is built upon social contacts and networks. Therefore, social interactions and relations are paramount to building social capital; as interactions and relations could serve as a pool of development opportunities and chances. A number of studies (Narayan and Cassidy, 2001; Woolley, 1998) support the hypothesis that frequent social contacts through interactions are more likely to yield high resultant outcomes-be it solidarity, integration, cohesion or goal-attainment. The mobilisation of resources for development of the society can be made more feasible through establishing frequent social contacts and networks in a number of ways. The ways which are crucial to building social capital essential for societal development have been outlined, though not exhaustive, below:

Group characteristics: This concerns the active and frequent participation of people in activities that concern their collective, developmental interests and goals. Group characteristics constitute a crucial element of building social capital for societal development both at the micro and macro levels. Religion appears so relevant in this direction, as religious activities and practices entail frequent group participation.

Generalised norms: Trustworthiness and fairness of the people in their dealings, interactions with others are essential elements not only in building social capital, but also in charting the path for societal development. Again, religious values, virtues and belief systems embody these generalised norms.

Everyday sociability: This refers to friendly connections, relationships and the approachability of the people one lives with. Everyday sociability creates the friendly atmosphere in which people are keepers of one another-an ingredient that can serve the cause of societal development. Religious values and virtues encompass everyday sociability.

Togetherness: This dimension requires that people are happy in their interactions and relationships with others. The feeling of togetherness easily binds people towards collective goal-attainments. Similarly, religious belief systems do not coerce allegiance from their adherents. This suggests that religious followers are happy with their religious belief systems, as they could easily abandon their faiths if unhappy. Constantly attached to the religious belief system may constitute a potential source of manpower for societal development.

Rewards and costs: This refers to the consequences as perceived by the interacting people. Thibaut and Kelly describe the consequences of interaction as “rewards and costs.” In every interaction or relationship, while some aspects may appear enjoyable, pleasing and gratifying, other aspects may be unpleasant, less enjoyable and unrewarding. Rewards and costs, therefore, refer to the former and latter respectively. This seems to suggest that any meaningful societal development process should engender more rewards (benefits) than costs (disappointment). However, religion teaches people to see disappointments as a wake-up call, and must live up to the challenges posed to them-a value which is essential in overcoming development obstacles.

Social capital and religion: theoretical and empirical perspectives

Theoretical perspective: The assumptions underlying social capital theoretical perspective are that social contacts, connections and networks both at the micro and macro levels can lead to social solidarity, integration essential for goal-attainment. The prowess of religion in binding people together through promoting interactions and relationships at local, national and international levels makes it indispensable in building social capital. Religious belief systems have been identified largely as the prime source of social cohesion, integration and solidarity. According to Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), human society has long been viewed as an integrated unity, which in some cases is compared to living organisms in the functional perspective. For this reason, all efforts must be made to keep society in its integrated unity. Of course, there may be many forces that work to destabilize the social unity, cohesion and integration. Equally, there are other forces that work to keep societies integrated and unified, and religious beliefs and values have been identified by Durkheim as a powerful force that binds people and societies into a unified, moral community.

Furthermore, the collective consciousness that connects the individual to the total society and also gives the society a strong moral strength, according to Durkheim, is reinforced by religious beliefs. However, the unifying force of religions may vary from one religion to another. This has been proved by Durkheim in his study on Suicide. He found in this study that suicide rates were higher among the Protestants than among the Catholics, the reason of which has been traced to the level of religious integration. Durkheim argued in this study that the Protestants were largely left alone before God by their belief system, while the Catholics had been integrated into a set of social practices such as confession, mass, communion, etc. which integrated them more than the Protestants.

For this reason, according to Durkheim “religion is in every essence social.” Religious rites, collective behavior, relating the individual to the larger social group, and all religious beliefs are collective representations (Durkheim, 1915/1956, p. 22; McGuire, 2002, p. 197). Although Durkheim has been criticized for his analysis on suicide and religious integration, the fact remains that religion really helps the course of social cohesion, unity and integration through the common belief systems and values holding the people, societies, and civilizations together, as these categories interact over time.

From the functionalist perspective, religion integrates members of the society to ensure social progress or maintenance (Chalfant, Beckley and Palmer, 1994, p. 40). Even the conflict theorists-its proponent being Karl Marx-acknowledge the soothing impact of religion on the majority of the people. Marx attributed the inability of the Proletariat to revolt against the bourgeoisie to religious belief system, which he believed, had hypnotized the poor working class to seek their rewards in the Hereafter. Marx then labeled religion as the “opium of the people” (Johnstone, 1992).

Empirical perspective: The socio-economic and political significance of religion is tremendous. Historically, it has been acknowledged that religious belief systems have played a significant role in the development of national life in North America. According to Chalfant, Beckley and Palmer (1994), the first immigrants to the New World did so for religious reasons. With particular reference to the Calvinist Faith, more than one-third of the states that constitute the present-day USA were formed around particular interpretations of religion-the Christian faith.

Socially, religious belief systems “provide us with both self-identification and self- placement in a heterogeneous society” (Herbert, 1955; Chalfant, Beckley and Palmer, 1994). Religion is a way of belonging. It serves as a point of reference for man to acquire a religious self or the “generalized other.” Also, as religions set aside things forbidden and emphasize the sacred, religion serves as the watchdog. And any forces that seem to threaten the status quo are strongly challenged by religious groups or bodies.

Many examples have been given about the unity that religion brings to human societies. Particularly in the West, many solidarity and human rights movements have all been influenced by religious beliefs that seek to correct some anomalies in order to strengthen social solidarity, integration and unity. Because religious groups transcend national boundaries to bring people, societies and civilizations into close proximity, the tendency of religion to enforce is very high.

Economically, the religious belief system, although arguably, has been associated with the formation of capitalism-an economic paradigm. In the The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Max Weber advanced how the kind of religious belief system can instill in people the zeal to strive for economic success.

Conclusion

In a nutshell, these are some of the various ways in which religious values and virtues (the belief system) can promote unity, integration, and solidarity that are essential in building social capital for the development of the human societies. However, religion can also be abused as a source of discord and conflict in society. Such conflicts can be avoided if people avoid “religio-centrism”-a construct out of “ethno-centrism.” Religio-centrism refers to the “feelings of rightness and superiority resulting from religious affiliation.” Such religious tendencies “inhibit the ability of a society to achieve adaptation, integration and goal-attainment” (Chalfant, Beckley and Palmer, 1994, p.51).

Abdul-Mumin Abdulai is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM).

There may be some credit to the idea that it is not proper to compare the immigrants in France to those in Germany, due to the historical and cultural differences in their social structures. However, the typical characteristics of ghettos and the similar approaches of the governments to the immigrants imply that such unpleasant events can always take place. First of all, the immigrants who are pushed into ghettos and usually cannot be assimilated are in an isolated position from the main society in terms of language, culture, and education fields. There are clear examples of this in Germany; the large numbers of immigrants living in certain regions bring along serious language and education problems. Many young people start life without a good educational degree, without career opportunities, and after having had negative experiences in school life. Such young people are mostly idle, have achieved nothing close to a satisfactory educational level, and, not caring about human values, they tend to solve their problems through violence as well as being open to manipulation. We face potential danger as long as this situation remains the same. Riots like in Paris might happen in other countries as well. Developing early solutions and maintaining social peace before such unpleasant events happen is in no doubt a better alternative than having to send riot police to the suburbs. Politicians and local administrations should adapt more sensitive approaches to the immigrants, or rather the minorities, who live in the ghettos and similar locations that have such potential.

Germans, for instance, should first of all give up trying to blame the problems on ethnic and religious reasons and form the main frame of a fresh vision of living together. Actually the German constitution does have the relevant essentials for such an approach. However, in spite of the first article of the German Constitution “The dignity of man is inviolable,” Germans in administrative positions often fail to fulfill this principle. Anybody who observes German society in this respect can witness how the dignity of the immigrants is violated, how they are looked down upon, and psychologically isolated at schools, factories, and other workplaces. Beyond violating the individuals’ dignity, insulting words or behavior sometimes even amounts to insulting an entire nation. What is more, unfortunately sometimes even some statesmen present such behavior prompted by the media.

As a matter of fact, the ghettos and similar locations in Germany were not consciously formed by the minorities. The immigrants who came to the country as workers about forty years ago started living around their workplaces in the beginning. Therefore, the number of foreigners at the schools in these neighborhoods started to increase more and more. So the formation of the ghettos started with the dwellings centered around workplaces and then it affected the educational institutions. On the other hand, the fact that in most German cities landlords refused to let out their apartments to immigrants had and still has a role in the formation of the ghettos.

Despite this fact, a minister in one of the parties in Germany made an interesting comment, particularly for the Turks, saying “Turks consider themselves to be superior to Germans, so they prefer to live in ghettos instead of integrating into German society.” On hearing such opinions, one cannot help but remember the old Nazi view of the Jews.

One of the reasons for such attitudes is that some politicians try to gain credit by adopting such policies in order to attract nationalist votes. Surely, these policies do not benefit society and history proves that those who trigger social chaos become the first ones to pay the price. When the hostile and provocative manners of politicians cause unrest, it is the media that should assume the responsibility for maintaining the peace.

Unfortunately, let alone playing a positive role, a significant part of the German media just fans the flames. Almost everyday they exaggerate marginal events and German society is misinformed about Muslims. The result is a biased society that is afraid of all Muslims. Thus, the media is in fact preparing grounds for similar social troubles that happened in France; for ignorance and fanaticism trigger the same kind of reaction on the opposite side.

Even after the provocative events of publishing a caricature that insults the Messenger of God and thereby all the Muslims in the world, most Muslims protested the event within a democratic framework. In spite of this, some European media organs used the freedom of press as an excuse to violate the sacred values of Muslims and they also tried to reflect all Muslims as pro-violence by showing some street demonstrations and violent events, as if millions of Muslims had approved of using violence. The fact that European Muslims protested the provocation within their democratic rights has been overlooked and unfortunately Islamophobia still continues to grow.

The following is a concrete example of the insistent negative attitude of the German media against Muslims. At a news program on the ZDF Channel, the reporter asks questions about the events in the Paris suburbs to Daniel Cohn-Bendikt, the French senator of the Greens in the European Parliament. The program was an evident proof of the terrible need for a radical change in the German mentality about Islam and Muslims. Two points were emphasized by the reporter: the role of religion and the young people’s refusal to integrate! The senator just laughed and his answer revealed how superficial the reporter’s comments were: “the events in the suburbs are in no way related to religion. Some of the people who have been left to their own fate and discriminated against for decades might have turned to religion, but the rebellion doesn’t have a religious motive. Look at the education given in the ghettos. Lots of young people want to benefit from education opportunities, they want to be integrated. But they see how they are discriminated when you look at the terrible condition of their schools.”

The integration policies in Germany, Britain, Holland, and France have all failed. But why? Because the cultural identity of people has been ignored; policies that require them to abandon their religious and national identities and become assimilated into the culture of the country in which they live are being imposed. Today, European countries need to both revise their integration policies to date as well as developing a new “vision of living together” that is beyond integration. The events in Holland at the end of 2004 and the events in Paris in 2005, along with the latest one, the impertinent caricature, give food for thought to state authorities and should allow them to draw important conclusions. The initial precautions to be taken can be to seek ways to enhance educational opportunities in the suburbs and urge the media to give up horror scenarios, rather preparing sensible and informative news to contribute to peace in society.

On the other hand, integration-oriented problems in Europe are generally more common with Muslim immigrants. It is known that in some countries the integration policies towards Christian immigrants have succeeded. The Spanish and Italians in France and the Poles in Germany can be given as examples. The same integration policies didn’t work for Muslims in countries like France, Germany, and Holland. For this reason, terms like “integration” do not make much sense for Muslim immigrants now. After a few decades of integration policies, most Muslims still don’t know with what they are to integrate. No one denies that they should abide by German laws, conform to the social rules, and learn the German language. When the German minister, Prof. Maria Bohmer, said that the immigrants should speak German, learn about German history, recognize the social values, and abide by the legal system of the country this was, of course, approved by all sides.

At this point, both sides need to present a positive approach to reach a healthy solution. On the one hand we have many Muslims who are maintaining their identity and who are citizens that are respected by their German friends. On the other hand, some extremists in the German community just adhere to their bias against foreigners, no matter how they behave. Nevertheless, one shouldn’t jump to conclusions and make an overgeneralization about all Germans.

Sooner or later, good efforts will be shown the respect they deserve. When both sides come together with honesty and good intentions at dialogue activities, we witness that the new “vision of living together” is not a dream, but a reality that is at hand. One should keep in mind that feelings of love, kindness, and the relevant positive responses are inherent in human nature. All of us have the conscience mechanisms to appreciate these feelings. What falls to us is to turn the inherent feelings in human nature in the positive direction, which is already in compliance with what the religions teach.

Did you know that we are actually stardust? Most probably, you didn’t. Nuh Gedik lifts our eyes from the ground into the depths of space. In his thought-provoking article he describes how a star explodes to present a marvelous celestial supernova show. Supernova explosions are actually “the only source of heavy elements, including iron . . . the carbon that makes our cells, the hemoglobin that carries oxygen in our blood, and basically almost everything in our body are all made of elements produced in these explosions.” “Supernova Explosions” explains more not only about stars, but also about our chemical make-up.

The mysteries of nature are disclosed a bit more by another show, this time on earth: The glowworms of the Waitomo caves in New Zealand are bioluminescent flies which present stunning shows that rival the star-lit sky at night. The theory of evolution fails to explain the complex nature of this minute insect which can yield light at an output of 100% with no energy wasted as heat. Have we yet reached such a capacity of power production? Safak Ozturk tells us more in his “A Message from Glowworms.”

Inefficient use of time is something that we all complain about. Everyday, we get up in the morning and rush to our jobs to start work in time. However, today, more frequently than ever, we end up having spent our days having done little more than checking several e-mails, making telephone calls, and going to meetings to change schedules and deadlines. Cafer Tayyar Yavuz highlights the importance of even the smallest slice of time we usually ignore and explains how better efficiency can be achieved in our use of time.

CAD/ CAM IN AUTOMATION

The developments of manufacturing can be categorized in two stages, namely the mechanization stage and the automation stage. In the early stage of manufacturing, tools and processes were mechanized. All of the various manufacturing processes were divided into categories such as casting, forging, turning, milling, drilling and cutting, with workers specialized in one of these areas. Specialization resulted in the separation of design from manufacturing. One person would design a product while other specialists would manufacture it. Design and manufacturing communicated through drawings. The mechanization stage was able to accomplish mass turnover and speed in production. However, it lacked flexibility and integration.

The next stage in the development of manufacturing is automation. In 1975, mass production was automated through the use of transfer lines. In 1976, batch production was automated through Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS). In 1979, design and draughting through CAD (Computer Aided Design) started to be used widely. The integration of these started in 1985. The goal of this stage is to have completely automated manufacturing plant operating with only a minimum of human involvement. Progress is being made in this regard, but total integration has not yet been achieved. The totally automated factory will be capable of mass turnover and speed in production, will be flexible and completely integrated.

The most important development regarding automation in manufacturing has been the computer. It provided developments in manufacturing control, material handling, planning and in other activities. The use of computers in manufacturing control improved NC (Numerical Control) technology such as computer aided NC code generation. It is now possible with some CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacture) systems to generate NC tape directly from the designed part stored within the CAD data base. Computers have greatly enhanced automated manufacturing. NC machine tools have been replaced by CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machine tools: almost every machining process can now be efficiently automated with a significant degree of accuracy, reliability and repeatability.

Computer Aided Design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computers to assist in the design process including calculation, analysis, modelling, draughting and testing. Initially, CAD systems were primarily used for draughting. Nowadays it also includes Finite Element Modelling (FEM), geometric modelling and kinematic analysis. (FEM is widely used for the analysis of many engineering problems, namely static, dynamic and thermal stress analysis of various structures including vibration analysis. Geometric modelling is concerned with the mathematical representation of objects in a computer.)

The development of NC machine tools was the beginning of CAM systems. CAM can be defined as the use of computers to enhance or assist in any manufacturing process. CAM comprises a large number of functions such as Computer Numerical Control (CNC), Direct Numerical Control (DNC), Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS), Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV), automated material handling, inspection and computer controlled assembly systems. CNC is an NC system that uses a dedicated computer to perform NC functions. DNC can be defined as a manufacturing system where a number of machine tools are controlled by a central computer simultaneously. The part programme is transmitted to the machine tool directly from the computer. An FMS is a programmable manufacturing system capable of producing a variety of products automatically and it is composed of CNC machine tools, automated material handling systems, robots and a computer system to control them. An Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) is a robot-like vehicle that is used to carry objects from one place to another and can be programmed to trace a path.

INTEGRATION OF CAD/CAM

Due to development in computer technology, numerically controlled equipment, robots and computer controlled automation in CAD and CAM systems, many manual skills have been automated resulting in reduction of lead times, improvements in production, increase in manufacturing accuracy and flexibility. However, the full integration of CAD and CAM systems in industry has not yet been achieved and they have been developed separately (see Davies et al., 1988; Irani et al., 1990; Joseph and Davies 1990).

It is acknowledged that significant benefits can be obtained when CAD is integrated with CAM within a single company. For this reason the integration of CAD and CAM systems has become an important goal in factory automation (see Semakula and Gill, 1989; Sing et al., 1990). Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is the term used to denote the complete integration of all aspects of CAD and CAM systems.

CAD and CAM systems have not been totally integrated due to the difficulties in automating intermediate functions (see Joseph and Davies, 1990; Joseph et al., 1990). In order to achieve the goal of full integration of CAD and CAM two major obstacles should be addressed, namely complete CAD and CAPP/CAM interface and a fully automated, flexible CAPP system. (CAPP stands for Computer Aided Process Planning.)

CAPP is an important activity which bridges CAD to CAM (Figure 1) and translates the design information into manufacturing instructions to produce mechanical components (see, most recently Desai and Pande, 1991; Cho et al., 1991). The task of process planning in industry is usually performed by an experienced process planner manually employing his or her expertise and knowledge about machining operations. The quality of the plan developed depends on the experience and preferences of the planner whose highly skilled expertise is difficult to replace (Bandyopathyoy et al., 1981; Joseph and Davies, 1991).

Several CAPP systems have been developed. However, the computer can only assist the planner generate process plans. Fully automated CAPP does not exist and its benefits in the real industrial environment are still to be seen (see, e.g. Chang. 1990; Domazet and Manic, 1990). The complexity of decision making in process planning is a barrier to automating process planning. Many of the tasks carried out by the planner require expert knowledge, experience and intelligent reasoning (see Rustom and Mileham, 1989; Stewart et al., 1989). Other major impediments to the implementation of fully automated CAPP are related to the capturing of planning logic and heuristic knowledge. Industrial robots are programmed by a human programmer. But how does a bee know how to built a honeycomb and make honey?

Algorithmic programming techniques are considered unsuitable to automate process planning because process planning problems are usually solved heuristically, that is, on the basis of human ability to use reason and learn from experience (see Tonshotf et al., 1987; Dumazet, 1992). Manufacturing processes change over time on the factory floor. Algorithmic programs are not flexible enough to accommodate modifications since any alteration in the programme affects the whole structure of the software (Changer et al., 1991). Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a promising approach to automate process planning. Expert Systems or Intelligent Knowledge Based Systems are able to automating the reasoning activities to capture logic, experience-based reasoning and knowledge in a computer environment. An Expert System represents and stores the domain-specific knowledge in a special manner so that it is possible to add, delete or modify the knowledge within the database without any alteration in the program.

In short, the main goal for the industry of tomorrow is to integrate all the activities on the factory floor, i.e. to have automation from design to final manufacturing, (Nordland, 1988).

Assuming that we had a chance to visit such a factory of the future totally integrated, automated, unmanned except by robots, we would be aware that the automation is achieved and controlled by a computer programme which processes data, solves the problems that arise and gives the commands necessary to run the factory.

It is obvious that every such programme requires a programmer. Nobody would claim that the machinery, robots. etc. have themselves decided to develop the complicated software to control the system on the factory floor: it is easy to see that machines and mechanical parts do not have the ability, intelligence and knowledge even to wonder at their own structure.

Even if we do not see the programmer we can infer that one exists who is expert in the particular field and who programmed the automatic systems to do particular things. Similarly, we can liken the earth to an automated factory where animals and plants are like robots or automatic systems that perform some intelligent actions. If, within this factory a bee, for example, is not attributed to a Creator Who tells it how to make its honeycomb and honey then it must be that bees themselves know the necessary chemistry and geometry to do so. But we know that a bee is so unintelligent that when it is trapped indoors it tries to get out through a closed window. Even where there is an open window nearby it does not think of using the open window, but only finds it randomly. Therefore, we may not suppose that bees are intelligent and skilled enough to make honeycombs and honey. Even we, humans, who are the most intelligent creatures on earth, are not able to make proper hexagon-shaped honeycombs without using tools or a die. So we cannot expect a bee to do so all by itself without using a tool.

Every fruit tree is a fruit factory. A vegetable plant is a vegetable factory. They produce fruits and vegetables, respectively. If they are not attributed to a Creator then it must be that they are creating fruits and vegetables by themselves. We know that trees and vegetables are not intelligent enough and lack the knowledge of biology or chemistry to combine the necessary minerals or molecules to create the fruits and vegetables that fulfil our needs. They are not even aware of what we need. Examples can be extended to other creatures in the earth. Vegetables and animals perform some intelligent actions and yet they are not intelligent. Although we do not see the Creator of this factory, the activities around us show that there is One, Who is All-Wise, creates and controls the actions within this factory-like earth. 

REFERENCES

• ClANG, T.C. (1990) ‘Expert Process Planning for Manufacturing’, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, USA.
• CHANG, T.C.,Wysk, R.A. and Wang, H.P. (1991) Computer Aided Manufacturing, Prentice Hall, USA.
• CHO, K.K., Lee, S.H. and Ahn, J.H., (1991) ‘Development of Integrated Process Planning and Monitoring System for Turning Operation’, Annals of the CIRP, 40/1, pp.423-7.
• DESAI. VS. and Pande, S.S., (1991) ‘GFM. An Interactive Feature Modeller for CAPP or Rotational Components’, Computer Aided Engineering Journal, pp. 217-21.
• IRANI, R,K., Saxena, M. and Finnigan, P.M., (1990) ‘Boundary Based Feature Modelling Utility’, Proceedings of the ASME International Computers in Engineering Conference, 1, pp. 45-51, Boston.
• JOSEPH, A.T. and Davies, B.J., (1990) ‘Knowledge Based Process Planning System for Turned Components’, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 5, pp.52-65.
• JOSEPH, A.T. and Davies, B.J., (1991) ‘Elictation of Process Planning Knowledge in a Manufacturing Environment’. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 6, pp.16-34.
• NORDLAND, G.L., (1988) ‘Integrating CAPP Into Factory Management Systems’, CAPP From Design to Production, ed. Joseph Tulkoff, SME, pp. 134-136.
• RUSTOM, E.A. and Mileham, A.R., (1989) ‘The Development of a Generative Computer Aided Process Planning System for Prismatic Parts’, Advances in Manufacturing Technology 4. Proceedings of the 5th National Conference on Production Research, Huddersfield Polytechnic, pp. 259-63.
• SINGH, R., Sittas, E., Mullineux. G. and Medland, A.J., (1990) ‘Intelligent Communications Between CAD and Manufacturing Activities’, Proceedings of the 28th International MATADOR Conference, pp. 305-1 2.
• STEWART, C.D., Wallace, W. and Boswell. C., (1989) ‘The Development of a Knowledge-Based Process Planning System’, Advances in Manufacturing Technology 4, Proceedings of the 5th National Conference on Production Research, Huddersfield Polytechnic, pp. 265-68.