Artificial photosynthesis transforms CO₂ into liquefiable fuels

Yu and Jain. Plasmonic photosynthesis of C1–C3 hydrocarbons from carbon dioxide assisted by an ionic liquid. Nature Communications, May 2019.

Scientists have recently established a reliable “artificial photosynthesis” paradigm to produce fuels from water, carbon dioxide, and visible light. With the help of sunlight, chemical reactions between water and CO₂ are catalyzed in plants to generate and store solar energy in the form of glucose. This process is called photosynthesis. In the new study, the researchers developed an artificial process that uses the same mechanisms of natural photosynthesis to convert CO₂ and water into liquid fuel by using electron-rich gold nanoparticles as a catalyst. Gold nanoparticles function in the same role as chlorophyll in natural photosynthesis in the absorbing of light and transferring electrons and protons to catalyze the chemical reactions between CO₂ and water. They are known to be efficient at absorbing light and do not break down or degrade like other metals. The energy stored in the bonds of the hydrocarbon fuel can be freed by the conventional method of combustion or by new-generation, environmentally-friendly power fuel cells, thus producing electrical current. By converting CO₂ into more complex molecules like propane, green-energy technology is now one step closer to using excess CO₂ to store solar energy for use when the sun is not shining and in times of peak demand. While the development of this CO₂-to-liquid fuel may be exciting for proponents of green-energy technology, the artificial photosynthesis process is nowhere near as efficient as it is in plants. New methods should be developed to increase the efficiency of the catalysts and downstream chemical reactions at much higher scales.

Brain area that watches for walls identified

Henriksson et al. Rapid Invariant Encoding of Scene Layout in Human OPA. Neuron, May 2019.

Neuroscientists have identified the part of the human brain whose duty is to help us perceive the barriers which define the navigable space around us, such as walls or ceilings, so that so we can avoid bumping into things and navigate safely through our environment. By way of vision we have an almost instant sense of where we are in space. Although this process feels effortless, it requires the coordinated activity of multiple brain regions and neurons working together to give us this sense of our surroundings. This process has remained unknown. But thanks to a new study, we are a step closer to solving the puzzle. Using cutting-edge brain-imaging technologies, researchers examined the mental responses of volunteers as they were shown images of various three-dimensional scenes. The images depicted a typical room with three walls, a ceiling, and a floor, but then were abruptly changed by the removal of a wall or a ceiling. By doing this repeatedly, the team could pinpoint how the participant’s brain encoded every scene. In the brain scans of the volunteers, one brain area called the occipital place area (OPA) clearly stood out. OPA activity represented the geometry of the scenes and activity patterns, reflected the presence or absence of each component, such as a ceiling or a wall, and projected a detailed picture of the overall configuration. Interestingly, OPA seemed to ignore the surface appearance of the various components such as colors or textures in order to focus only on the geometric patterns. The OPA managed to perform all the necessary computations needed to get a sense of a room’s layout extremely fast – in just 100 milliseconds. In the future, the research team plans to incorporate virtual reality technology to create more realistic 3D environments for participants to experience, hopefully achieving much deeper insights into how our brains process and makes sense of the visual information.

Gut segments are organized by function

Esterházy D. et al. Compartmentalized gut lymph node drainage dictates adaptive immune responses. Nature, April 2019.

As food enters our intestine, it goes through a windy and lengthy journey. A new study provides new insights into how our intestines maximize nutrient uptake while protecting the body from potentially dangerous invading microbes. At first glance, the intestines appear to have a uniform tissue structure. But when scientists looked at them closer, they found that our food-processing canal seems to consist of multiple compartments that pace the immune system’s reactions to the food passing through. Scientists uncovered these functional intestine segments in mice when they examined the intestinal structures called gut draining lymph nodes, which orchestrate immune responses. The researchers found that nodes in different parts of the intestines had different cell composition, and they saw different immune responses between segments when they challenged the mice with a pathogen. They observed less aggressive defenses in the first segments where nutrients are absorbed, and more forceful responses at the end, where pathogens are eliminated. Researchers plan to exploit these immunological differences between the gut segments for treating gastrointestinal disorders. For example, by targeting immune-suppressing drugs to the specific gut segment where they’ll have the most effect, it might be possible to dampen their side-effects. The spectrum of immune responses along the intestines could also be used to make new and better oral vaccines. Thus far, scientists’ efforts to design oral vaccines have been hampered by the difficulty of generating a robust immune response; it is possible that the muted immune response at the beginning of the intestines might be part of the reason why oral vaccines tend to be less effective than injections. Thus, targeting the distant end of the intestine might be much more efficient way of inducing the immune response required.

We eat, sleep, and go to the bathroom. Yet, we never think about how all these physical needs are processed in the systems of our body when they are functioning normally.

Yes, our bodies are created with perfect systems by which our all kinds of needs are met. The digestive system is one of them. Our intestines are key elements of this system, so much so that asking someone “How are your intestines?” would be as comprehensive as asking “How are you?”

Digestive system

Food is critical to life. A human being can bear hunger for one month at most and can only endure a few days of drought. Thus, eating and drinking is crucial.

Foods as we eat them are not convenient for use by the cells. Food must be broken down into smaller pieces. This process begins in the mouth and ends at the anus, and it is called digestion.

The main task of our stomach and intestines is digestion. The teeth, salivary glands, the tongue, and the gullet – as well as swallowing – are essential secondary elements. Additionally, if the pancreas or liver fall ill, it can paralyze the whole system. While also working with the circulatory system, kidneys have the task of reabsorbing useful substances like glucose, amino acids, and water.

Our digestive system works together with the urinary system and the digestive organs like a factory. How these parts work together is still not fully understood, but more detailed research has been performed and revealed more secrets of the digestive system. By means of every discovery, it is realized that this perfect creation has a more intricate structure than is known.

The brain in the intestine

There are more neurons in our intestines than in our spinal cord and the intestines are created in a way that can move independently from the central nervous system. They have their own nervous system, known as enteric nervous system (ENS), which is also called the “second brain. “Within those yards of tubing lies a complex web of microcircuitry driven by more neurotransmitters and neuromodulators than can be found anywhere else in the peripheral nervous system. These allow the ENS to perform many of its tasks in the absence of central nervous system (CNS) control…” [1]. Thus, “… isolated segments of intestine can independently coordinate propulsive movements and propel content without any neural connections to the brain or spinal cord [2].

The intestines take action when food comes into the stomach. This movement is known as colonic migrating motor complexes (CMMC), and it moves the substances that cannot be digested, like bone and fiber. According to neurophysiologist Nick Spencer et al, “The gut wall contains a complete network of intrinsic nerves capable of propelling contents along the bowel, without any requirement of nerves originating in the brain or spinal cord” [3].

Eat different types of food

70% of our immune system cells are in our intestines. A big part of the approximately 38 trillion bacteria in our body are in our intestines, and they are useful; they have a big role in digesting food. Different groups of bacteria feed on different types of food; so for intestinal flora it is very important to have a variety of food on our table. For the ideal day on a plate Dr. Megan Rossi recommends people should “aim for at least 30 different plant species per week.” “The reason for this is that each plant contains different types of fibres and phytochemicals (the super healthy components of plants) that feed different good bacteria. The more plant variety, the more variety of gut bacteria – which is associated with health and happiness” [4].

Pets in our body

For Dr. Megan Rossi, “microbes are like our pets, so you have to take care of them and feed them” [5].

Of course, germ flora in our body is not just limited to the ones in the intestines. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi in our body are nearly scattered throughout the whole body. These living things produce pellicle on our head skin, irritate the gaps between our toes, live on our skin, are on duty among our teeth, and have ecosystems and assigned positions convenient to them. According to the situation, they keep their living spaces healthy or unhealthy. Although they number 50 trillion, they are approximately 200 grams of our body weight.  

Useful microbes

An average size human adult houses about 10¹² bacteria on the skin, 10¹⁰ in the mouth, and 10¹⁴ in the gastrointestinal tract [6].

These microorganisms are useful microbes with duties in our body. The harmless flora of microbes is generally present on the skin, mouth, teeth, nose, throat, and bowel and genital areas. There isn’t normal flora in internal organs except the large bowel. Internal organs have no microbes. If we look closely, flora is inserted in every part of our body which is dirty and has contact with the outer environment. If it was not for the useful flora, microorganisms causing illness would settle instead. Only intestinal bacteria are permanent microbes which are useful. For example, vitamin K plays a part in a crucial event like blood clotting and is produced in the intestine.

Control your stress

Research has revealed that mental and psychological stress affects the health of the intestines. Serotonin is produced automatically in case of need, and 85% of it is produced in the digestive tract. Stress suppresses the level of serotonin produced. Psychological illnesses are associated with low levels of serotonin.

Studies have shown that relaxing practices like meditation for 15-20 minutes can be good for health and reduce stress. At this point, daily prayers are a kind of therapy. Other ways to stay healthy include: avoiding things like alcohol and caffeine, and sleeping well.

Our body has ways of telling us when it’s not healthy. For instance, we can learn the digestive tract isn’t healthy if we have to use the toilet more than three times a day and fewer than three times a week.

References

1. Gershon, Michael D. “The Enteric Nervous System: A Second Brain.” Pdfs.semanticscholar.org.
2. Spencer et al. 2018. “Identification of a Rhythmic Firing Pattern in the Enteric Nervous System That Generates Rhythmic Electrical Activity in Smooth Muscle.” http://www.jneurosci.org/content/38/24/5507
3. http://www.flinders.edu.au/neuroscience/lab_visceral.html
4. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-5543159/Doctor-debunks-myths-surrounding-gut-health-say-surprise-you.html
5. https://navva.org/brazil/health/why-the-bowel-is-considered-our-39-2nd-brain-39-and-other-5-amazing-facts-about-the-organ-news/
6. http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/normalflora_3.html

The harmful foodstuff eaten is spat out quickly through vomiting and so damages of such foodstuff is minimized. Occurring upon taking of any poisonous food or alcohol, vomiting directly contributes to treatment by ensuring a quick disgorge of the harmful stuff. Variations in amounts of estrogen and progesterone hormones during pregnancy helps in noticing even the least amount of toxins (poisons) found in the blood by way of increasing sensitivity of the chemoreceptor trigger zone within the brain stem. When this zone of the brain takes notice of toxins in the blood, it immediately activates feeling of nausea and vomiting. Margie Profet, a researcher from the University of California at Berkeley was the first person who drew attention to this issue in 1995. She asserted that food craving is a divinely merciful mechanism aiming at protection of the miraculously developing embryo against probable dangers within the human body. She also asserted that food craving protects the embryo from natural toxins in foods. Vomiting may also happen to travellers and sufferers of migraine. Certain psychological factors such as unpleasant smell and excessive fear may result in vomiting as well.

If, however, vomiting recurs and turns out to become a habit, one should be careful, for vomiting causes new problems such as electrolyte losses and dehydration while irritating the alimentary canal, throat, mouth and teeth through which vomited matter passes. In addition to these, regurgitating might be inadvisable and indeed should be avoided in certain cases of poisoning which develop due to ingestion of petroleum products and burning chemicals like hypochlorite and ammonia which are used in house cleaning. The reason for this is because petroleum products may cause pulmonary infection of chemical origin in the lungs and burning chemicals may cause scalds on the tissues they touch during regurgitating.

Just like all the systems that our bodies are equipped with, vomiting also happens in accordance with a plan and program during which a wonderful co-ordination is displayed. The vomiting center in the brain is responsible for such co-ordination.

Rapid increase in salivation and nasal secretion prior to vomiting plays a key role in alleviating damages of the highly acidified vomited matter over the interior surfaces of the mouth and nose. Increased salivation helps with the protection of tooth enamel too. The pushing process of the foods eaten normally occurs from the intestines towards the bowels during the course of digestion. However, it reverses and occurs from the intestines towards the stomach during which the muscles of gastrointestinal tracts relax, open and the contents of the intestines are thus gathered in the stomach. Taking deep breaths prior to vomiting decreases the need for breathing during vomiting and blocking of the air passage by vocal cords’ converging prevents aspiration, that is, the passage of contents of stomach to the lungs. If such mechanisms did not exist, every vomiting attack might have ended catastrophically. Breathing attempts apply negative pressure on the rib cage and convulsion of stomach muscles applies positive pressure within the abdomen in spite of the converging of vocal cords. A pressure decrease is observed in order for contents of the stomach to be regurgitated. Muscles of the gastrointestinal tract tighten while muscles of the gate between alimentary canal and stomach relax just before vomiting. So, regurgitating via alimentary canal occurs without passage of stomach contents to intestines. Upon completion of vomiting, there is the disappearance of abdominal convulsions and the secretion of endorphin in the blood, so a person breathes sigh of relief.

In conclusion, although vomiting is perceived as something which is seemingly unpleasant, it is indeed a fine product of Divine artistry like all other systems and mechanisms of our body. Vomiting, as one of the proofs that God has created nothing useless and unnecessary, is certainly a great blessing bestowed upon us.

References

• “Sickening sounds – research to make your ears cringe.” University of Salford. January 28, 2007.
• Lunsden, K, and Holden WS. 1969. “The act of vomiting in man.” Gut 10: 173-179.
• Margie Profet (1995) Protecting Your Baby-to-Be: Preventing Birth Defects in the First Trimester. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. viii, 312.
• Flaxman, S.M. and P.W. Sherman 2000. “Morning sickness: A mechanism for protecting mother and embryo.” Quarterly Review of Biology June 2000. 75:1-36.

Some medications are effective directly over the area they are applied to. Some however are transported to distant regions via blood flow and that is where they are most effective. Medication is either taken orally or through injection. When medicine passes into the blood stream from the place of administration, it is considered to be absorbed. A good example is the transportation of medicine into the blood stream of capillary vessels between the muscle cells when injected into muscle tissue. A drug taken orally however is absorbed through the blood vessels in the gastro-intestinal system.

For orally-taken medication to be absorbed, it should be able to dissolve in gastro-intestinal fluids. First, it is broken into smaller units due to the corroding effects of stomach acid and various enzymes are secreted, then chemicals in the drug composition pass into the gastro-intestinal fluid in a molecular form. This event resembles the dissolving of a sugar cube inside a glass of hot tea. First, the sugar cube gets broken into pieces and then dissolves. A mix with a tea spoon makes this event happen a little faster. In a similar fashion gastro-intestinal movements help with the absorption of medicine. Liquid drugs like syrups dissolve in the gastro-intestinal fluid faster since they are already in smaller units; therefore they get absorbed faster.

Drugs mostly get absorbed through the small intestine. The most important task of this organ is to enable the absorption of nutrients. It is approximately 10 meters long and 4 centimeters wide. The inner lining of the small intestine has finger-like projections called villus and even smaller projections that are located on these villi are called microvillus. One of the reasons, maybe the most important reason, why the our intestines are created in this way is that as a result, the inner surface area of intestines increases multifold. Such that the inner surface area of a human beings small intestine can increase up to 200 m2 and this greatly facilitates the absorption. These projections are made of intestinal cells.

The molecules carrying the medication reach the capillary vessels by passing through these cells and then join the blood stream by crossing through capillary vessel cells. Furthermore, intestinal cell membranes host a special protein that filters unwanted substances for the cell and returns them back to intestinal lumen. Thus these unwanted substances are excreted out of the body along with other unabsorbed matter. In the same way, some drugs are held by this protein and released back into the lumen thus decreasing absorption rate for drugs experiencing this reaction.

Liver: The organ responsible for eliminating the harmful effects of medication

As soon as medication joins the bloodstream after absorption, it is first transported to the liver. This is because pulmonary veins that collect blood from the intestines are connected primarily to the liver. One of the many functions of the liver is the elimination of harmful substances entering the body. For this reason, absorbed substances are directly sent to the liver. The liver is employed with the task of chemical conversion with these substances that are transported to it. One of the wisdoms behind liver metabolism is to reduce the effects of these harmful substances via these events and to convert them into an excretal material. In the same way, drugs are metabolized in the liver, lose their efficacy and prepare for excretion.

Many drugs interfere with each other’s metabolism. If one drug’s metabolism is inhibited, blood concentration of such chemicals increase and adverse effects of drugs become more frequent. Irresponsible drug use must be avoided for this reason. Drug interactions may lead to major damage in addition to the drug’s individual adverse effects. Moreover different nutrients also affect drug metabolism. For instance, grapefruit inhibits metabolism of certain medicines, as a result blood concentration of these medicines increase and adverse effects can be observed. On the other hand, some nutrients like broccoli, cabbage, and charcoal roasted meat speed up the metabolism of certain medicines. In this case, the blood concentration of the affected drug drops and may lead to reduced benefits from intended use. Because of this reason, patients on long-term medicine treatment should not consume these types of food.

The rest of the drug molecules that escape these metabolisms is directed towards blood vessels feeding other organs. Some drug metabolisms in the liver present individual differences as metabolic levels change from person to person. Thus, a drug with the same dosage develops desired blood concentrations for some people, fails to meet this level for others or can even cause high blood concentrations enough to generate adverse effects in other individuals. That is why a medicine that has benefited a patient should never be used by somebody else without consulting a doctor.

The function of bile

Bile secretion originating from the liver and gall bladder has critical importance in the digestion and absorption of fats. Bile breaks apart fats into small pieces so that digestive enzymes can affect them. As a result of this, absorption is provided for fats and vitamins like A, D, E, K that are soluble in fats. In a similar fashion bile improves solubility and absorption of some drugs that does not dissolve in gastro-intestinal fluid. Another task of bile secretion is the removal of certain substances from the body. Waste materials in the bile that is dumped into duodenum are excreted through the digestive track. Some drugs are excreted in this way.

Drug intake before or after meals

It is a well known practice that medications are advised either to be taken after or before meals. When medications are taken after a meal, they cause less of the possible unwanted disturbances such as stomach sickness, aches or indigestion.

On the other hand, nutrients may reduce intake of certain drugs, therefore they need to be taken before meals. However medications taken right before a meal does not apply in this case since the food will still mix with the medication in the stomach. When taking these medicines, it should at least be an hour before meals. Generally consumption of a medicine before or after a meal does not really change its absorption level. But medications taken before meals pass the stomach into the intestines without delay and therefore get absorbed faster. This practice is important in cases where an immediate effect is desired such as pain relief. Plentiful water intake also helps with faster and improved absorption of drugs.

Some medications are packed into capsules made of gelatin-like substances. Medicines with undesirable taste and smell can be offered in this form for consumption. Moreover, if a drug is harmful to the stomach or gets degraded in stomach acid, then this drug can be prepared in capsules that are durable to stomach acid but soluble in the intestines. That is why consumption of medication without its intended capsule should be avoided. In a similar fashion, some medicinal tablets are designed to deliver its molecular contents particularly to the intestines. These types of medication must be taken as a whole unit. Otherwise it can be ineffective or may lead to harmful reactions.

Delivery of drugs to targeted regions

The molecules carrying medication that join the blood via absorption get dispersed by blood circulation throughout the body. These molecules reach various parts of the system via blood vessels, and then diffuse into organs via capillary vessels. However, their entry to the brain is difficult because this vital organ of the body has a special protection to guard itself from possible harmful effects of various substances that enter the body from the outside. Capillary vessels in the brain are different from other capillary structures in the rest of the body as they are created without an intercellular space in between vessel cells. Furthermore, these cells are bound to each other with their tight connective regions.

These capillaries are surrounded by a thicker membrane compared to other capillary vessels. This membrane is also host to various cells that wrap around the vessel. Therefore, because of these factors and other similar ones, some medications can enter the brain in very limited amounts. Drug molecules can display their targeted effects when they bind to target proteins, called receptors, in the organs. These proteins, which are very unique to each drug, exist on the cell membrane or in the cell. In addition, drug molecules also bind to other receptors that are not specific for them, and this causes adverse effects as a result.

Excretion of drugs from the body

Drugs are excreted from the body via the liver and kidneys. One function of these organs is to filter the blood from foreign substances. It was previously mentioned that absorbed substances from intestines are transported to the liver first where some amount gets metabolized and the remaining amount rejoins blood circulation that feeds other organs. Drug molecules that pass through the liver return back to it repeatedly many times because of continual blood circulation. In each of these arrivals, some amount is again metabolized. Molecules of metabolized drugs are excreted out of the body via the kidneys and through the bile at a limited level.

Only some portion of drug molecules get excreted via the kidneys without being metabolized. This ratio is higher with some medications. These types of medications are considered to be removed only by the kidneys, whereas some other drug types cannot be excreted without getting metabolized through the liver. As previously mentioned, the purpose of drug metabolism is to convert drugs into easily removable forms. If these types of drugs are not metabolized, they are rejoined to the blood circulation after filtration by the kidneys without joining the urine. It is impossible for the liver to sense these happening within the kidneys if it was not that the liver and every cell in it were employed by one authority who created them in the first place. Drug molecules concentrate in the liver and kidneys since these organs are employed with drug removal. As a result harmful effects of drugs are often experienced in these organs. Therefore unnecessary drug use should be avoided, otherwise the health of these organs deteriorate and eventually fail to carry out their basic functions.

As noted above, events that are taking place within many of our organs, stomach and elsewhere like kidneys impact on the journey of drugs in our body, therefore changing its effect. The harmonious creation of our organs that are home to many miraculous events is the major component of the entire process in which causations have their due role only as much as they are allowed by their Creator. As a test for humankind, both illness and the cure is provided by God, the All-Healer. Therefore it is the duty of a patient to see a doctor, take the medication properly and never forget that cure is only provided by the Almighty, without obsessing over causational chains.

References

• Guyton, Arthur C., John E. Hall. 1991. Textbook of Medical Physiology, Saunders.
• Patton, Kevin T., Gary A. Thibodeau. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology, Mosby.
• Rang, Humphrey P., Maureen B. Dale, James M. Ritter. 1999. Pharmacology, Churchill Livingstone.
• Brunton, Laurence, John Lazo, Keith Parker. 2006. The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. McGraw-Hill Professional

The newborn babies who are fed with infant formulas are becoming sick more frequently and are four times more prone to Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) as compared to babies who are breast-fed. The statistical analyses made in the US have shown that, if fed solely by breast milk instead of infant formulas, deaths of at least 9000 infants will be prevented annually. A vitally important feature of the breast milk is that its contents are being dynamically and precisely formulated in direct proportion to the development and as per the needs of the baby, whereas baby foods and formulas do not have such a feature. The taurine amino acid, which is vital for the development of the brain and eye, are abundantly available in the breast milk.

The breast milk, which is recommended to breast-feed for up to two years, is special because of its various aspects: it has a unique chemical composition; the lightly yellow-colored alkaline milk (colostrum) generated right after giving birth is very helpful in protecting the newborns from infections and diseases; mammary (milk) glands operate on a very fine time adjustment and they have a perfect developmental coordination; its prevention against lymphoma, which is a kind of cancer, and its feature of leading cancerous cells to programmed cell death (apoptosis); adjustment of the quantities of minerals and trace elements in milk-generating cells of the mother in accordance with the needs of and in proportion to the growth of the infant; breast-feeding has positive effect on the infant’s IQ development.

Nevertheless, newly conducted researches have been yielding fresh findings and new wisdoms (truths) regarding the breast milk.

The tens of researches conducted on the breast milk till now have all indicated and proved that breast-feeding for a period of 7 to 12 months will positively add to the healthy development of infants’ bodily organs along with their IQ development. There are a number of different factors which contribute to infants’ IQ development and breast-feeding is just an important one among them. The positive contributions of breast-feeding to an infant’s IQ development may be better observed if the infant is raised within a genetically and environmentally healthy medium.

A steady brain development and its positive contribution to an infant’s IQ are related to the molecules such as Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), Omega-3 fatty acid, Arachidonic acid (AA), Cholesterol and Taurine Amino Acid that are sufficiently found in the breast milk. The breast milk is even more useful for a healthy development of the infant’s social intelligence. According to IQ measurements, the IQs of children who have been breast-fed for periods of 7 to 9 months are found to be 6 points higher than those who have been breast-fed for less than a month.

A mother becomes like an innately secure shelter for the infant during breast-feeding as the secretion of the oxytocin hormone in the mother’s mammary glands is increased during her physical touch to the baby. Though motherly love and compassion are immaterial sentiments, a corporeal hormone is deemed a contributor to the attachment of love between mother and child. Breast milk is also rich in cholecystokinin (CCK), a hormone that acts as somniferous both in the mother and the infant. Thus, breast-fed infants more easily sink into sleep and this favorably contributes to infants’ healthy growth while enabling mothers to take rest. Mothers who are complaining that their children are not easily sinking into sleep can thus try to breast-feed them more frequently and for longer durations.

Breast milk versus allergens

Parallel to babies’ development, their foods also diversify. In order for foods other than breast milk given to the infant for the first time not to cause any sort of allergic reaction, that foodstuff should not be recognized as strange and unfamiliar, and this depends on the degree of sensitivity of that infant’s immune response mechanism. Therefore, whether breast milk has any role in the baby becoming accustomed to potentially allergenic foodstuff is being researched on experimental animals. When lactoglobulin is fed to baby rats, which are highly prone to activating allergic response, together with baby food and with breast milk respectively, the one which is fed as blended with the breast milk has not caused any allergic response while the one which is fed as blended with baby food has caused powerful allergic responses (1). In conclusion, it has been proved that, not the baby foods, but only the breast milk plays an important role in activating an immune response in babies.

It has also been found that, in order to ensure healthy intestinal development in newborn babies, only breast milk should be provided in the early stages after birth. As breast milk forms a protective shield against bacteria and viruses, it eliminates the need for response activation of the immune system during the early stages following birth. Moreover, breast milk also causes growth of Lactobacillus bifidus in the newborn’s intestines which prevent formation of pathogenic bacteria. The oligosaccharides in the breast milk are favorable stimulants for growth of Lactobacillus bifidus and also function as adhesive molecules. A resemblance of lock and key model has been observed between the oligosaccharides of the breast milk and the carbohydrates over the epithelial cells of the intestines. This implies that oligosaccharides of the breast milk function as free-floating receptors over the pathogenic microorganisms of various nature. They prevent adsorption of microbes over epithelial cells of the intestines and hence form a preventive shield against infections.

Oligosaccharides and Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)

The enterecolitis which causes necrosis is a most widespread and fatal intestinal disease, being observed at a rate of 85% in premature babies. Insufficiency of oxygen in epithelial cells of the intestines due to various factors is an important reason for its happening. Insufficiency of oxygen in the intestines deforms the healthy functioning of epithelial cells bringing the medium susceptible for infections due to which the necrosis beginning on mucosa membrane of the intestines may develop down to the depth of the intestines’ innermost layer. Roughly 10-26% of all the infant deaths being observed in the newborn intensive care units of US hospitals are occurring due to Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC). This happens very rarely in infants who are breast-fed.

A series of controlled researches have been conducted on baby rats for the purpose of understanding the causes of Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC). These baby rats have been sorted out in three separate groups as the ones fed only by breast milk, the ones fed only by baby food and the ones fed by baby food blended with oligosaccharides of breast milk. Animals in all three groups have been exposed to hypoxia (deprivation of adequate oxygen supply) for three consecutive days and their intestinal tissues have been analyzed at the end of the fourth day.

It has been observed that, while symptoms of enterecolitis in intestines of those fed solely by breast milk were the least, and in intestines of the ones fed by baby food blended with oligosaccharides of breast milk were relatively low, but in intestines of those fed only by baby food were extremely high. Medical reports too indicate that Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC) is quite rare in breast-fed babies for the oligosaccharides of breast milk prevent formation of this disease. What is amazing is that the oligosaccharides and the complex glycans which play preventive roles against infections are abundantly available in breast milk whereas they are not found in baby foods (2). Although galacto-oligosaccharides which are similar to oligosaccharides of the breast milk are being added into most baby foods, they have not served as preventive against necrotizing enterocolitis. Molecular researches are presently being conducted as to how oligosaccharides of breast milk do function in favor of prevention (2).

It has also been verified by researches that breast-feeding of the infants is having favorable effects on their development of a sense of taste and on likes and dislikes of foods during their childhood years. In a recently conducted research, sour, sweet, mildly sour, salty, bitter and tasteless foods have been given to infants who are being breast-fed, cow milk-fed and baby food-fed and their reactions to these foods have been observed and evaluated. Those who were fed by baby food made a lesser grimace and also preferred more soury and bitter foods (12). When these babies were later offered normal foods, they replied only for the tastes of foods which were similar to the foods they were previously given. Moreover, their facial expressions were lesser and insufficient in terms of differentiation of unpleasant tastes. Basically, the contents of baby foods and nutrients affect children’s future responses to those foods and nutrients and their taste perception ranges (3).

Breast milk conduces to expression of differing genes in infant’s intestines

A reply to discussions on “whether breast milk or readymade baby foods” is given by researchers of the University of Illinois. Of the 22 healthy infants, the researchers fed 12 with breast milk and 10 with readymade baby food for a certain period of time and later analyzed the messenger RNAs (mRNA) in the intestine cells collected from their stools. These mRNAs have been exposed to a number of molecular tests, being later analyzed and compared. The results have disclosed that gene groups different from each other were being activated in intestines of the infants who were being fed by breast milk and baby foods. Genes of intestines that were expressed differently as foods of infants were diversified (4). Moreover, such a different reading, that is, revealing of the genes’ potential was not limited to only a couple of genes. Contents of baby foods and nutrients have been influential on the expression of hundreds of genes. The most striking outcome was that, while the data encoded by the gene that was assigned for revealing response of the genes being exposed to hypoxia (deprivation of adequate oxygen supply) was properly expressed and activated in infants who were fed by breast milk, the data encoded by such genes of the infants who were fed by baby foods was not being described and read. Thus, the probability of developing of enterecolitis (inflammation of the intestines) due to hypoxia (deprivation of adequate oxygen supply) was increasing. It has been understood that preference of feeding the newborns with either breast milk or baby foods plays a significant role in disclosing the data of about 140 genes which stimulate quick development of their intestinal and immune systems. In other words, the genes which are assigned for preservation of the immune system and thus for strengthening the infants against diseases are being easily expressed in the intestines of infants fed by breast milk but not of the ones fed by baby foods (4).

Finally, it is vitally important to feed the infants in hospitals’ newborn units more with breast milk in order to stop the developing of Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC). It has been understood that reading and suppression of the genes which are assigned for arrangement of particularly stomach-intestine functions are being arranged depending upon both development and epigenetical mechanisms as, for instance, the environmental factors that influence nutrition. This assertion shows that, while future studies will shed light on how to make ingredients of baby foods more similar to those of breast milk, it will never be substituted by any other nutrient.

Hamza Aydin is a freelance writer from Turkey with PhD degree in biology.

Notes

1. Katie L. Tooley et al. (2009). Maternal Milk, but not Formula, Regulates the Immune Response to ?-Lactoglobulin in Allergy-Prone Rat Pups. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 139, No. 11, 2145–2151, November 2009.
2. Bode,L., Goth,K., Guner,Y. et al.(2010). Human milk oligosaccharides prevent Necrotizing Enterocolitis in neonatal rats. FASEB J. 2010 24:206.3 [Meeting Abstract]
3. Mennella, J. A. Et al. (2009). Early milk feeding influences taste acceptance and liking during infancy. Am J Clin Nutr. Vol. 90, No. 3, 780S-788S.
4. Chapkin, S.R. et al. (2010). Noninvasive stool-based detection of infant gastrointestinal development using gene expression profiles from exfoliated epithelial cells. The American Journal of Physiology, Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. Volume 298, Issue 5. May 2010.

With this act, the holy Pole meant, “Whenever your son’s spirit prevails over his body, and his heart over his carnal soul, and his intellect over his stomach, and he demands pleasure for the sake of thankfulness, then he can eat delicious things.” (Said Nursi, Nineteenth Gleam, 3rd point.)

I too witnessed a similar incident thirty years ago. With a large group of friends from university I was invited to visit a well-known scholar for whom I had a deep respect. We had the opportunity to attend a dinner with him and among the food served were some delicious cherries. My inner voice said, “If I sit near him, I will not be comfortable enough to eat as many of those cherries as I like.” This was exactly what happened. While I was thinking about how to get a chance to eat more of the cherries, that respected person took one of the cherries, excused himself, and left the table. I still cannot forget how ashamed I was of my thoughts at that time.

As a result of the story of Abdul-Qadir Jilani and my own experience, I started to ponder the activities that function so well in the human body. In medicine, the dynamic balance that entirely governs the body during eating, drinking and digestion is known as homeostasis. The most crucial body fluid in this balance is the blood. All the agents in the blood have a fixed quantity, a fixed measure and are supplied at a constant rate. Blood pressure is stabilized according to the characteristics of each vein. For instance, the average blood pressure of large arteries is about 100 mmHg. If the pressure exceeds this figure, then the result is hypertension. Hypertension can lead to cerebral hemorrhages, paralysis, renal failure, cardiac expansion, cardiac failure and heart attacks, all of which can result in death. As for hypotension, this is when the flow of the blood to the organs, mainly the brain, lessens. Another example of the importance of maintaining balance is that the agents which are responsible for maintaining the concentration of sugar in the blood (glycemia) must be kept at a suitable balance. If the ratio of the blood sugar (glycemia) rises, the person may go into a sugar coma, which is life threatening. However, if the ratio of blood sugar drops, the organs, in particular the brain, are deprived of energy. A hypoglycemia coma (when blood sugar is too low) is even more dangerous for the brain than hyperglycemia (when blood sugar is too high). The concentration of sodium, potassium, chlorine, calcium and fatty acids present in the blood, like sugar, are kept in a dynamic balance. If this concentration is upset, the result may be disease or even death. The Owner of Absolute Will and Infinite Mercy keeps all these in balance thanks to the marvelous mechanisms that He has placed in our bodies. However, we are free as far as actions like eating and drinking are concerned, for we are granted the willpower to choose our actions.

Balance in nourishment

One of the most often discussed medical subjects in recent years is obesity. This is an important health problem that poses a threat to life, and it is related to diabetes, hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis), fatty liver, cirrhosis, cardiac failure and heart failure. Apart from using one’s own will power and eating less, doctors have presented other harmless ways that are appropriate to human nature to treat obesity. Being overweight constrains the ability of a person to move (exercise) and this inactivity, in turn, leads to more and more weight gain. God has enabled us to seek nourishment wherever we like, within certain parameters. Naturally, our stomach has a certain capacity and when this capacity is met, we feel full and do not need to eat any more. Yet, even though we feel full and should not eat, as this is what is necessary for the health of our body, we are overcome by our lower self and tend to overeat extravagantly. The problem of obesity seems to be greater in developed countries.

Our Creator has not put any restrictions on the absorption of food into the blood. All the food we eat is taken into the intestines so that the nutrients can pass into the bloodstream. If the dynamic balance (homeostasis) were to be maintained here as well then the body would take as much as it needed and the surplus of food would be evacuated from the body without going into the blood; as a result, obesity would not be a concern, however much a person might eat. But by allowing all the food we eat to pass into the bloodstream, the Absolute Ruler has set a test for us, challenging our wills and warning us about self-control.

Most of the activity during digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine. Our small intestine is a duct which consists of three parts, namely the duodenum, jejunum and ileum, each having different functions and structures. The length of the intestine is 3–4 meters, and it measures 2–4 centimeters in diameter, varying according to the position in the body. The area of the inner surface of this cylindrical structure is 1,600 cm2 (0.16m2) at its maximum. The inner perimeter of the intestine is not like a flat tube, but rather it has folds, each measuring about 8 millimeters, that stretch over the inner parts of the canal. These folds allow the absorption surface to be increased about threefold. If the inner surface of this structure were flat, the absorption capacity of the small intestine would not be more than 1/600 of its present capacity. The surface of these folds is also not flat, but covered with protrusions called villi that are shaped like a finger; these stretch into the vacuum of the canal by about 1 millimeter. There are between 20 and 40 villi to every square centimeter on the surface of the intestine. These villi allow for there to be a tenfold increase in surface absorption. The surface of the villi has cylindrical cells that are arranged in a single row and these help in absorption. The surface of these cells has extensions that are quite thin and dense, known as microvilli, or epithelial cells. Thanks to these cells with a brush border surface, the absorption surface can increase by about twenty times. Thus, although the surface area of a flat canal of the same size should be approximately 3,300 cm2, thanks to surface folds, villi and bushy edges, the total absorption surface of the small intestine increases to 2 million cm2 (200 m2). Moreover, some research has suggested that the total increase could be even greater (about 1,000 times as much). Normally, 100 grams of fat, 50–100 grams of amino acid, 50–100 grams of iodine, and 7–8 liters of water (consisting mostly of fluids produced within the body) are absorbed by the intestines daily. Furthermore, if one eats or drinks too much, the maximum capacity of the system allows the absorption of several kilograms of carbohydrates, a half to one kilogram of fat, a half to one kilogram of protein and twenty liters of water per day. Our intestines have been created with the capacity to transfer all this food into the bloodstream. If we do not control our eating, this capacity is abused and we can face conditions like obesity.

In this life, one of whose tests is in our body, and in which we are required to strive hard using our willpower, there is no limit to the absorption of foods that have high calories (lipid, carbohydrate, and protein), and this can lead to being overweight, as mentioned above. However, in the absorption of minerals, which are not normally considered as making up the basic components of nourishment, but which are of the utmost importance for the human body (in all the operations of the nerves, muscles, bones and in the balance of all the electrolytes), the rules of dynamic balance occur in our intestines, regardless of our will, by the help and mercy of God. For instance, hemoglobin, which is found in the red blood cells (giving the blood its red color) and is charged with the task of transporting oxygen, contains iron. When there is surplus iron in the body, hemosiderosis occurs, which leads to the destruction of organs such as the liver and the pancreas, or cardiac failure. If there is an iron deficiency, then a person suffers from anemia. It is for this reason that a quite sensitive iron-absorption balance exists in our intestines. Here, it is evident without question that there is Divine Aid and Mercy. The same mechanism works for substances like calcium.

Prophet Muhammad’s, peace be upon him, advice to stop eating before feeling full is a significant measure against obesity, for it eliminates “false” appetite. This has a psychological truth, for the brain responds to the feel of fullness a short time after eating. In fact, we all know by experience that we actually feel full a short while (fifteen–twenty minutes) after we stop eating even if it is a small meal.

To conclude, the Almighty One warns us against extravagance and orders us to use our willpower. At this point, we can see how important a role the blessing of religious belief and the training of the soul and the will play in eating habits. Likewise, the principles of Islam, which is in perfect keeping with human nature, are crucial for the well-being of the community as a whole; charitable alms and fasting, which urge us to help and think about those with less, are obligatory and all kinds of charity and good deeds are encouraged. In Islam extravagance is prevented, not only in eating and drinking.

Omer Arifagaoglu is a professor of medicine in Turkey.

I have been placed under the cavity of the chest. So that we do not harm each other, the Creator has placed a membrane between me and my neighbors, the heart and lung; I can hear them, but cannot see them. They are further protected by the rib cage, because they are more sensitive than I. Of course that does not mean that I am without protection. Our Lord has placed all of us in the most appropriate way. If I had bones covering me you would have a lot of difficulty eating and drinking and since you could not store what you eat you would need to eat little portions throughout the day. But since I have been placed in the stomach cavity and all the walls are flexible I can easily store all that you eat and drink until you digest them. This means that you are busy with eating only at certain times, allowing you to spend your time with other things.

I look like a kettle and this rather simple-looking shape might make you undermine my skills. It is for this reason that some people speak of me in a rude way, describing me as “a sack-like organ.” To understand how important I am, ask those with stomach ulcers or stomach cancer. God forbid, should I stop functioning; life would become a living hell. Each drop that you drink and each morsel you eat would be like poison and all of the world’s pleasures would vanish.

My walls, which seem like a simple sack, are made of four layers of special tissue. On the outer layer there is a strong tissue, below this are layers of muscle that have been placed vertically and horizontally in a diagonal manner, and under this there is tissue engulfed in a flexible layer and a final lining called the epithelium. Of course, we should not forget the web of blood vessels and nerves that nourish these thick walls. My system of nerves is such a complex system that you would be amazed; it resembles a second brain and it is aware of your whole body without you being aware. When you hurt your foot or you are upset with the slightest thing or laugh because of joy I am affected by this. This nervous system is so sensitive that it affects all my actions and my digestive excretions.

It is through this nervous system that I control my actions and my excretions when the scent of the food comes and you are getting ready to eat, saving you trouble after you have eaten. I can also be easily trained. If you can stick with it you can get me used to a new life after three days. Some stomachs are used to three meals, while others are content with two or one meal a day. My recommendation is that you get me used to two meals a day.

Not a lot of chemical decomposition can occur in the mouth, so all the nourishment you have eaten needs to pass through me before it is digested by the intestines and it becomes part of your body. What happens is that the things you have eaten are broken up mechanically into little pieces by the teeth so that I can accept them. If you hurry and swallow without chewing and do not soften the morsels you tire me out. In addition to this, if the morsels are sharp or too large they can rip the walls of the esophagus and make them bleed. It is best to chew the morsel 30 times, but unfortunately most people do not do this. They send me mouthfuls after having only chewed on it once or twice. They do not realize that they are full and therefore eat too much, disturbing the balance. If you eat slowly I will let the relevant section of the brain know and the feeling of hunger will stop after you have received enough nutrients. In this manner you do not tire me out too much and the nutrients do not go to waste. If you eat too fast I will be full before I get a chance to bring to the surface the molecules that give the sensation of being full and there will be no room for water or air, which allow me to move comfortably.

There are three different types of cells on the mucous layer that lines the inner layer of my walls and which is in contact with the food. One of these excretions is hydrochloric acid (HCl). This acid, which can dissolve even a piece of rock, is used not only to digest all the meat and proteins, but it also kills any bacteria that may come with the food and beverage. Without this acid the pepsinogen enzyme, which breaks down the protein, cannot be activated. The pepsinogen enzyme also synthesizes some other cells. This enzyme cannot function on its own and cannot be excreted if I do not have food in me. It starts to be excreted together with the hydrochloric acid as soon as I start to be filled with food. So how is it that such a strong acid and protein digesting enzyme do not harm my walls? My Creator has provided my lining with a temporary protective layer. The goblet cells that excrete this protective mucous are so sensitive that they excrete a protective liquid that coats it. Every day I sacrifice one and a half million cells to these enzyme and acids. In other words, every three days my inner layer is destroyed by these corrosive enzymes and acids. But thank God, I have been given me such a revitalizing strength that each day this lining is renewed with new cells.

Sometimes, if there is a problem with the excretion of this protective liquid, the acid and enzyme can start to eat at the stomach walls, leading to blood leaking from the arteries that are in the outer layer; this is known as an ulcer, a wound on my walls. Nervousness and tension affect the excretions in me, and therefore people who have a nervous character can develop ulcers more easily than relaxed people. The best thing to do is to live a life where one faces things with patience, neither being too panicky nor too happy, but living in a balanced and mature way. If you try to live in a balanced way then you will maintain order in the stomach and I will be happy.

You cannot move the muscles of my walls like you can your arm or leg muscles. The muscles are commanded and start working according to orders from an autonomous nervous system that you are not even aware of. An important feature of these muscles is that they work slowly, but take a long time to get tired. At the same time, they are very susceptible to growing if you do not take care of yourself properly; if you are not careful I can swell up quickly like a balloon. The evil side of human character has a very close connection with me; so you have to be very careful not to eat and drink too much and consume unlawful food. Otherwise, you might become weak and be easily misled and consequently this makes me nothing more than a waste container and then I become a pest.

Let me tell you some of the things that I do not like. At the top of the list is very hot or very cold food or beverages. Both ruin the enzymes and make them dysfunctional. The best condition for enzymes to work is at your body temperature-that is 36-37 degrees. There are more scientists today than before who think that overly hot or burnt food can cause my cells to turn cancerous. If you heat very cold items in your mouth and then swallow you protect me from getting cold – because if I get cold I contract and my working balance becomes dysfunctional so that I am no longer able to do my job.

When I finish my job of extracting the nutrients and treating them with the enzymes the food takes on a liquid form. When the food has achieved the desired texture I send it through to the intestines that are right below me. In this regard, I am like this transitory worldly life, which is nothing more than a two-door guesthouse-one door for entrance and the other door for exit. I never retain anything in me-I receive from one end and send it out the other. There is no door between myself and the esophagus, so I can take out what is in me if I have to by vomiting. At first, this vomiting reflex might seem a bad thing and you might wonder why there is nothing to prevent this? But let me remind you of something, what if you mistakenly eat something poisonous or something that has gone off, what would you do if you could not vomit? You would have to be taken to hospital so that you do not die of food poisoning and an incision would have to be made in the stomach; I would have to be cleansed out, but by this time you might have died. However, if I feel that something you have eaten is bad I can remove it. But with the gateway that is placed between myself and the intestines I am able to stop the food in the intestines from coming back to ruin the acidic atmosphere in me, as the enzymes in the intestines work under more neutral conditions. My acidic structure would disrupt the intestine’s enzymes. In particular, if the bile salts excreted from the liver and the pancreas enzymes should spill into me the situation would be very chaotic.

Another important piece of advice I can offer to you Peter is not to play any sports when I am full and not to strain yourself. The thick muscle lining on the walls requires a lot of blood to move. After eating a significant amount of blood is withdrawn from other parts of the body and sent to me. If you try to be active in this state you will suffer, as the rest of your organs will not be nourished properly and stress will be put on your heart.

Here’s another secret I’m going to let you in on: the more you fill me up without thinking about whether it is necessary and lawful or not, the more likely it is that you will make spiritual mistakes. Your spiritual well-being and health are inversely proportional to a full stomach. If you make me grow too much all your veins, starting with your heart, will start to gather fat and therefore their functions will slow down. Also your spiritual side will be dulled. Actually it is enough for a person to eat only what they need to survive. Serving your senses of taste and eating within the allowed parameters by remembering the Giver will not only give me peace but will also take you to spiritual horizons. After the food passes through your mouth it does not make much of a difference to me whether it is sweet or salty. Therefore, if you can take charge of your mouth, which acts as a gatekeeper, you can protect yourself from waste and from putting on extra kilos.

Some time ago some people would laugh at my above advice, and they would say, “Good food is the backbone of life and one should feed well.” But now modern medicine and dieticians have started to give the same advice I have been giving for years and they state that eating enough for sustenance is adequate. Most illnesses arise from over-eating; good food may be the backbone of life, but too much of it is a prescription for an early death.

In particular, with the dietary change that you make during the month of Ramadan, I and my team are able to renew ourselves; it is like a fitness camp that prepares us for a new term. This is an important need for us to start the new season. The time for this is approaching. I expect you will use your will power and allow me to rest as commanded. To continue with your life you need me to provide you the nutrients and energy, because without me even your heart could not function. At the root of all biological sustenance there is a need for food intake. Accordingly, I am like a double bladed sword. You should neither neglect me nor indulge me too much. I hope that you will display this balanced outlook and behavior.

Imitation of nature

Some scientists assert that the 21st century will be a century of biology. They are of the opinion that an ideal, peaceful community life is attainable by imitating nature. This kind of thinking is not new. There is a history of application of some socio-biological information about animal behaviour in some studies of human social behaviour, and the application in manmade artefacts of the design and structure of some living creatures (so-called bio-engineering). Adaptation of the structures which enable birds to fly in the design of planes is a well-known example.

Whether the sensitive measures in the human body, which is the most perfect of biological structures, and the ideal, economical balance in its bio-chemical and biological mechanisms, are applicable in the organization of human societies is a question that has attracted the attention of many scientists. If a living body is a perfect organism composed of billions of cells and millions of physiological and bio-chemical processes take place in it without any error or failure, and, in parallel with this, the living system itself both grows and reproduces and defends and repairs itself, then must it not be possible to apply such a system to a community of such living creatures?

Share of values

Although the brain and spinal marrow have the main functions in directing the operation of human or animal bodies that have a nervous system, the ‘lower’ systems such as stomach and intestines also make a contribution. Each of these organs or systems plays a significant part in the working and maintenance of a healthy body. However conspicuous the function of organs such as the brain, heart and liver, it cannot be said that any of the other organs like kidneys or stomach or intestines are less vital. Especially when we bear in mind that the existence of anything depends on the existence of all its parts, and that its death or non-existence may be effected by the lack of any of those parts, or that a single, cancerous cell may ultimately cause the death of a whole body, we realize that each part has a vital function in the operation and maintenance of the living whole.

The health of the parts is necessary to the health of the whole. If the stomach and intestines fail to secrete the necessary enzymes for digestion, however healthy the brain and heart are, you will die of hunger and lack of necessary energy. Likewise, if your pancreas does not work well enough to secrete the necessary insulin, it will cause the failure of the metabolism of sugar. If, again, fat accumulates in your veins because of a failure of even a single bio-chemical mechanism, then the health of your heart will not suffice for you to survive. These simple examples suffice to show that there is nothing unnecessary or superfluous in the system. Even if some organs have relatively greater value in maintaining the body, that does not mean that other organs are less valuable. The same should be the case with the health and maintenance of a community.

No negligence however little it may be

The least failure in any of the organs or systems of the body manifests itself as a pain or uneasiness. For example, a pain caused by a callous on your toe which prevents you from treading normally, may lead to pains in your waist or knees. An insignificant-seeming callous may upset the balance of your legs and waist vertebra.

The same is true for a community. Seemingly negligible failures in the life of a community may frequently give rise to great problems later on. The health of non-central parts of a community corresponding to such bodily extremities as the toe is almost as important as the health of those parts corresponding to the brain and heart in a body. If any defect or failure in any of the former is seen as negligible and attention needed to remove or remedy the problem is not given, it may lead to disorder of the whole system.

Economic structure

Inflation, shortage of means of livelihood (employment), poverty, insecurity, and social ills such as bribery and abuses, and social crimes such as theft, are among the primary diseases undermining the health of a community. Every duty to be done within the structure of a community is like the wheels or parts of a machine, each with a unique function and value of its own. Each of the parts of a social structure should contribute to economic development and take its share in that development in return, and on occasions of economic crisis, then each of those parts should share the responsibility and results. Again in this respect the working of a body can be imitated.

When a body cannot get sufficient food, its metabolic rate, the rate it uses up the food taken in, is reduced. The body, as it were, tightens its belt, adapts to a lower standard of living. It slows down its work- rate and uses energy economically to survive. A lower pulse rate uses body energy more economically.

A body works automatically in accordance with the rules its Maker has established for it. By contrast a community is composed of people having free will. Therefore, the imitation of a body by a community depends on its members disciplining themselves. They must know how to restrain their bodily urges and control some bad qualities common to men such as greed, selfishness and refusal to be content. In a biological system, the commands issuing from the central nervous system and the stimulants coming from glands take into account the structure, working system and endurance and tolerance capacity of each and every organ and tissue and their molecular structure. Also, since all sorts of stimuli and responses coming from organs and tissues are carried by the central nervous system with due care and attention, nothing wrong emerges in normal conditions. Thus, in order for a community to be as well ordered as a body, those who hold its reins, those who occupy the governmental positions should know all the units forming it well enough with all their compositions and needs and give due consideration to their reflections and the responses coming from them.

Sharing happiness and sorrows

If, for example, there is not sufficient sustenance in blood and the stomach and intestines suffer shortage of food, the brain never lets the body amuse itself or relax in pleasures and extravagance. Any pain or problem which emerges in any part of the body is shared by the whole body itself. If, by contrast, the leaders of a community indulge in luxuries and pleasures while some sections of it suffer from deprivation of the basic necessities of life, then it is not possible to talk of it being a healthy community.

The balance of income and output

It is inevitable for a body to grow fat and become diseased when too much food enters it and, by contrast, get thin and become diseased if it cannot get enough food. A healthy, balanced nourishment depends on the balance between the food taken and used up as energy. This balance of supply and demand or income and output changes according to the periods of babyhood, youth, full development and old age. Like the body, a community must be careful about establishing a balance of supply and demand. Unbalanced development, imbalance between income and output, and deepening of the gap between the rich and poor are some of the social diseases leading a community to disease or death.

System and energy

A system needs sufficient energy to survive and preserve its vitality and to develop. There is no difference in needing energy between an insect and a whale and between an elephant and a man, nor does a state or community differ from a factory or work-shop in needing and using it rationally. In order to be able to grow and make new syntheses for production, besides raw material, a living system is in dire need of energy. We can use the substances which we take by eating and drinking and will serve as building material for our bodies only by burning carbohydrates and fat to produce energy. A body which cannot take the kinds of food supplying energy loses its vitality. Tissues begin to separate and cells break down and die. Similarly, the amount of the energy a community needs for a good economic life and the cost of it are of vital importance for the health of that community. The more abundant and less expensive energy is, the more balanced and productive its economic life is.

Feed-back

One of the significant features of a living organism is, that it operates under control by a feed-back system. Every event in this system is connected with others, none of them being independent. If any substance increases above a certain measure, the increase is blocked up by a mechanism beginning to work just at that time. For example, in the process of the kidneys separating waste liquid from the blood to discard it from the body with some amount of water, the density of the waste substances in it such as urea, uric acid and superfluous salt is sensitively regulated. If it is hot and the body requires to be cooled through sweat, the kidneys hold more water and prevent dehydration. If, by contrast, it is cold and there is no need to sweat, this time, they discard more water and thereby regulate the inner balance of the body.

Maintenance of the balance of the body requires sensitivity to whatever happens within and outside the body. There are sufficient receptors in each of the sense organs, particularly the skin, in tendons and in the walls of the veins, to feel any change of heat, pressure, light, food and oxygen, etc., in the inner and outer environment, and inform the central nervous system accordingly. In this way, the body is adaptable to a wide range of conditions in the world.

Similarly, in order to maintain the order of a community, it must have the same adaptability. This is possible through a loose structure of bureaucracy, a sophisticated communication network and a well- ordered system established on well- working principles.

Co-ordination within the system

Co-ordination and making good each other’s shortcomings are important characteristics of a living body. For example, when we are eating or are full after eating, the veins in the stomach and intestines swell and more blood is pumped into them so that the stomach and intestines can work efficiently. While one is running or doing physical exercise, the muscles need more oxygen and glucose which are carried in the blood: the veins in internal organs become narrow so that more blood can be sent to the muscles. If someone unaware of this attempts to do severe physical exercise on a full stomach, the body will have to exert more effort to send blood to both the stomach and muscles and become exhausted, as well as causing the heart to become overworked and tire.

Similarly, co-ordination among its institutions and members, division of labour and putting things in order of importance are vital for the institutions of a healthy community as well as for the community itself. Just as too much heavy exercise or overeating may cause the brain to be left without sufficient blood or the kidneys to stop filtering, excessive expenditure on some sections of labour or discrimination between the sections or institutions of a community may result in great disruptions and uneasiness in it. 

Education and collective consciousness

Many more examples may be given for the correspondence between a living body and a community. We can take lessons from a living body to realize a healthy social life. However, what is particularly worthy of mention here is that while a body works automatically according to a magnificent program or system which requires infinite knowledge to prepare and establish — knowledge of the structure of all the cells, tissues and organs of the body and their way of working, and of the nature of their relation among themselves and the relation of the body with its near and remote environment, in short, knowledge of the whole of the universe — the members of a community have free will and therefore require to be disciplined and controlled. This is possible through a perfect educational system fully aware of the nature of man and his material, spiritual and social needs and having the necessary equipment to satisfy them.

So that he may survive and fulfil his functions among the creatures in the world, man is empowered with three principal faculties. These are his appetites — for the opposite sex, offspring, livelihood, commodities, etc.; his anger or forcefulness in defence and struggle; and his power of reasoning or intellect. In order that man may attain moral perfection by struggling against excess in the use of these three faculties, they are not restricted in nature. However, mans individual and collective happiness lies in his disciplining them for the sake of a harmonious, peaceful individual and social life. He also needs to be in transactions with his fellow-men to exchange the fruits of his skills and labour with those of others. This requires an overall justice in society. So, unless man disciplines his faculties, they may drive him to immorality, illicit sexual relationships, unlawful livelihood, tyranny, injustices, deception, falsehood, and other vices. To prevent the chaos and suffering that must follow undisciplined exercise of human powers and establish justice in society, man must submit to an authority that will guide and regulate his collective affairs. Seeing that there is a perfect harmony in the working of his body, a working which displays infinite knowledge, wisdom and consciousness, although his body is made up of parts completely unconscious, ignorant, deaf and blind, the authority to which man must submit must be the same as that which governs his body and environment. And, just as the body works, although unconsciously, in perfect co-ordination, the members of a community must endeavour to establish a like co-ordination and achieve an effective collective consciousness, that is, responsibility to and for each other.